Structural-Functionalism
WHAT IS STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM?
 Develop by Herbert Spencer and Emile Durkheim
 Just like a living organism, a human body’s parts and
organs perform very specific task to sustain itself.
Applied to society, the organic analogy of society
follows the same logic of a complex organism whose
parts are highly differentiated yet work
interdependently.
 SOCIAL COHESION AND INTEGRATION
Focus
 The organization of society and the relationships
between broad social units, such as Institutions. The
group is the unit of analysis. A group could be a
crowd of people in a movie theater, or the members
of a family sitting around the dinner table, what
some call “small groups”.
 Structural functionalism, or, simply, functionalism, is
a framework for building theory that sees society as
a complex system whose parts work together to
promote solidarity and stability. Two theorists,
Herbert Spencer and Robert Merton, were major
contributors to this perspective. Important concepts
in functionalism include social structure, social
functions, manifest functions, and latent functions.
 It asserts that our lives are guided by social
structures, which are relatively stable patterns of
social behavior. Social structures give shape to our
lives - for example, in families, the community, and
through religious organizations. And certain rituals,
such as a handshake or complex religious
ceremonies, give structure to our everyday lives.
Each social structure has social functions, or
consequences for the operation of society as a
whole. Education, for example, has several
important functions in a society, such as
socialization, learning, and social placement.
Advantages of structural functionalism
 Provides a wide-ranging explanation for many social
phenomena
 Has guided a great deal of valuable research
 Latter models allow not only for stability, but also for
conflict, social change, and power relationships
 Has contributed useful concepts to the field
Disadvantages of structural functionalism
 An ideal model of society rather than an empirically
derived one
 Operational definitions are hard to come by
 At its outset had a tendency to value stability,
consensus
 Cannot explain the existence of societies in the first
place
Manifest & Latent Functions
Manifest: the recognized and intended consequences of a
social pattern
Latent: unrecognized and unintended consequences of all
social pattern
MANIFEST AND LATENT DYSFUNCTION
MANIFEST DYSFUNCTION
 Are anticipated, intended disruptions of social life.
 Ex. FAMILY- DIVORCE
LATENT DYSFUNCTION
 Are unintended and unanticipated disruptions of
order and stability.
MANIFEST DYSFUNCTION
 DEVIANT BEHAVIORS COMMITTED WITHIN THE
COMMUNITY THAT ARE INTENTIONAL.
LATENT DYSFUNCTION
 DEVIANT BEHAVIORS IN THE SOCIETY WHICH HAS
UNINTENDED EFFECT.
PSYCHOANALYSIS
SIGMUND FREUD
MAY 6, 1856 – SIGMUND FREUD WAS BORN IN FREYBERG
TOWN, CRECH REPUBLIC
1881 – HE GRADUATED FROM MEDICAL FACULTY,
UNIVERSITY OF VIENNA
1896 – SIGMUND FREUD WAS OFFICIALLY RECOGNIZED
1900 – HE RELEASED ‘INTERPRETATION OF DREAMS’
SEPTEMBER 23, 1939 –FREUD PASSED AWAY IN HAMPSTEAD
HOUSE
LEVEL OF MENTAL LIFE
1. UNCONSCIOUS
• Contains all the feeling, urges or instinct that are beyond
our awareness but it affect our expression, feeling, action
(E.g. Slip of tongue, dreams, wishes)
2. PRECONSCIOUS
• Facts stored in a part of the brain, which are not conscious
but are available for possible use in the future
(E.g. A person will never think of her home address at that
moment but when her friend ask for it, she can easily recall it)
3. CONSCIOUS
• Only level of mental life that are directly available to us
• The awareness of our own mental process
(Thoughts/feeling)
STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY
Consist of three parts :
1. Id
•Infants are born with Id intact
•Operates on PLEASURE PRINCIPLE – to gain pleasure, avoid
pain
•Driven by sexual and aggressive urge
A reservoir of unconscious psychic energy constantly striving
to satisfy basic drives to survive, reproduce, and aggress.
The id operates on the pleasure principle: If not constrained
but reality, it seeks immediate gratification.
2. Ego
•The rational level of personality
•Operates on REALITY PRINCIPLES – does realistic and logical
thinking
•The balance between Id and Superego
Ego-the largely conscious, “executive” part of personality
that, according to Freud, mediates the demands of the id,
superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality
principle, satisfying the id’s desires in ways that will
realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.
3. Superego
Partially unconscious
Operates on MORAL PRINCIPLES
Able to differentiate between good and bad, right and wrong
If people follow their superego, they will feel proud but if
they don’t follow, they will feel guilty and anxious
Superego-represents internalized ideals and provides
standards for judgment (the conscious) and for future
aspirations.
DEFENSE MECHANISMS
 Repression
A defense mechanism that pushes threatening thoughts into
the unconscious
Unpleasant experiences are stored deep in the subconscious
mind and can’t be access by the conscious mind
Example: An accident victim nearly dies but remembers none
of the details of the accident
 Reaction formation
A defense mechanism that pushes away threatening impulses
by overemphasizing the opposite in one’s thoughts and
words
Thinking or behaving in a way that is the extreme opposite to
those that are of real intention
Example: A woman who loves an unobtainable man and
behaves as though she hates him.
  Denial
A defense mechanism in which one refuses to acknowledge
anxiety provoking stimuli
Reality is distorted to make it suit to the individual’s wishes
Example: An alcoholic fails to acknowledge that he is addicted
to alcohol.
 Displacement
Defense mechanism in which the target of one’s unconscious
fear or desire is shifted away from true cause
Redirecting the feelings of hostility and violent action from
self to another that is less threatening from original source
Example: Angered by a neighbor’s hateful comment, a
mother punish her child for accidentally spilling her drinks
 Regression
Defense mechanism where one returns to a earlier, safer
stage of one’s life to escape present threats.
Example: After Lucy’s parents bitter divorce, she refuse to
sleep alone in her room and crawling into bed with her
mother
 Rationalization
Defense mechanism where after the fact (post hoc) logical
explanations for behaviors that were actually driven by
internal unconscious motives
Providing a reasonable explanation to make undesirable
behavior appear logical
Example: A student who fails a test because she did not study
hard enough blames her failure on the teacher for using
‘tricky’ question
 Projection
The attribution of one’s unacceptable urges or qualities to
others.
Example: A person in an extremely bad mood accuses family
members of being hard to get along with
MARXISM
His Childhood
 Karl Marx was born on May 5th 1818 in Trier,
Germany.
 He was raised in a middle class, working family.
 His father, Hirschel, came from a long line of Jewish
Rabbi’s. He converted to Catholicism early on in his
life.
 Marx was an unruly child, known for making his
sisters eat mud pies.
Marxism
 Developed by Karl Marx in the 19th century
 Marx and Engels wrote the famous “Communist
Manifesto” in 1846
 Marx developed the political system known as
Communism
When considering Marxist theory it is useful to remember the
3 Cs;
Class, Conflict Capitalism
 These provide a “baseline” to Marxist theory
 Class -the basis of Marxist theory
 Marx was concerned by the inequalities between
social classes
 A very small proportion of wealthy people owned
huge amounts of land and factories
 Marx called these people the BOURGEOISIE and the
land or factories they owned the MEANS OF
PRODUCTION
 Most of the people worked for the Bourgeoisie as
waged labourers
The basis of Marxist theory
 These waged labourers were named the
PROLETARIAT and were exploited, claimed Marx, by
the bourgeoisie as they earned only enough money
to survive.
 All the Proletariat owned was their labour and thus
had no control over their working lives and no share
in the profits
 Factory production lines meant they became
“alienated” from their craft
 Class, conflict and capitalism
 The differences between the bourgeoisie and the
proletariat demonstrate a wide class division.
 According to Marx, the interests of the bourgeoisie
or ruling class were protected and promoted.
 The ensuing social inequalities caused conflict in
society.
 Capitalism also causes conflict of interest between
the classes.
 The need for the bourgeoisie to make profits is in
conflict with the need of the proletariat to earn
enough money to have decent living standards.
 Profits certainly came first during the Industrial
Revolution.
 The bourgeoisie became extremely wealthy while
the proletariat worked long hours for little pay and
lived in squalor.
How does Education fit in with Marxism?
Why did the proletariat put up with these harsh and unfair
conditions?
 Marx believed the proletariat existed in a state of
FALSE CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS – they accepted their
life and situation as inevitable
 Capitalist Ideology, gave legal protection to the
bougeoisie and taught the proletariat that powerful
members of society deserved respect
 This is described as Hegemony – the dominant
culture based on a set of fixed beliefs
How was this ideology transmitted? Through institutions such
as Religion, Government, Family and
Is Marxism still relevant?
 Marx was describing a society 150 years ago but
modern Marxists believe his ideas to be broadly
true.Social classes are not as sharply divided now but
harsh inequalities remain
 Modern Marxists believe that the education system
is one of the main agents of control, depriving
working class children of opportunities to improve
their situation
Symbolic Interactionism
Symbolic Interaction Theories
- believe that the society is not static entity that appears
before the individual but on the contrary, it is the individual
that carry out the leading role.
-Symbolic interaction theories focus on the interpretation
(social meaning) that is given to behavior, and on the way
such interpretation helps to construct the social world, the
identities of people, and, ultimately how they behave.
-The theory consists of three core principles: meaning,
language and thought. These core principles lead to
conclusions about the creation of a person’s self and
socialization into a larger community (Griffin, 1997).
Meaning states that humans act toward people and things
according to the meanings that give to those people or
things. Symbolic Interactionism holds the principal of
meaning to be the central aspect of human behavior.
Language gives humans a means by which to negotiate
meaning through symbols. Humans identify meaning in
speech acts with others.
Thought modifies each individual’s interpretation of symbols.
Thought is a mental conversation that requires different
points of view.
Example
A boy (Jeremy) and a girl (Kim) broke up last year. When
Jeremy received an email from Kim to go out he agreed and
they went to a bar. Jeremy had a different kind of meaning
though in comparison with Kim. Jeremy went out as friends,
where Kim went out as with the meaning of ‘potential
boyfriend’. Also in the communication the language was
misunderstood. Kim wanted to have a romantic night, while
Jeremy wanted to have a talk in a bar. This is also caused by
the nonverbal element of emails. The third
miscommunication is under thought. When Jeremy replied so
fast Kim thought that they were going out to a romantic
place. Jeremy went out just as ‘friends’. They both used an
internal dialogue to interpret the situation and to make a
perception of the evening.
RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY
Rational choice theory is the view that people behave as they
do because they believe that performing their chosen actions
has more benefits than costs.
That is, people make rational choices based on their goals,
and those choices govern their behavior.
Some sociologists use rational choice theory to explain social
change. According to them, social change occurs because
individuals have made rational choices.
For example, suppose many people begin to conserve more
energy, lowering thermostats and driving less. An explanation
for this social change is that individual people have decided
that conserving energy will help them achieve their goals (for
example, save money and live more healthfully) and cause
little inconvenience.
Critics argue people do not always act on the basis of cost-
benefit analyses.
Rational choice theory is a theory in social science that argues
human behavior, and social life in general, can be explained
in terms of rational choices of individuals. Social interaction,
including political interaction, is considered to be a type of
exchange where individuals will interact with each other if
the expected gains outweigh the expected costs arising from
the interaction. For example, you may decide to enter into a
friendship if you believe you will get more out of the
friendship than the burden the friendship will impose upon
you.
Let's take a quick look at its key principles and assumptions.
Rational choice theory argues that people make choices
based upon a set of individual preferences in a rational
manner where they seek to maximize gain while minimizing
loss.
Preferences can take different forms.
A strict preference means that you prefer one choice over its
alternative. For example, you prefer cola A over cola B.
A weak preference means that you have a preference for at
least some minimal outcome. For example, you prefer your
cola to at least be caffeinated.
Finally, you are indifferent if you have no preference for the
available choices. For example, you may not care if the
restaurant serves cola A or cola B; you'll take whatever is
available.
Assumptions
In order to apply rational choice theory, we must make a few
assumptions:
An individual acts rationally in pursuit of her own self-interest
and not in the interests of others. Individuals seek to
maximize their gains and minimize their losses.
An individual has sufficient information upon which to
establish her preferences and perform her rational analysis.
Preferences are transitive in nature. This is a logical principle
that sounds more complicated than it really is. According to
transitivity, if someone prefers strawberry ice cream over
vanilla ice cream, but vanilla ice cream over chocolate ice
cream, then it logically follows that she'll prefer strawberry
ice cream over chocolate ice cream.
INSTITUTIONALISM
Institutional theory gives us a way to understand how
organizations might navigate rules and norms of the system
in order to appear legitimate and survive. Another word for
this system is institutional environment. When organizations
try make their actions consistent with the expectations of the
institutional environment, they work toward something
called institutional isomorphism.
What is Institution?
Institution is a slippery term, which means different things to
different authors. For Olsen (1992:7), an institution is the
bearer of a set of practices, a structural arrangement and a
configuration of rules, which determines what is exemplary
behavior. Institutions are devised by individuals (microlevel)
but in turn constrain their actions. They are part of the broad
social fabric (macrolevel) but also the conduit through which
day-today decisions are actions are taken. Hence, institution
is a meso-level concept. Institutions can be formal or
informal. Formal institutions are normally established and
constituted by binding laws, regulations and legal orders
which prescribe what may or may not be. Informal
institutions on the other hand are constituted by
conventions, norms, values and accepted ways of doing
things, whether, economic, political or social. These are
embedded in traditional social practices and culture which
can be equally binding (Leftwich 2006).
Institutions-Characteristics
 Structure
The most significant element of an institution.
Structure may be either formal (legislature, bureaucracy,
political parties, mass-media) or informal (a network of
interacting organizations or a set of shared norms).
Institutionalism provides no place for individuals and their
interests.
Rather it involves groups of individuals in some sort of
patterned interactions that is predictable based upon
specified relationships among the actors.
Institutions-Characteristics
 Stability
The existence of some sort of stability over time.
Some legislator may decide to meet in a committee meeting
once in a room in the parliament house. That could be very
pleasant but it would not be an institution.
If they agree to meet routinely after a specific period of time
at the same place, that would begin to take on the shape of
an institution.
 Regulator of individual behavior
Institutions must in some way (formal/informal) constrain the
behavior of its members. If we resume with the trivial
instance of the committee meeting above, it may not be
considered as an institution if the members do not attach
importance and obligation to attend the meeting.
Shared Values
There should be some sense of shared values and meaning
among the members of the institution. This view is central to
the normative institutionalism of March and Olsen
 Legitimacy
Institutions involve legitimacy beyond the preference of
individual actors. They are valued in themselves and not
simply for their immediate purposes and outputs.
Institution’s stability of over time may contribute to gain this
legitimacy (Lowndes: 1996:182).
FEMINIST THEORY
Feminism or feminist theory is a range of political
movements, ideologies, and social movements that share a
common goal which is to define and advance political,
economic, personal, and social rights for women. This
includes seeking to establish equal opportunities for women
in education and employment.
History
Charles Fourier, a Utopian Socialist and French philosopher, is
credited with having coined the word "féminisme" in 1837.
Fourier believed that all important jobs should be open to
women on the basis of skill and aptitude rather than closed
on account of gender. He spoke of women as individuals, not
as half the human couple.
Feminist Movements
The history of the modern western feminist movements is
divided into three "waves” Each wave dealt with different
aspects of the same feminist issues.
First Wave
The first wave comprised women's suffrage movements of
the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, promoting
women's right to vote.
Second Wave
The second wave was associated with the ideas and actions
of the women's liberation movement beginning in the 1960s.
The second wave campaigned for legal and social equality for
women.
Third Wave
The third wave is a continuation of, and a reaction to, the
perceived failures of second-wave feminism, beginning in the
1990s.
4 Basic Principles in Feminism
Working to increase equality: Feminist thought links ideas to
action, insisting we should push for change toward gender
equality and not just talk about it.
Expanding human choice: Feminists believe that both men
and women should have the freedom to develop their human
interests and talents, even if those interests and talents
conflict with the status quo. For example, if a woman wants
to be a mechanic, she should have the right and opportunity
to do so.
Eliminating gender stratification: Feminists oppose laws and
cultural norms that limit income, educational and job
opportunities for women. Ending sexual violence and
promoting sexual freedom: Feminists feel that women should
have control over their sexuality and reproduction.
Types of Feminism
There are three basic forms of feminism:
• Liberal Feminism
• Social Feminism
• Radical Feminism
1. Liberal Feminism
Liberal feminism is an individualistic form of feminist theory,
which focuses on women’s ability to maintain their equality
through their own actions and choices. Liberal feminists
argue that society holds the false belief that women are, by
nature, less intellectually and physically capable than men
2. Socialist Feminism
Socialist feminism is a branch of feminism that focuses upon
both the public and private spheres of a woman's life and
argues that liberation can only be achieved by working to end
both the economic and cultural sources of women's
oppression. Socialist feminism is a two-pronged theory that
broadens Marxist feminism's argument for the role of
capitalism in the oppression of women and radical feminism's
theory of the role of gender and the patriarchy.
3. Radical Feminism
Radical feminism is a perspective within feminism that calls
for a radical reordering of society in which male supremacy is
eliminated in all social and economic contexts.
Radical feminists seek to abolish patriarchy by challenging
existing social norms and institutions, rather than through a
purely political process. This includes challenging the notion
of traditional gender roles, opposing the sexual objectification
of women, and raising public awareness about such issues as
rape and violence against women.
HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM
HUMANS
•Humans have the capacity to interact with its environment.
•Humans and the environment have that “mutual”
interaction with each other.
•Humans have the capacity to change or influence the
balance of the society.
•Humans always have the capacity to adapt to its
environment.
ENVIRONMENT
Is a complex of many variables which surrounds man as well
as the living organisms.
•Environment includes water, air and land and the
interrelation ships which exists among and between water,
air and land.
SYSTEMS
It may be described as a complex of interacting components
together with the relationships among them that permit the
identification of a boundary-maintaining entity or process.
HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM
•It is also known as the Coupled Human and Natural System,
or CHANS) •It is an integrated scientific framework for
studying the (e.g., hydrologic, atmospheric, biological) sub-
systems of the planet (National Science Foundation).
•This theory follows the idea that social and natural systems
are inseparable.
These researches tackle broader investigations into the
complex nature of reciprocating interactions and feedbacks
humans on the environment and the effect of the
environment on humans.
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES (ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION AND
EFFECTS)
Many of the environmental issues today relate to humans
over use of finite resources for economic development. As a
species, humans tend to regard the environment as a never
ending source of materials and energy.
Healthy ecosystems and environments are necessary to the
survival of humans and other organisms. Ways of reducing
negative human impact are environmental resources
management, environmental protection, and
environmentally friendly chemical engineering.
1. HUMAN OVERPOPULATION
Human overpopulation occurs when the ecological footprint
of a human population in a specific geographical location
exceeds the carrying capacity of the environment.
Water Scarcity, Land reclamation, Waste Disposal
Management, Urbanization
2. INTENSIVE FARMING
Intensive farming or intensive agriculture is a kind of
agriculture where a lot of capital and labor are used to
increase the yield that can be obtained per area. The use of
large amounts of pesticides for crops, and for medication for
animal stocks is common.
•Intensive animal Farming, Intensive crop farming
Pesticide drift. Slash and burn, Deforestation
3. EXHAUSTIVE LAND USE
It involves exhaustive management and modification of
natural environment or wilderness into built environment
such as settlements and semi-natural habitats such as arable
fields, pastures, and managed woods. It arrangements,
activities, and inputs that people undertake in a certain land
cover type.
Habitat fragmentation, Land Degradation, Desertification
4. HYDROLOGY
It is the scientific study of the movement, distribution, and
quality of water on Earth and other planets, including the
water cycle, water resources and environmental watershed
sustainability.
Strengths
It provides a bigger and wider view of looking at
environmental issues
 It highlights the importance of synergy and interconnection
or interdependence of the human society and the
environment
It looks at the human agency as not just a user of
environmental resources but also protectors of the
environment and other species.
Weakness
It rest on the idea that individually and collectively, humans
can resolve environmental issues.