ANAPHY NOTES

Anatomy (anatome = to cut up) ● 3 basic components :

● structure & relationships among structures - receptor, control center, effector
● 1 st studied by dissection of cadavers

Physiology
● functions of the body parts

Types of feedback system

● Negative feedback system (loop)
if response reverses original stimulus
Life Processes
● Positive feedback system (loop)
1. Metabolism
if response enhances or intensifies original
- Catabolism
Stimulus
- Anabolism
2. Responsiveness
sense changes and respond
3. Movement
4. Growth
increase in size/part
5. Differentiation
6. Reproduction
cell division, whole organism

Homeostasis
● body’s internal environment remains within
physiological limits
● regulation of volume & composition of body
fluids
- ICF
- ECF (plasma; lymph)
- interstitial fluid
● continually disturbed by STRESS
● regulated by nervous & endocrine systems
Disease results if homeostatic imbalance is moderate
- death results if it is severe
Feedback Systems (loops)
Disease
● cycle of events
● pathological process
● status of a condition is continually
● w/ definite set of characteristics
monitored
● a part or all of the body is not carrying on its
fed back (reported)
normal functions
central control region •
● local or systemic
 Cell Membrane and Physiology
Cell variety (as to forms & shapes)

Membrane chemistry & anatomy

● membrane lipids
- phospholipids
- glycolipids
- cholesterol
● membrane proteins
- peripheral
- integral
channels (w/ pore)
transporters (carriers)
receptors
Membrane Physiology
● communication
● electrochemical gradient
● selective permeability
- lipid solubility
- size
Plasma (cell) membrane - charge
● regulates passage of substances into & out of - presence of channels & transporters
cell
● molecular bilayer of phospholipids with Physiology of the Cell TRANSPORT OF MATERIALS
proteins intercalated in or adherent to surface ACROSS THE MEMBRANE
● fluid-mosaic model (Singer & Nicholson, 1972) Diffusion
● semi-fluid; amphipathic in nature ● movement of particles from region of high
● regulates traffic flow of materials concentration to region of low concentration
● each layer has : phosphate head (hydrophilic ● due to kinetic energy of particles
region) lipid tail (hydrophobic region) ● equal concentration
● membrane lipids (cholesterol, glycolipids, ● maintains equilibrium
phospholipids)
● membrane proteins (integral, peripheral) OSMOSIS
● diffusion of water or solvents thru
semi-permeable membrane from lower
osmotic pressure to higher osmotic pressure
● depends on amount of solutes
● types of solution
- Isotonic
- Hypertonic
- Hypotonic
SIMPLE DIFFUSION NUCLEOLI
● transport of particles w/o aid of permeases ● spheroidal; very large in cells active in protein
● no energy is required synthesis
● single or multiple
FACILITATED DIFFUSION ● synthesizes &
● transport of particles thru the permeases of ● assembles RNA mols & proteins –--> Ribosome
membrane Chromatin materials – contain genes
● no energy is required Chromosomes
● DNA + protein
ACTIVE TRANSPORT ● sister chromatids •
● transport of particles thru the permeases of ● centromere
membrane ● autosomes & sex chromosomes
● requires energy ● diploid (2 sets of chromosomes or complete)
● haploid (1 set or half )
BULK TRANSPORT ● homologous chromosomes w/ same length &
● transport of large amt of particles same location of centromere

Active Processes Ribosomes

• primary active transport ● Function: protein synthesis
• secondary active transport ● Composed of rRNA + protein
• vesicular transport ● Large subunit + small subunit
- phagocytosis ● Types
- pinocytosis receptor-mediated 1. Free ribosomes: float in cytosol,
- Endocytosis produce proteins used within cell
the movement of materials into cells by the 2. Bound ribosomes: attached to ER,
formation of a vesicle. make proteins for export from cell
- Exocytosis
the secretion of materials from cells by vesicle Endomembrane System
formation ● Regulates protein traffic & performs metabolic
functions
The Nucleus and Cellular Reproduction
Endoplasmic Reticulum
NUCLEUS 1. Rough ER: ribsomes on surface
● most distinct organelle; memb- bounded ● Function: package proteins from
(nuclear memb) secretion, send transport vesicles to
● controls & regulates fxns of other organelles Golgi, make replacement membrane
● storage of genetic info 2. Smooth ER: no ribsomes on surface
● DNA duplication ● Function: synthesize lipids,
● nucleoplasm, nucleolus, chromatin materials metabolize carbs, detox drugs &
poisons, Store Ca2+
NUCLEAR ENVELOPE •
flattened sacs (cisternae) Golgi Apparatus
* inner membrane – ● Function: synthesis & packaging of materials
contact with chromatin (small molecules) for transport (in vesicles);
fibers produce lysosomes
* outer membrane – ● Series of flattened membrane sacs (cisternae)
covered with ribosomes - Cis face: recieves vesicles
- Trans face: ships vesicles
NUCLEOPLASM (nuclear sap or karyolymph)
● fills up nuclear space; viscous than cytoplasm
Lysosomes
● Function: intracellular digestion; recycle cell’s
materials; programmed cell deaths (apoptosis)
● Contains hydrolytic enzymes
Vacuoles
● Function: storage of materials (food, water,
minerals, pigments, poisons)
● Membrane-bound vesicles
● Eg. food vacuoles, contractile vacuoles
● Plants: large central vacuole - - stores water,
ions; retains water for turgor pressure
Mitochondria
● Functions: site of cellular respiration
● Double membrane: outer and inner membrane
- Cristae: folds of inner membrane;
contains enzymes for ATP
production; increased surface area to
ATP made
- Matrix: fluid filled inner compartment
Chloroplast
● Function: site of photosynthesis
● Double membrane
● Thylakoid disks in stacks (grana); stroma (fluid)
● Contains chlorophylls (pigments) for capturing
sunlight energy
Peroxisomes
● Functions: break down fatty acids; detox
alcohol
● Involves production of hydrogen peroxide
Cytoskeleton
● Function: support, motility, regulate
biochemical activities
Centrosomes & Centrioles
● Centrosomes: region from which microtubules
grow
- Also called microtubule organizing
center -
- Animal cells contain centrioles
● Centrioles: located in the centrosome, are
made of microtubules. They facilitate
chromosome movement during cell division.
Cilia & Flagella
● Flagella
Long and few; propel through water
● Cilia
- Short and numerous; locomotion or
move fluids
- move substances over the surface of
cells.
Extracellular Matrix (ECM)
● Outside plasma membrane of animal cells
● Composed of glycoproteins (ex. collagen)
● Function: Strengthens tissues and transmits
external signals to cell
Classifications of tissues
Epithelial Tissue
● Epithelium or epithelial tissue, covers external
and internal surfaces throughout the body -
● Surfaces of the body include the outer layer of
the skin and the lining of cavities, such as the
digestive tract, airways, and blood vessels. It
also forms most glands.
● Functions of Epithelial Tissue
1. Protecting underlying structure
2. Acting as a barrier
3. Permitting the passage of
substances
4. Secreting substances
5. Absorbing substances
Classification of Epithelial Tissues
1. According to shape
A. Squamos
B. Cuboidal
C. Columnar
 2. According to Number of layers
A. Simple- single layer Language of Anatomy
B. Stratified- multiple layers Anterior Body Landmarks
Abdominal: Anterior body trunk region inferior to the
Connective tissue ribs
● Connective tissue is found throughout the Acromial: Point of the shoulder
body. It is usually characterized by large Antebrachial: Forearm
amounts of extracellular material that Antecubital: Anterior surface of the elbow
separates cells from one another. Axillary: Armpit
● Connective tissue cells are named according to Brachial: Arm
their functions Buccal: Cheek
- Blast (germ) produce matrix Carpal: Wrist
- Cyte (cell) maintain it; and Cephalic: Head
- Clast (break) break it dowm for Cervical: Neck region
remodeling Coxal: Hip
● Functions of Connective Tissues Crural: Leg
1. Enclosing and separating other Digital: Fingers or toes
tissues Femoral: Thigh
2. Connecting tissues to one another Fibular (peroneal): Side of the leg
3. Supporting and moving parts of the Frontal: Forehead
body Hallux: Great toe
4. Storing compounds Inguinal: Groin area
5. Cushioning and insulating Mammary: Breast region
6. Transporting Manus: Hand
7. Protecting Mental: Chin
Nasal: Nose
Muscle Tissue Oral: Mouth
● The main characteristics of muscle tissue is its Orbital: Bony eye socket (orbit)
ability to contract, or shorten, making Palmar: Palm of the hand
movement possible. Patellar: Anterior knee (kneecap) region
● Muscle contraction results from contractile Pedal: Foot
proteins located within the muscle cells - Pelvic: Pelvis region
Muscle cells are sometimes called muscle fibers Pollex: Thumb
because they often resemble tiny threads. Pubic: Genital region
Nervous Tissue Sternal: Region of the breastbone
● Nervous tissue forms the brain, spinal cord, Tarsal: Ankle
and nerves. It is responsible for coordinating Thoracic: Chest
and controlling many body activities Umbilical: Navel
- For example, the conscious control of
skeletal muscles and the unconscious
regulation of cardiac muscle are
accomplished by nervous tissue.
● Nervous tissue consists of neurons and support
cells
● The Neuron or nerve cell, is responsible for
conducting action potentials
- It is composed of three parts; a cell
body, dendrites, and an axon
● Neuroglia are the support cells of the nervous
system; they nourish, protect, and insulate the
neurons