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Unit 5
Unit 5
Structure
5.1 Introduction
Objectives
5.2 Micro-optic and Electronic Theodolites
5.2.1 Micro-optic Theodolites
5.2.2 Electronic Theodolites
5.2.3 Working of Micro-optic and Electronic Theodolites
5.3 Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM)
5.3.1 Principle of EDM
5.3.2 Working of EDM
5.3.3 Accuracy Considerations
5.4 Total Station
5.4.1 Concept of Total Station
5.4.2 Working of Total Station
5.4.3 Accuracy Considerations
5.5 Automatic Levels
5.6 Global Positioning System (GPS)
5.6.1 Navstar GPS
5.6.2 GPS Equipment
5.6.3 Principle of GPS
5.6.4 Surveying with GPS
5.6.5 Accuracy Considerations
5.7 Summary
5.8 Answers to SAQs
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The measurement of angles and distances is the focus of all land surveying jobs.
In your earlier courses, you have been introduced to the use of a number of field
equipment for a variety of surveying works such as control establishment, route
surveying, construction and mapping surveys. Over the years, due to the
advancement in electronics and computer technologies, a range of electronic
equipment have been developed in the field of surveying and levelling. With the
introduction of these equipment, not only the efficiency of the work has increased
but the jobs can now be performed with more precision and accuracy within much
lesser time than before. Further, with the inclusion of data recording facilities in
these equipment, a large amount of data can be stored in proper format which can
then be analysed with the computer. Some of the modern equipment are
Electronic Distance Measuring (EDM) equipment, Optical and Electronic
Theodolites, Auto and Digital Levels, Total Stations and Global Positioning
System (GPS). These equipment can provide accurate data in no time that can be
recorded in suitable media which can then be connected to a computer to generate
quality map products.
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Advanced Survey In this unit, an introduction to some important modern surveying equipment and
their use has been explained. The first section deals with the angle measuring
equipment such as micro-optic and electronic theodolites. In the next section, the
EDM has been discussed. This is followed by a discussion on electronic and auto
levels. The penultimate section provides details on the Total Station that can be
used for angle, distance and height measurements in one go. In the last section, an
introduction to the latest technology, namely GPS, has been provided.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• get an overview of some commonly used modern surveying
equipment and their uses, and
• understand the working of these new generation equipment for field
surveying jobs.
Wild T3 theodolite is used for geodetic triangulation and all other precise surveys
whereas Wild T4 theodolite is commonly used for astronomical determination of
co-ordinates and azimuth. Wild T2 and Zeiss Theo 010 are commonly used for
engineering surveys.
5.2.2 Electronic Theodolites
A major change in the design of theodolites has occurred in recent years with the
introduction of electronic circle reading systems to their design. The electronic
theodolites are similar to micro-optic theodolites in their design and operation.
However, the difference lies in the system of taking reading. Here, the
observations are taken through digital readouts or displays. The commonly used
displays are Light-Emitting Diodes (LED) and Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD).
The direct display of angular readings eliminates the guessing and interpolations
associated with the vernier scale and micrometer readings in other theodolites.
The angles can be measured to a least count of 1″ with precision ranging from
0.5″ to 10″. One of the significant characteristics of these theodolites is that the
data can be recorded in a data collector attached with the theodolite. The data can
then be processed in a computer for subsequent analyses. The theodolites have a
zero set button for initial setting of the readings. Once attached with EDM, it can
then be used as a Total Station (to be discussed in Section 5.4 of this unit). A
typical electronic theodolite is shown in Figure 5.1.
1 2 3
n n-1
φ
L
φ Fraction to be
measured of a
whole wave length
of modulation (Δλ)
In Figure 5.3, a modulated wave transmitted by the instrument and its reflection
back to it is shown. It can be seen that the double distance 2L can be determined
by knowing the total number of wavelengths plus the fraction of wavelength
reaching the EDM. Thus,
( n λ + φ)
L= . . . (5.2)
2
Figure 5.4 : A Total Station (Courtesy : Elcome Technologies Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi)
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Modern Surveying
5.4.2 Working of Total Station Equipment
There are many surveying tasks where Total Station can be used effectively.
These include preliminary control and construction surveys etc. However, these
have mostly been used for topographic surveys where the three coordinates of a
point (i.e., Northings, Eastings and Heights above msl) are required. Typical steps
in the operation of a Total Station for a traverse computation can be listed as
below.
Entry of Initial Data
After switching on the equipment, at first instance, some initial data are fed
to it through the controller. These data include the description of the
project, date and survey team, atmospheric pressure and temperature values,
prism constant, sea level, curvature and refraction corrections, choice of
measurement units etc. It is likely that you may bypass feeding of certain
data as the default values may themselves be sufficient.
Entry of Traverse Station (Occupied Point) and Feature (Sighted Point) Code
All the traverse stations and features to be plotted must be given a suitable
coding system for their recognition. The coding system varies from one
model of Total Station to the other. These codes may be entered through the
keypad on most of the equipment. Some models now have the provision of
bar codes to enter the codes. For the traverse station, in addition to the
station codes, the data such as height of instrument, station name and
number, coordinates of traverse station (forward and backward), azimuth of
reference line etc. may also be entered. Similarly, for the sighted point,
besides its code, the other data to be supplied are height of prism or
reflector, point name and number etc.
Measurement of Angles and Distances
After entering the required data, an observer may start taking measurements
using the following steps (refer Figure 5.5) :
(a) Centre the Total Station over the traverse station 11.
(b) Sight at station 14, zero the horizontal circle.
Road
(IS) 104
13
14 (BS)
(IS) 103
Control Traverse
(IS) 102
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Modern Surveying
Equipment
Table 5.3 : A List of Some Total Stations
Sl. Name Distance Range Distance Accuracy Angular
No. with 1 Prism Accuracy
1. DTM850 (Nikon) 2400 m ± (2 mm + 2 ppm) 1′′
2. DTM550 (Nikon) 2400 m ± (4 mm + 2 ppm) 1′′
3. DTM310 (Nikon) 1000 m ± (5 mm + 5 ppm) 5′′
4. TCA1101 (Leica) 1000 m ± (3 mm + 1 ppm) 1.5′′
5. TC303 (Leica) 3000 m ± (2 mm + 2 ppm) 3′′
6. TC905 (Leica) 2500 m ± (2 mm + 2 ppm) 2′′
7. TCA2003 (Leica) 2500 m ± (1 mm + 1 ppm) 0.5′′
SAQ 1
(a) Give the full form of abbreviations, EDM, LCD, LED, ppm.
(b) Differentiate between micro-optic and electronic theodolites.
(c) What is the function of an optical plummet?
(d) Describe the reading system of a typical micro-optic theodolite.
(e) Write down the steps required for setting up of an eletronic or
micro-optic theodolite.
(f) What are two different types of EDM?
(g) What is a reflector?
(h) On what principle the working of an EDM is based?
(i) Write four basic steps of working with an EDM.
(j) How will you signify the accuracy of an EDM?
(k) Define Total Station.
(l) What are the two basic designs of a total station? Explain the
difference.
(m) Describe the steps for the operation of an EDM.
Figure 5.6 : An Auto Level (Courtesy : Elcome Technologies Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi)
These days, auto levels have arrangements for digital displays and data collectors
and are thus named as “Digital levels”. These are supplied with a bar coded staff.
As soon as the staff is bisected, the readings are automatically recorded in the
data collector that can then be connected with a computer for data reduction and
analysis. These bar coded staves can read to a least count of 0.001 mm.
R= ( Xs − X )2 + (Ys − Y )2 + ( Zs − Z ) 2 . . . (5.3)
where X, Y and Z are the co-ordinates of the point, on the ground and Xs, Ys and
Zs denote the position of the satellite broadcast by the Master Control station.
To find the true range, the time bias t has also to be considered. Thus,
R= ( Xs − X ) 2 + (Ys − Y ) 2 + ( Zs − Z ) 2 + t c . . . (5.4)
SAQ 2
5.7 SUMMARY
Although a range of new surveying equipment has been developed by several
manufacturers, the working principles of a given type of equipment remain the
same. In this unit, you were exposed to some modern surveying equipment and
their operation in the field. After reading this unit, you shall be able to handle
electronic surveying instruments of different makes supplemented with their
operation manual.
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