Engineering Structures 170 (2018) 1–10

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Engineering Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engstruct

Experimental analysis of glued-in steel plates used as shear connectors in T

Timber-Concrete-Composites
⁎
Dolores Otero-Chans , Javier Estévez-Cimadevila, Félix Suárez-Riestra, Emilio Martín-Gutiérrez
Department of Architectural, Civil and Aeronautical Buildings and Structures, Universidade da Coruña, Edificio de departamentos, Campus de A Zapateira, 15071 A
Coruña, Spain

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This paper describes experimental research into timber-concrete composite (TCC) connections made with dis-
Timber-concrete composite crete perforated steel plates glued in timber with epoxy adhesive. Continuous steel meshes have proven to be
Glued laminated timber very strong and rigid elements in TCC structural members. This paper studies the strength and stiffness of these
Fibre reinforced concrete connectors when used in a discrete way, alone and in combination with reinforcing bars. Six types of connector
Glued connection
were subjected to experimental tests, analysing two connection lengths and three configuration systems of the
Discrete connection
connector elements (in which bars are added longitudinally or transversally). The experimental results show that
Failure test
Strength the connections made with discrete steel meshes are very strong and rigid, and that it is possible to design them
Stiffness for ductile failure. Comparison of the results for plates of different lengths indicates that failure occurs in the
Slip moduli longest connections in the wood at lower average shear stresses. No significant behavioural differences were
detected between connectors made only of plate and those that were reinforced with additional bars. The high
slip moduli values indicate that it would be possible to design structural elements with a composite action close
to 100% using this type of connection.

1. Introduction
Timber-Concrete-Composites (TCC) are structural solutions that
make it possible to take advantage of the properties of both materials.
They are composed of an upper concrete slab which basically works
under compression and a lower deck or set of timber ribs that work
under tension. The first patents which refer to this mixed system date
from the 1920s, and they came into wider use during the second half of
the 20th century, especially in bridge building [1]. From the 1990s
onward many applications for them have been found in the field of
building, for upgrading existing structures as well as for the construc-
tion of new buildings.
TCC systems have many advantages in comparison with only timber
systems, including increased stiffness and the reduction of vibrations,
improved acoustic behaviour and increased thermal mass. They also
have many advantages over only concrete systems: the wooden part is
quickly made and also functions as formwork for the concrete topping;
they are lighter and this affects foundation design, while their lower
mass influences seismic behaviour; and they are also beneficial in terms
of sustainability, with lower embodied energy and reduced CO2 emis-
sions [1].
The key aspect of TCC system working is the design of the
connection that transmits the shear force between both materials,
guaranteeing composite action. Three main types of shear connection
ensure that the wood and joint work solidly: (i) connections by in-
dentations in timber [2,3], (ii) pin-type discrete metal mechanical fas-
teners (pins, nails, screws, staples, …) [4–6] and (iii) glued connections
including flat glued joints [7–9] and glued-in shear connections (con-
tinuous wooden messes, steel lattices, …) [10]. Both of the first groups
give rise to more ductile connections, while glued joints are associated
with more rigid ones. Combinations of both of these basic types may be
used, such as grooved holes and dowels [11]. They can also be cate-
gorized as vertical/inclined, prestressed/nonprestressed, etc. [1].
The connection elements used in types (i) and (ii) are generally
metallic, although exceptionally the use of other materials has been
studied. Daňková et al. [12] tested plywood mesh connections with
indentations in the bottom to ensure an even distribution of glue, and
with circular openings in the top through which the reinforcement is
pulled. They undertook tests using two ductile adhesives, and reached
the conclusion that connection stiffness can be affected by the type of
adhesive used. Skinner et al. [13] proposed the use of GFRP plates as
connectors in systems with thin toppings. These connectors were found
to attain high degrees of strength and stiffness (even higher than in-
clined self-tapping screws), although careful execution is required to

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: marilo@udc.es (D. Otero-Chans).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2018.05.062
Received 20 December 2017; Received in revised form 4 May 2018; Accepted 16 May 2018
0141-0296/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
D. Otero-Chans et al.
Table 1
Characteristics of the test pieces evaluated. Dimensions in mm.
Specimen Elements of the connection Timber cross-section
T1/180 2 * PSP 120 × 160
T1/300 2 * PSP 120 × 160
T2/180 2 * PSP + 2 * Ø 8TR 120 × 160
T2/300 2 * PSP + 3 * Ø 8TR 120 × 160
T3/180 2 * PSP + 4 * Ø 12LR 120 × 160
T3/300 2 * PSP + 4 * Ø 12LR 120 × 160
Joint elements: PSP: perforated steel plates (S235) glued-in timber with epoxy. Cross-section 90 × 5 mm, holes 10 mm diameter, separated 15 mm centre to centre.
The timber-adhesive interface is 20 mm longer than the steel plate (10 mm longer at each end).
TR (transversal reinforcement): Ø 8 mm rebars (B500) pulled transversally through the steel plate. Length of the bars 180 mm.
LR (longitudinal reinforcement): Ø 12 mm rebar (B500) welded longitudinally on the top of the plate. Reinforced bars are 60 mm longer than the steel plate (30 mm
longer at each end).
Where: L (length of timber and concrete slab), LP (length of the perforated steel plate), LA (length of the timber-adhesive interface), LTR (length of the three
transversal rebars pulled through the steel plates), LLR (length of the longitudinal rebars (or reinforcement bars) welded along the top of the steel plates).
ensure that no failures arise in the glued joint.
Timber in the composite section can be designed as a continuous
slab or deck [7] acting as formwork for the concrete toping or can be
designed as a set or beams or ribs, which is the most common solution.
The first of these has the advantage that the wood also functions as
formwork for the concrete. The second type uses less material and also
forms a section with a broader edge, making it more rigid against
bending. Spruce is usually used, in either solid rib or glulam rib form.
LVL hardwood has also been used [14]. Solid laminations glued to-
gether are usually used for slab/deck systems [7,8,10]. Tests have re-
cently taken place with glue-laminated bamboo (glubam), a material
with the advantages of rapid growth and very high bending strength
[15]. Recent studies have examined the use of CLT in TCC systems as an
effective system in the design of two-way spanning floors [3].
Some authors have studied the influence of concrete properties.
Schanack et al. [16] studied the effect of concrete cracking, and found
that it may lead to a reduction of up to 70% in the slip moduli. Light-
weight concrete has been used increasingly in recent years, and com-
pared with normal weight concrete it has the advantage of lower dead
load [5,8]. Due to the enormous current concern for building sustain-
ability, the use of concretes made with industrial sub products has been
studied, such as the cork granules proposed by Martins et al. [17]. The
use of ultra-high performance fibre reinforced concrete (UHPFRC), with
high strength and an increased modulus of elasticity, has also been
studied to improve the creep behaviour associated with concrete [18].
Fragiacomo & Lukaszewska [19] studied the influence of construction
method on the deflections of TCC beams. They found that prefabrica-
tion may lead to significant reductions in long-term deflection if the
slab is stored for about two months.
Long-term, creep and vibration behaviour are all important ques-
tions in TCC design. Nevertheless, they are not covered by this in-
troduction as they do not form part of the scope of the study presented
in this paper.
The use of perforated steel plates or steel meshes as connection
elements in mixed systems with concrete slab toppings has been widely
studied. Perfobond-type systems have had a major repercussion in the
field of mixed steel-concrete structures. They were proposed by
Leonhardt in the 1980s [20], and they are composed of perforated steel
plates and reinforced concrete dowels. Many studies have tried to iso-
late the influence of the different parameters (geometric and material)
that influence the strength of joints [21–23]. The use of steel meshes as
connection elements in TCC has also been studied, most especially in
recent years. They take the form of continuous steel mesh (known as the
HBV System) glued into a channel within the timber element [24,25],
giving a highly rigid and high shear-strength connection. Clouston et al.
[10] made joints with continuous steel mesh glued into glulam with
epoxy in a slab-type system. They designed their joint so that failure
would occur due to yielding of the steel. This gave a connection that
Engineering Structures 170 (2018) 1–10
L LP LA LTR LLR Number of specimens
360 180 200 – – 3
480 300 320 – – 3
360 180 200 180 – 3
480 300 320 180 – 3
360 180 200 – 240 3
480 300 320 – 360 3
was rigid and strong but with ductile failure, and with an almost 100%
composite action. In 2016 Gendron et al. [26] made connections using a
continuous steel mesh glued with a polyurethane adhesive, to evaluate
joint ductility. They tested 4 and 12 m beams with single rib and double
rib configurations, concluding that detailed study is required of the
effective width of ribbed systems of this type.
Several authors have carried out comparative tests using different
types of connection, including steel mesh ones [15,27–29]. The results
vary, as they depend on the geometry of the joints studied in each case.
Joints made using steel meshes, glued connections and notches with
screws generally showed high strength and stiffness. The connections
made using only screws or folded metal plates or nail plates were more
ductile and weaker. A few studies have analysed the use of dis-
continuous steel mesh as a connection element, in the form of discrete
elements along structural members, or possible reinforcement alter-
natives for steel plates to improve joint behaviour.
This paper presents the results of an experimental program that
tested three types of connectors using discrete steel meshes glued into
timber and with epoxy, and then embedded in a concrete slab. The aim
is to evaluate the behaviour of these joints to be used as shear con-
nectors in TCC systems, both in new buildings and in rehabilitation or
reinforcement works. Three different types of connectors have been
tested: unreinforced plates and two configurations of plates reinforced
with deformed bars. Different lengths of the connection have been also
studied. Experimental results for the different types have been studied
and compared attending to the differences in the failure modes, the
maximum load values and the slippage of the connections under service
loads, with the aim of developing design criteria for bending TCC sys-
tems.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Test specimens
All specimens consisted of a 120 × 160 mm glulam rib and a 90 mm
thick 300 mm wide concrete slab. As shown in Table 1, the test para-
meters used were (i) connection length, (ii) the presence of transverse
reinforcing bars (rebars) through holes in the plate and (iii) the pre-
sence of longitudinal rebars welded to the top of the steel plates.
Three types of joint were studied (T1, T2 and T3) together with two
lengths of anchorage for each type (180 and 300 mm). Three replicas
were made for each type and length, giving a total of 18 test pieces.
Type 1 (T1) test pieces are the reference ones, in which only a perfo-
rated steel plate glued with epoxy adhesive to the wood is the con-
nection element. Type 2 (T2) test pieces also had 8 mm nominal dia-
meter deformed bars perpendicular to the plates and passing through
the holes in them. The 180 mm long bars were inserted into the top row
of holes (Fig. 1). Three ridged bars were positioned transversally in
2
D. Otero-Chans et al.
Fig. 1. Specimen geometry. Dimensions in mm.
each test piece, giving rise to different separations between them de-
pending on the length of the connection. To prevent them from moving
during the pouring of concrete, the ridged bars were affixed with a
small amount of the same epoxy resin used to glue the plates. In Type 3
(T3) test pieces two 12 mm diameter deformed bars were placed
lengthwise and spot welded along the top of each perforated plate
(Fig. 1). These reinforced bars were 60 mm longer than those on the
perforated plates to increase their adherence with the concrete.
2.2. Materials
Fibre-reinforced concrete was used for the upper slab to minimise
the effect of shrinkage. The mix consisted of CEM II/B-M (V-L) 32.5N
cement with a content of 350 kg/m3. 48 mm long and 400 MPa tensile
strength Polyolefin macro-fibres (SikaFiber M48) were used, (data
supplied by the manufacturer). Two fibre doses were used, of 3.5 and
4.0 kg/m3, respectively. Compression and flexural tensile strength tests
were performed, the results of which are shown in Table 2. Two types of
test were used to determine flexural tensile strength. The first test was
conducted at 28 days to determine tenacity. A loaded span of 450 mm
was used, and the load was applied to the central point at a velocity of
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Engineering Structures 170 (2018) 1–10
0.3 mm/min, according to UNE 83510 [30]. This procedure to de-
termine deflection is not fully suitable, so that the tenacity and tenacity
index calculations can only be considered approximations. Due to this a
second test was conducted at 90 days for flexural tensile strength (limit
of proportionality, LOP, and residual strength). The test pieces were
manufactured and cured according to the procedures described in the
UNE-EN 12390-1 standard [31]. The flexural tests were carried out
according to UNE-EN 14651 [32], applying the load using two sup-
porting roller sand a central load roller with a test device that controls
the velocity of deflection increase. Each test piece was previously
grooved across its entire width at the centre of the span using a liquid
cooled saw. This produced a groove that was 3.6 mm wide and
28–29 mm deep. Deflection was measured during the test by a dis-
placement transducer with a frame fixed to the test piece with a sliding
and swinging connection.
Strength class GL28h [33] glued laminated timber was used to
manufacture the timber ribs of the TCC section. The wooden pieces
were taken from beams with a cross-section of 120 × 160 mm. Two
longitudinal grooves were made in their upper face, 60 mm apart and
with a depth of 40 mm and a width of 8 mm (Fig. 1). The pieces were
then cut to the lengths corresponding to each type of test piece. The
D. Otero-Chans et al. Engineering Structures 170 (2018) 1–10

Table 2
Characteristic strength values in N/mm2, together with density in kg/m3, for fibre-reinforced concrete.
Fibre batch Compressive strength [N/mm2] Flexural tensile strength [N/mm2] Density [kg/m3]

7 days 28 days 7 days 28 days 90 days 90 days 28 days

LOP fR3

3.5 kg/m3 13.4 19.2 2.6 3.9 2.9 0.9 2300

4.0 kg/m3 20.1 24.9 3.1 4.3 3.1 0.8 2310

2.3. Manufacturing of specimens

Fig. 2. Loading procedure adopted for the tests according to EN 26891.
density of the wood pieces was determined after they had been stored
under standard conditions (20 °C, 65% RH) until their humidity content
stood at 12%. The average density of the wood used was 434.4 kg/m3
(with a standard deviation of 14.6).
The shear connectors were made of S235 quality (fy ≥ 235 MPa,
fu ≥ 360 MPa, E = 210000 MPa) [34] perforated hot-galvanised 5 mm
thick steel plate, with 10 mm diameter holes every 15 mm (Rv 10–15).
Laboratory tests made by the suppliers guaranteed tensile strengths
values of fy = 294 MPa and fu = 392 MPa. The plates were 90 mm wide
and varied in length depending on the different anchorage lengths used.
Two of the three types of connection tested were complemented with
deformed B500S quality (fy = 500 MPa, fu = 550 MPa) [35] 8 and
12 mm diameter steel bars, according to the configuration shown in
Fig. 1 and Table 1.
Steel plates were cut trying to match the minimum section (max-
imum voids volume) with the timber-concrete shear plane, as can be
seen in Fig. 1. This configuration should guarantee that any other plate
arrangement would provide higher strength and stiffness. However, due
to the tolerances and variations inherent in the manufacturing process,
the shear plane was found to be displaced up to ± 3 mm with respect to
said minimum section in the resulting specimens. This displacement of
the shear plane can represent an increase of up to 40% of the resistant
section of the plate with respect to the theoretical minimum section.
Two-component epoxy adhesive Hilti HIT-RE 500V3, with a density
of 1.45 g/cm3, was used to join the perforated steel plates to the
wooden pieces. Previous versions of this adhesive family had displayed
very suitable properties for making rigid connections in the study of
glued-in rods in timber [36]. The version of this adhesive used in these
tests is an improved version of the one used in previous studies. As well
as being stronger it is able to work under a wide range of temperatures
in service loads (from −40 to +70 °C), according to data supplied by
the manufacturer [37,38].
The wooden pieces were cut from timber beams and grooves made
to hold the plates according with dimensions stated in Table 1. The
wooden parts were made 180 mm longer than the steel plates. The
plates were glued to the centre of the test piece length. Previously
grooves were cleaned using compressed air to avoid the presence of
sawdust. Then softwood stops were inserted in the previously cut
grooves, delimiting a length 20 mm greater than the length of the
plates, after which the glue was poured. The plates were then inserted.
The plates were embedded 40 mm in the wood, leaving the remaining
50 mm width for connection to the concrete. According to the manu-
facturer’s recommendations and due to the results of previous experi-
ments [39] the layer of adhesive was 1.5 mm thick. 24 h later the type 2
test piece bars were positioned and fixed with a small amount of the
same adhesive. The adhesive was cured for 30 days under laboratory
conditions. Lastly the wooden pieces with the connectors were placed
under specially made formwork and the concrete slab was cast. The
period between gluing and pouring of concrete was extended so long for
reasons unrelated to the investigation. In practice, concrete could be
poured over the joints within a period of one day, since the curing time
recommended by the manufacturer in accordance with the thermal
conditions of the laboratory would be 16 h and under normal on site
construction conditions (up to 4 °C) 24 h.
2.4. Test setup
Tests to failure were performed according to the EN 26891 standard
[40]. Initially a load of up to 40% of the estimated load was applied and
maintained for 30 s. The load was then reduced to 10% of the estimated
load and this was maintained for 30 s. Finally the load was gradually
increased until failure occurred or a slippage of 15 mm was reached
(Fig. 2). According to the standard, the load was applied under control
at a velocity corresponding to 0.2 Fest/minute ± 25% until 0.7 Fest was
attained. Above this value a constant loading velocity was used.
With this procedure the following values representative of joint
behaviour were obtained (Fig. 2):
Maximum load Fmax
Estimated maximum load Fest
Initial slip vi = v04
Modified initial slip vi,mod = 4(v04 − v01)/3
Initial slip modulus ki = 0.4 Fest/vi
Slip modulus Ks = 0.4 Fest/vi,mod
Slip at 0.6 Fmax v06
Modified slip at 0.6 Fmax v06,mod = v06 − v24 + vi,mod
Slip at 0.8 Fmax v08
Modified slip at 0.8 Fmax v08,mod = v08 − v24 + vi,mod
v24 is the slip for a load of 0.4 Fest in the load branch until breakage.
A 600 kN universal hydraulic test machine was used for the testing. The
concrete slab was supported by a 20 mm thick wooden board that was
used to standardise the reaction on the concrete slab and permit timber-
concrete slip. A wooden block was placed on the timber rib at the point
at which the load was applied. To prevent overturning the wooden ribs
rested on a Teflon support that in turn was placed against a rolled steel
shape to create a sliding vertical support in the rear part of the test

4
D. Otero-Chans et al.
Fig. 3. Test setup.
pieces (Fig. 3). To measure the slip between the concrete slab and the
wooden rib two Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDTs)
placed at either side of the ribs were used, half way along the length of
the piece. To obtain the load-slip curves of each test piece, the average
value of the two measurements recorded for each piece was de-
termined.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Failure modes
Decisive failure in the test pieces was in all cases failure due to shear
in the wood. After the tests the concrete was removed from the test
pieces to evaluate the surfaces of the wood failure in greater detail
(Fig. 4). In the majority of the test pieces the failure surface coincided
with the wood-adhesive interface (hereinafter denominated section 1,
S1, Fig. 4a), but always making apparent the shear failure in timber
with the presence of fibers adhered to the failure surface. In some cases
failure did not occur exactly at the interface but rather in nearby sur-
faces, so that a block of wood glued to the plates was extracted
(Fig. 4b). In other specimens failure of the wood occurred along a
longitudinal plane approximately parallel to the lower faces of the
piece. The majority of these failures occurred in the plane that coincides
with the lower end of the steel plates (hereinafter denominated section
2, S2, Fig. 4c, d), although in two of the test pieces the failure surface
was distant from the plate ends (Fig. 4e). Some of the test pieces suf-
fered a hybrid failure that partially affected both S1 and S2 (Fig. 4f).
Table 3 shows the failure modes corresponding to each test piece. In
type 1 test pieces failure always occurred in section S1 (Fig. 4a, b). In
types 2 and 3 differences arose depending on the length of the glued
surface. In 180 mm connections failure occurred in the S1 surface in all
of the specimens except one, while in the 300 mm pieces failure oc-
curred in the S2 (Fig. 4c–e) or was mixed, affecting both surfaces
(S1 + S2) (Fig. 4f).
5
Engineering Structures 170 (2018) 1–10
Shear failure of the wood was accompanied in many of the test
pieces by major cracking in the concrete which took two different
forms: longitudinal or transversal cracks. The longitudinal cracks were
close to the planes corresponding to the insertion of the plates, and they
either arose along a line that approximately coincided with one of the
plates, or along a line that started at the end of one of the plates and ran
to the opposite end of the other plate (Fig. 4g). There were also cases of
two lines that started at the same end of two plates and converged at the
centre of the piece (Fig. 4h). The longitudinal cracks in the concrete
occurred in Type 1 and Type 3 test pieces. In Type 2 (T2) specimens the
cracks in the concrete, when they occurred, were transversal to the
wooden ribs (Fig. 4i). The longitudinal cracks were always wider than
the transversal ones, as may be seen in Fig. 4g–i.
No failure was detected in the steel plates. Other authors have de-
scribed problems with buckling of the steel mesh [15] or yielding and
breakage [10,27,41]. In all those cases, the meshes and plates used had
greater slenderness than those of the sheets used in the present in-
vestigation, with thicknesses between 1 and 2 mm. The results showed
in this article highlight the need to carry out a careful design of the
plates, aimed to yielding without breakage or instability phenomena.
3.2. Connection strength
Table 3 shows the maximum load values (Fmax) of each one of the
specimens tested. According to the description of the tests, the standard
used identifies this value with either test piece failure or a 15 mm slip,
whichever occurs first. None of the specimens reached slip values
greater than 3.5 mm before de maximum load, so that all maximum
load values correspond to the moment of failure. In spite of the size of
the sample, the results obtained are very uniform for each test piece
type except for T3-300. Specimen 2 of this type attained a strength
rating 30% higher than its counterparts. The examination of the spe-
cimens after the failure and elimination of the concrete topping, re-
vealed that in this specimen the position of the plate did not match the
minimum section with the shear plane wood-concrete.
To evaluate the influence of the connection elements on strength,
the Fmax values of each test piece type were compared (Fig. 5). The
average load values at failure indicate that the contribution of the re-
inforcing bars to the steel plate increased strength by from 6.7% to
9.0% in the case of the 180 mm connections, and from 10.2% to 14.9%
for the 300 mm connections. This increase in strength, which is always
small, is always greater in T3 test pieces, and it is also greater for
300 mm test pieces than it is for those measuring 180 mm.
Average shear stress was also evaluated for each test piece (con-
sidering it to be uniform throughout the length of the connection) along
failure surface S1 (τS1), calculated as the ratio between the maximum
load and the sum of the wood-adhesive contact surfaces
(LA ∗ 2 ∗ 40 ∗ 2). The average shear stress in the S2 failure surface (τS2)
is always less than τS1 for 180 mm test pieces. For 300 mm test pieces
the average stresses in both failure surfaces (τS1 and τS2) are practically
equal. The resulting values are shown in Table 3.
To evaluate the influence of connection length on strength, the
average stress values in failure surface S1 are compared (Fig. 6). The
differences observed in terms of average stress when different types of
connection are compared obviously repeat what had been explained in
terms of load. When the results of average stress obtained for test pieces
of the same type and different shear connection lengths are compared,
the longest connections are found to fail at lower average stress levels,
except for the T3-300-2 test piece as was pointed out above. This
confirms the widely studied phenomenon in timber-to-timber joints
with glued-in rods and plates, according to which the load capacity
does not increase in a linear way with length [36,42].
These results indicate that in terms of the amount of material used
in a connection, those made using longer plates are less effective in
terms of strength. So according to experimental results, when only
strength criteria are taken into consideration, it is better to design
D. Otero-Chans et al.
Fig. 4. Representative failure modes. (a) Shear failure in timber at section S1. (b) Shear failure in timber close to section S1.(c, d) Shear failure in timber at section S2.
(e) Shear failure in timber at a surface parallel to S2. (f) Shear failure in timber, mixed failure S1 + S2. (g) Longitudinal cracking of concrete. One crack almost
parallel to one of the plates. (h) Longitudinal cracking of concrete. Two convergent cracks. (i) Transverse cracking of concrete.
structural members with a greater number of shorter connections than
it is with fewer longer ones.
3.3. Connection slip
Table 4 shows the slip values and slip moduli obtained experi-
mentally for each specimen. Additionally, and based on the load-slip
ratio, the average shear stress/strain curves are drawn for each type of
test piece (Fig. 7). This makes it possible to compare test pieces with
different connection lengths in adimensional terms. The curves show
that although the longest test pieces were more rigid in their first
branch, they failed at lower average shear stresses. This means that
there is a point where the curves for 180 mm long and 300 mm long test
pieces will cross. This behaviour is the same in all three types of test
pieces involved in the tests. All of the test pieces also display a plasti-
fication that does not correspond to failure of the wood, as it is typical
behaviour of steel. This would indicate that a certain degree of plasti-
fication occurs in the steel plate at values close to failure of the con-
nection. This would make it possible to design connections with a
ductile failure that are very strong and rigid in service [7,41] which is a
desirable characteristic in structural connections.
In terms of ks (Table 4), the slip modulus values are very high, in-
dicating very rigid connections in which the composite action would be
close to 100% [7,10]. The results are not uniform in terms of a possible
improvement due to the reinforcement bars. This improvement is stated
in Table 4 as the ratio between slip moduli for the reinforced type and
6
Engineering Structures 170 (2018) 1–10
the unreinforced one (T1). For 180 mm connections test pieces T2 and
T3 increase the moduli by 16.1% and 9.3%, respectively, in comparison
with the reference pieces. However, although for 300 mm long con-
nections the T3 test pieces showed a 14.6% increase in stiffness, the T2
pieces showed slip moduli 13.0% lower than the reference test pieces.
To analyse the difference in stiffness between the different types of
connection for service load values the load-slip curves are shown in
Fig. 8, superimposing those corresponding to the three types of test
piece for each length tested. It may be seen that for both length con-
nections the curves coincide for all of the types. This is so up to a load of
approximately 100 kN for 180 mm test pieces and 165 kN for those
300 mm long. After this point the differences between specimens seem
to become more acute, breaking the initial uniformity of behaviour.
To analyse this effect in greater detail Fig. 9 shows the slip moduli
values for different load phases (k04 = ks, k06 and k08). Significant
differences arise here depending on the length of the connection.
All secant stiffness values for 180 mm test pieces are highly uniform.
I.e., the values for all three types of connection are very similar, and
they are also very similar at the three reference points for each con-
nection (04, 06, 08). More specifically, the k06 and k08 values are
practically identical for the T2 and T3 connections. k06 values vary
(rising or falling) by from 3% to 9% in comparison with k04 values,
while k08 values are from 25% to 31% lower than those of k04.
The behaviour of 300 mm test pieces is very different, as their k06
values are from 26% to 35% lower than the k04 values; while their k08
values are from 65% to 69% lower, depending on test piece type, in
D. Otero-Chans et al. Engineering Structures 170 (2018) 1–10

Table 3
Maximum failure loads (Fmax), average shear stresses (τ) and failure modes.
Type Specimen Fmax [kN] AverageFmax [kN] Improvement % τS1 [MPa] Average τS1 [MPa] τS2 [MPa] Average τS2 [MPa] Failure mode

T1/180 T1/180-1 182.6 170.2 100.0% 5.7 5.3 4.9 4.5 S1 + CV

T1/180-2 170.9 5.3 4.6 S1 + CV
T1/180-3 157.1 4.9 4.2 S1 + CH

T2/180 T2/180-1 173.8 181.6 106.7% 5.4 5.7 4.6 4.8 S1 + CH

T2/180-2 180.6 5.6 4.8 S1 + CH
T2/180-3 190.3 5.9 5.1 S2 + CH

T3/180 T3/180-1 167.6 185.6 109.0% 5.2 5.8 4.5 5.0 S1

T3/180-2 194.0 6.1 5.2 S1
T3/180-3 195.1 6.1 5.2 S1

T1/300 T1/300-1 239.4 240.3 100.0% 4.7 4.7 4.8 4.8 S1 + CV

T1/300-2 248.5 4.9 5.0 S1 + CV
T1/300-3 232.9 4.5 4.7 S1 + CV

T2/300 T2/300-1 262.6 264.7 110.2% 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.3 S2 + CH

T2/300-2 270.0 5.3 5.4 S1 + S2 + CH
T2/300-3 261.7 5.1 5.2 S2 + CH

T3/300 T3/300-1 252.5 276.0 114.9% 4.9 5.4 5.1 5.5 S1 + S2

T3/300-2 326.4 6.4 6.5 S1 + S2 + CV
T3/300-3 249.2 4.9 5.0 S2

τS1 = average shear in section S1.

τS2 = average shear in section S2.
Failure modes:
S1 – Shear failure of timber at timber/adhesive interface.
S2 – Shear failure of timber along the plane parallel to the slab and in the majority of cases coinciding with the lower edge of the plates.
CV – Vertical/longitudinal cracks in the concrete.
CH – Horizontal/transversal cracks in the concrete.

Fig. 5. Failure loads in kN. Fig. 6. Average shear stress along the timber/adhesive interface (τS1).

comparison with k04 values. When the results for the different types of
300 mm long test pieces are compared, significant differences between
them emerge, especially for k04 values; T1 value is 13% higher than T2
and 15% lower than T3, with a difference of up to 32% between types
T3 and T2.The values corresponding to types T1 and T3 are more si-
milar for k06 values, with a difference lower than 1%, both being 34%
higher than T2. Finally, all three types converge for k08, being T1 and
T2 practically coincident and between 12 and 14% lower than T3. The
k08 values are also very similar for both anchor lengths, and this may be
associated with the commencement of fluency associated with steel
plate deformation.
The difference between the K08 values for the two lengths, con-
sidering the average of the three types, is 47%; while that difference is
330% for the value of k04.
Regarding the stiffness criterion for TCC member design, the
connections made using longer plates were more rigid. This is because
at service loads the ks values of the 300 mm connections are 3.7, 2.6
and 3.6 times higher (for types T1, T2 and T3, respectively) than those
obtained for the 180 mm connections.
This slip moduli evolution is also strongly associated with the load-
slip or strain-stress curves. In Fig. 10 load-slip curves from tests show
failure load and post failure behaviour, which as can be seen corre-
sponds to the horizontal yielding branch of steel. The shear force that
would correspond to yielding stress of the steel of the mesh in the
minimum cross-section of the steel plate (of which the holes make up
66.7%) would be 102 kN and 170 kN for the 180 mm and 300 mm
lengths, respectively. As explained in Section 2, in practice it is unlikely
that the shear plane coincides exactly with the minimum section of the
steel plate and a displacement of only 3 mm results in an increase of the
resistant steel surface up to 40%, which imply load values needed to

7
D. Otero-Chans et al. Engineering Structures 170 (2018) 1–10

Table 4
Slips (mm) and slip moduli (N/mm) obtained experimentally.
Type Specimen Slip (mm) Initial slip moduli (kN/mm) Slip moduli (kN/mm) Average slip moduli (kN/mm) Improvement %
k04 ks ks
vi = v0.4 vi,mod v0.6,mod v0.8,mod

T1/180 T1/180-1 0.103 0.113 0.189 0.301 776.7 707.5 838.1 Reference
T1/180-2 0.094 0.100 0.142 0.363 839.4 794.1
T1/180-3 0.088 0.092 0.114 0.195 898.2 859.0

T2/180 T2/180-1 0.065 0.071 0.108 0.176 1237.2 1131.8 973.3 116.1%
T2/180-2 0.080 0.086 0.132 0.237 1000.2 929.4
T2/180-3 0.083 0.093 0.150 0.303 963.7 858.5

T3/180 T3/180-1 0.084 0.092 0.130 0.220 935.3 858.8 915.8 109.3%
T3/180-2 0.062 0.069 0.130 0.229 1284.5 1164.3
T3/180-3 0.100 0.110 0.178 0.326 797.8 724.3

T1/300 T1/300-1 0.048 0.055 0.080 0.260 2912.4 2616.7 2939.0 Reference
T1/300-2 0.036 0.036 0.077 0.233 2693.0 2706.1
T1/300-3 0.027 0.028 0.056 0.164 3599.3 3494.0

T2/300 T2/300-1 0.035 0.037 0.091 0.232 2757.5 2580.0 2556.6 87.0%
T2/300-2 0.033 0.035 0.084 0.219 2968.1 2788.0
T2/300-3 0.038 0.042 0.092 0.197 2538.9 2301.9

T3/300 T3/300-1 0.023 0.025 0.052 0.162 4619.4 4298.1 3368.4 114.6%
T3/300-2 0.036 0.035 0.131 0.370 3012.6 3061.0
T3/300-3 0.033 0.039 0.073 0.186 3258.4 2746.1

achieve steel yielding of 143 and 238 kN for connections of 180 and
300, respectively. As can be seen in Fig. 10, in some of the specimens
the layout of the plate resulted even more favorable. Due to the con-
figuration of the holes it is no possible to have a solid section with the
total length of the plate in any section.
The importance of the choice of steel in the design of the connec-
tions can also be deduced from Fig. 10. Additionally, as some authors
have reported [10,27,41], the use of slender plates can lead to pre-
mature failures due to breakage or buckling phenomena. According to
the experimental results, it seems advisable to use steels with a reduced
yielding stress limit to allow the design of joints with a ductile failure
(ultimate limit states) even when they have a high stiffness under ser-
vice load (service limit states); both conditioned by the load-displace-
ment curve of the steel used.
Further experimental work is required to find the optimum di-
mensions of the plates. This would have to take into account their use in
terms of strength (which is higher in shorter connections) and greater
stiffness at service values (which is better in longer connections). It
would also have to take into account the known effect due to which
Fig. 8. Load-slip curves from the experimental tests (service loads).
connection behaviour in isolation does not correspond exactly with the
behaviour of the same connection within a structural member [26].

Fig. 7. Experimental test stress-strain curves.

8
D. Otero-Chans et al.
Fig. 9. Stiffness evolution (k04, k06, k08) for each type of test piece.
Fig. 10. Load-slip curves from the experimental tests (failure loads and post
failure behaviour).
4. Conclusions
Shear strength and slip were studied in connections made of per-
forated steel plates and glued-in timber with epoxy adhesive. Three
types of connections were tested: unreinforced plates and plates re-
inforced with rebars along or through them. Two different connection
lengths were tested for each one of the three types proposed.
The addition of reinforcing bars to the steel plates did not lead to a
significant increase in the shear strength of the proposed connection.
This was fundamentally due to the fact that failure was conditioned by
the shear stresses in the wood/adhesive interface. The strength of
connections with transverse reinforcements increased by from 7% to
10%, while the increase in the strength of those with longitudinal re-
inforcements was from 9% to 15%. The strength increase with re-
inforced plates was always better in longest connections.
The use of transverse reinforcement bars significantly reduced the
cracking of the concrete associated with the failure of the test pieces. No
cracks occurred during the service phase in any of the types tested,
thanks to the use of fibre-reinforced concrete.
The longest connections attained the highest loads before failure.
Nevertheless, the longest connections failed at lower average shear
stress values in the wood/adhesive interface. This indicates that the
strength of the connection does not increase in a linear way with length,
showing that for strength criteria it would be better to use shorter
9
Engineering Structures 170 (2018) 1–10
connections when designing TCC members.
Slip moduli are far higher in the long connections, and their in-
crease in stiffness is clearly superior to what would arise from a linear
relationship with the increase in connection length.
On the other hand, the secant moduli values analysed in the shorter
connections evolved in a very similar way in all three types of con-
nection. There was hardly any variation between 0.4 Fest and 0.6 Fest,
with a fall of from 25% to 31% in 0.8 Fest.
There were greater differences between the secant moduli of all
three types of the longer connections. Nevertheless, in all three types a
noticeably linear fall is observed in the moduli with increasing load.
The values corresponding to 0.8 Fest are very similar for all three types
of long connection, with a fall of from 65% to 69% respecting the k04
value.
Conditioning the failure of the joint to the yielding of the steel plate
provides very rigid joints in service (SLS) with a ductile breakage (ULS).
Acknowledgments
This research is part of the research project “Self-tensioning high
performance structural floors with glued laminated timber-fibre re-
inforced concrete composite section” (BIA2016-77184-P) financed by
the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Finance and the European
Regional Development Fund (ERDF).
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