Introduction to global studies Second

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JOHN McCORMICK

INTRODUCTION TO
GLOBAL
STUDIES SECOND EDITION
INTRODUCTION TO GLOBAL STUDIES
INTRODUCTION TO

GLOBAL
STUDIES
2nd edition

John McCormick
 BLOOMSBURY ACADEMIC
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BRIEF CONTENTS

Illustrations and Features x

About the Author xiv
Tour of the Book xvi
Summary of the Book xviii
Online Resources xx
Abbreviations and Acronyms xxi
Acknowledgements xxii

INTRODUCTION 1
1. THE RISE OF THE GLOBAL SYSTEM 17
2. POPULATION AND RESOURCES 39
3. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 61
4. STATES AND GOVERNMENTS 83
5. IDENTITY AND CULTURE 105
6. GLOBAL GOVERNANCE 127
7. HUMAN RIGHTS 151
8. WAR, PEACE, AND SECURITY 173
9. THE GLOBAL ECONOMY 195
10. TRADE 219
11. MIGRATION 241
12. HEALTH AND DISEASE 263
13. THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT 285

Glossary 306
Bibliography 318
Index 328

v
 LONG CONTENTS

Illustrations and Features x

About the Author xiv
Tour of the Book xvi
Summary of the Book xviii
Online Resources xx
Abbreviations and Acronyms xxi
Acknowledgements xxii

INTRODUCTION 1
What is global studies? 1
The world as a community of 100 people 8
Some notes on approach 12

1. THE RISE OF THE GLOBAL SYSTEM 17

The roots of the modern world 18
Europe goes global 20
World war and the end of empire 23
The Cold War era 27
Nine global trends 30
Globalization 35

2. POPULATION AND RESOURCES 39

The global population 40
The new urban majority 44
Understanding natural resources 48
Feeding the world 50
Meeting our energy needs 53
Managing forests and oceans 56

vi
3. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 61
Understanding science 62
Understanding technology 65
The digital revolution 67
Information and communication 71
The post-truth world 74
Technology and travel 76

4. STATES AND GOVERNMENTS 83

Understanding states 84
The reach of states 87
The evolution of states 90
Understanding nations 92
Democracies and dictatorships 95
The future of states 101

5. IDENTITY AND CULTURE 105

Understanding identity 106
Patriotism, cosmopolitanism, and nationalism 108
Understanding culture 112
Explaining race and ethnicity 116
The changing place of gender 119
Religion and identity 120

6. GLOBAL GOVERNANCE 127

Understanding global governance 128
International law 131
International organizations 135
The United Nations 138
Non-state actors 141
Regional integration 146

7. HUMAN RIGHTS 151

Understanding human rights 152
The evolution of rights 155
The expansion of rights 158
The global human rights regime 162
Women’s rights 168

vii
 8. WAR, PEACE, AND SECURITY 173
Understanding war 174
The causes of war 178
Understanding peace 181
The conditions needed for peace 184
The global security regime 185
Terrorism 189

9. THE GLOBAL ECONOMY 195

Understanding the global economy 196
The changing global economic landscape 201
The global financial regime 205
Wealth and its effects 209
Poverty and its effects 212

10. TRADE 219

Understanding trade 220
The evolution of trade 224
The changing global trading landscape 225
The global trade regime 230
Free trade 233
Trade and inequality 236

11. MIGRATION 241

Understanding migration 242
The causes of migration 247
The global refugee problem 251
The global migration regime 254
The migration debate 258

12. HEALTH AND DISEASE 263

Understanding global health 264
The changing state of global health care 267
The global health regime 270
The problem of infectious disease 276
The case of Covid-19 279

viii
13. THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT 285
Understanding the environment 286
Changing views about the global environment 288
The global environmental regime 290
Protecting biodiversity 295
Addressing climate change 299

Glossary 306
Bibliography 318
Index 328

ix
 ILLUSTRATIONS
AND FEATURES

COMPARING NORTH AND SOUTH

1 Understanding North and South 29
2 The challenges of population change 43
3 The digital divide 70
4 The performance of states: Norway and the Democratic Republic of Congo 99
5 Us versus them: Race, ethnicity, and prejudice 117
6 The changing balance of international influence 130
7 Contrasting approaches to LGBTQ+ rights 160
8 Contrasting views about war and peace 186
9 The different meanings of poverty 213
10 The changing balance of trade power 229
11 Contrasting views on migration 249
12 Access to health care 268
13 Contrasting views on the environment 289

GLOBAL AND LOCAL

1 Globalization and glocalization 34
2 The rise of the global city 47
3 Trends in the provision of news 73
4 Thinking globally, acting locally 86
5 Can you be a citizen of the world? 110
6 Civil society 142
7 Human rights campaigners 167
8 Wars between and within states 177
9 Small businesses in the global market 206
10 Free trade versus fair trade 237
11 Giving migration a human face 257
12 Non-communicable disease 275
13 Climate change and environmental migrants 301

x
 CONTEMPORARY DEBATES
1 The pros and cons of globalization 36
3 The pros and cons of international tourism 77
6 The pros and cons of the United Nations 140
7 The pros and cons of expanding human rights 161
10 The pros and cons of free trade 235
11 The pros and cons of migration 259

TIMELINES
1 Key events in the evolution of the global system 26
3 Key events in the development of the internet and the Web 69
12 Key events in the origins of the Covid-19 pandemic, 2020 280

FIGURES
0.1 Key concepts in global studies 3
0.2 The world as a community of 100 people 10
1.1 Stages in the growth of the global system 21
1.2 Nine global trends 32
2.1 Global population growth 41
2.2 Comparing fertility and population growth rates 43
2.3 The changing urban–rural divide 44
2.4 The world’s ten biggest cities, 2030 45
2.5 Comparing food losses around the world 52
2.6 Global sources of primary energy 53
3.1 Comparing climate change denial 64
3.2 Comparing levels of internet use 71
3.3 International tourism 78
4.1 Key features of a state 84
4.2 Responsibilities of states 88
4.3 The formation of states 91
5.1 Drivers of identity 106
5.2 The ten most commonly spoken languages in the world 108
5.3 Comparing levels of patriotism 109
5.4 Comparing the importance of religion 121
5.5 Religious affiliations 122
6.1 Stages in the development of an international treaty 134
6.2 The growth of international organizations 136
6.3 Regional integration: Some examples 147

xi
 7.1 Comparing public opinion on homosexuality 161
7.2 International human rights agreements 163
7.3 Europe’s ten biggest human rights offenders 166
8.1 The ten biggest military spenders 186
8.2 Worldwide terrorist incidents 192
9.1 Key measures of economic activity 197
9.2 Comparing economic structures 199
9.3 The Index of Economic Freedom 200
9.4 Share of global GDP 201
9.5 The growing global economy 205
9.6 Comparing levels of economic productivity 210
9.7 Comparing household wealth 211
9.8 Comparing income gaps 211
10.1 The growth of global trade 221
10.2 Trade disputes in the World Trade Organization 232
11.1 The ten biggest sources of international migrants 246
11.2 The ten biggest destinations for international migrants 246
11.3 Distribution of migrants by region of residence 247
11.4 The ten biggest destinations for international students 250
12.1 Comparing life expectancy rates 266
12.2 Confirmed cases of Covid-19 in 2020 281
12.3 Confirmed deaths from Covid-19 by region in 2020 281
13.1 Climate change trends 300
13.2 Greenhouse gas emission trends 303

TABLES
0.1 The UN’s Sustainable Development Goals 7
0.2 Changes to the second edition 13
2.1 Maritime zones under international law 57
3.1 Applications of digital technology 68
3.2 Changes in mass communication 72
4.1 Comparing democratic and authoritarian systems 98
4.2 Ranking Norway and the Democratic Republic of Congo 100
5.1 Levels of culture 113
6.1 International treaties: Some examples 132
6.2 International organizations: Some examples 135
6.3 Selected agencies and programs of the United Nations 139
6.4 The world’s ten biggest multinationals 144
7.1 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights 153
8.1 Major conflicts under way 178

xii
8.2 States without standing armies 183
8.3 Selected winners of the Nobel Peace Prize 184
9.1 The world’s biggest and smallest economies 197
9.2 The world’s most and least productive economies 198
10.1 The world’s biggest traders 222
10.2 Trade controls 223
10.3 Degrees of trade cooperation 234
11.1 Great migrations from history 243
11.2 Types of migration 244
11.3 Causes of migration 247
11.4 Displaced people in the world 251
11.5 Comparing migrant numbers 260
12.1 Comparing health care systems 269
12.2 Key steps in the development of global health care 271
12.3 The ten major causes of death in rich and poor countries 276
12.4 Major pandemics from history 277
12.5 Examples of infectious diseases 278
13.1 Key environmental concerns 286
13.2 International environmental treaties: Some examples 291
13.3 The five major threats to biodiversity 296

MAPS
0.1 The world 5
1.1 European empires 1800–1950 22
1.2 The North and the South 30
2.1 The population dominance of Asia 44
3.1 Comparing media freedom 76
4.1 Kurdistan 94
4.2 The Democracy Index 96
5.1 Major religions of the world 123
6.1 The Groups of 7 and 77 131
6.2 The European Union 147
7.1 The Global Gender Gap Index 170
8.1 The Nagorno-Karabakh region 174
8.2 The Fragile States Index 179
9.1 The Human Development Index 203
10.1 China’s Belt and Road Initiative 227
10.2 Major free trade agreements 234
11.1 The ten biggest sources of refugees 252
13.1 The Environmental Performance Index 290

xiii
 ABOUT
THE AUTHOR

John McCormick is Professor of Political Science at the Indianapolis campus of

Indiana University in the United States. His academic interests focus on global
studies, comparative politics, the state of the environment, and the work of the
European Union. He is the author of more than a dozen books, including Comparative
Government and Politics, Environmental Politics and Policy, and Understanding the European
Union (all from Red Globe). He has taught courses at several universities in North
America and Europe, has visited more than 40 countries in Africa, Asia, the Americas,
and Europe, and has lived for extended periods in five of them: the United States,
Britain, Kenya, South Africa, and Zimbabwe.

xiv
 TOUR OF THE BOOK

CHAPTER PREVIEWS
AND HIGHLIGHTS
Each chapter begins with a brief preview of what
the chapter is about, a set of six key highlight
arguments, and a list of the contents.

COMPARING NORTH AND SOUTH

Each chapter contains a box that takes a focused topic
and compares experiences and attitudes in countries of
the North and the South.

GLOBAL AND LOCAL

Each chapter also contains a box that compares global
and local approaches to a focused problem or topic,
showing the links and contrasts between the two
levels.

CONTEMPORARY DEBATES
Six of the chapters include a feature in which the pros
and cons of a particular issue are listed, illustrating the
mixed opinions that often surround matters of global
studies.

TABLES AND FIGURES

The text is dotted with tables and figures that
present key numbers or express some of the more
complex ideas in visual form. Most are based on
the latest data available from the websites of key
national and international organizations.

xvi
 MAPS
Maps of the world, or of particular states
and regions, have been placed strategically
throughout the book to offer a global view
of topics within each chapter, comparing
countries on a variety of topics. The Robinson
projection has been chosen because of its
relatively clear and balanced representation.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
Each chapter ends with a set of six open-
ended and occasionally provocative questions
designed to help students think critically about
some of the issues raised in the chapter, and to
suggest topics for further research.

KEY CONCEPTS
Each chapter ends with a list of the key terms
introduced in the chapter, all of which are
highlighted in boldface and accompanied by
marginal definitions. They are all reproduced in
the Glossary to the book.

USEFUL WEBSITES
Most chapters end with a short selection
of websites, most of them for institutions
that are discussed within the chapter.

FURTHER READING
Each chapter ends with a short and annotated list
of books chosen to provide detailed and current
information and to act as resources for research
assignments. The emphasis is on survey texts
that provide a good and recent introduction to
the topic.

xvii
 SUMMARY OF THE BOOK
1T
 HE RISE OF THE GLOBAL
SYSTEM
This chapter provides the historical context within which
to understand the rise of the global system. It begins
with a review of the mainly Western roots of the modern
world, then looks at the spread of European influences
via exploration, colonization, industrialization, and
imperialism. The chapter then looks at the impact on
globalism and global ideas of two world wars, the end of
Europe’s empires, and the Cold War. It goes on to review
nine key trends that lie at the heart of the shaping of
today’s global system, ending with a discussion about
the meaning and effects of globalization.
2 POPULATION
AND RESOURCES
This chapter looks at human population trends and
their links with natural resources, as well as some of the
key demographic trends shaping (and being shaped by)
the global system. It begins with an assessment of key
population changes before focusing on the causes and
effects of urbanization. It then looks at the challenges
of feeding a growing human population, noting that
the problem is more one of quality than of quantity.
The chapter finishes up with a review of how natural
resources are used (and misused), focusing on the cases
of energy, forests, and oceans.
3 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
The focus of this chapter is on the intersection
between science and technology. It begins with a
discussion of meaning of science and the implications
of our advances in scientific understanding, and of
science denial. The chapter then turns to technology,
with a review of the ways in which it has changed and
has impacted the dynamics of the global system. It
then looks at the dynamics and effects of the digital
revolution, before discussing two cases of the effects
of technological development: changes in information
and communication systems, and the role of technology
in fostering international travel and tourism.
xviii
4 STATES AND GOVERNMENT
We cannot fully understand the global system without
appreciating the qualities and the changing nature of
states. The chapter begins with a survey of their key
features, reviews the responsibilities of states and the
meaning of citizenship, and then looks at the evolution
of states, emphasizing their proliferation since 1945. It
then looks at nations and at the ways in which they differ
from states, discusses the nature and role of government,
and compares democratic and authoritarian states. The
chapter ends with a review of the future of the state
system, contrasting arguments that it is declining,
strengthening, or simply changing form.
5 IDENTITY AND CULTURE
The keyword for this chapter is identity, meaning the
qualities that determine who we are and that make
us distinctive, and how it impacts our worldview.
The chapter begins with a discussion of the meaning
of identity generally, and of the particular place of
national identity in global studies. It then looks at the
contrasting views of patriotism, cosmopolitanism and
nationalism, before turning its focus to culture, and the
notions of global culture and civilization. It then reviews
the difficult questions surrounding race and ethnicity,
finishing up with an assessment of the links between
identity, gender, and religion.
6 GLOBAL GOVERNANCE
The focus of this chapter is on the structure and
dynamics of the system of global governance. It looks
first at the nature of international law, and at how
international treaties are developed and implemented.
It then looks at the work of international organizations,
reviewing the structure and goals of intergovernmental
organizations such as the United Nations, and then at
the work of non-state actors such as international non-
governmental organizations, multinational enterprises,
religious organizations, and those working outside
the law. The chapter ends with a study of regional
integration and its particular role in the global system.

7 HUMAN RIGHTS
The focus of this chapter is human rights. It begins
with an outline of the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights, and with a discussion of how rights are defined
and understood. It then discusses the evolution and
expansion of human rights, tracing the story from the
issue of slavery to emerging views about LGBTQ+ and
intergenerational rights. The chapter goes on to outline the
elements of the global human rights regime, based mainly
on a series of treaties, UN bodies, international courts,
and international non-governmental organizations. The
chapter ends by discussing the particular case of women’s
rights and the insights it provides.
8 WAR, PEACE, AND SECURITY
The keyword for this chapter is security. It begins with
a discussion of the meaning, types, and causes of war,
noting some of the key theoretical explanations of
international conflict. It then discusses the qualities
of peace, noting the differences between the absence
of war (negative peace) and efforts made to sustain a
positive peace, and discussing the conditions needed
for peace. It then looks at the structure of the global
security regime, focusing on peacekeeping and
collective security. The chapter ends with a review of
the meaning and causes of terrorism, and recent trends
in the threats it poses.
9 THE GLOBAL ECONOMY
This chapter offers a survey of the global economy. It
begins with a review of the ways in which economies
are measured, compared, and understood. It then
looks at the changing global economic landscape,
assessing the evolving balance of the North and the
South, the debate over development, the emergence
of BRICs, and the fallout from the global financial crisis
and the Covid-19 pandemic. The chapter goes on to
discuss the features of the global financial regime
before contrasting the effects of wealth and poverty,
and reviewing some of the ways in which poverty and
inequality are being addressed or overlooked.
10 TRADE
This chapter builds on Chapter 9 by looking at trade.
It begins with a review of the global trading picture,
and of the recent and rapid rise in trade volume. It
then looks at the changes that have come to the
global trading system since 1945, before reviewing the
qualities of the global trade regime, with an emphasis
on the role of the World Trade Organization. The
chapter then discusses the case of free trade, and the
different levels of trade cooperation that exist among
states. It ends with a review of the causes and effects
of the inequalities arising from trade.
11 MIGRATION
This chapter looks at one of the oldest issues in
global matters. It begins with a review of the hanging
dimensions of migration, then looks at the types
and patterns of migration, and at the major sources
and destinations of migrants. It then reviews the
causes of migration, before looking at the specific
problem of refugees. The chapter then assesses the
global migration regime, in which international non-
governmental organizations play a key role. The chapter
ends with a review of the debate over migration, and
with a comparison of approaches and attitudes in
Europe, the United States, and the Middle East.
12 HEALTH AND DISEASE
The focus of this chapter is health at the global level. It
begins with a review of the state of global health before
looking at the changing state of health care, contrasting
public and universal health care systems. It then looks
at the global health regime, focusing on the work of
the World Health Organization, other UN bodies, and
key international non-governmental organizations,
and at the small number of international treaties with
health as their focus. The rest of the chapter looks at
the problem of infectious disease, with a case study of
the causes and potential effects of Covid-19.
13 THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT
This chapter looks at the environment as a global
issue, beginning with an overview of the nature of
environmentalism, of the effects of human action
on the environment, and of our changing views
about environmental problems. It then looks at the
global environmental regime, at the key institutions
involved, and at the focus and effects of international
environmental law. The chapter finishes with two
cases: the threats faced by biodiversity, followed by
the ultimate global threat of climate change. It reviews
the causes and effects of both problems, and discusses
the political, economic, and social arguments that have
shaped the response.
xix
 ONLINE RESOURCES

For a freely accessible website containing comprehensive resources for both

instructors and students, visit bloomsbury.pub/global-studies.
For students
 media library of videos, primary sources and relevant news articles, which
A
have been carefully selected to illustrate the themes in each chapter.

Interactive flashcards of key terms in global studies.

Discussion questions designed to promote critical thinking on the key issues
raised in each chapter.
 video of author John McCormick discussing the field of Global Studies and
A
its special relevance in a time of global pandemic.
For lecturers
Lecturers who adopt the book gain access to a password-protected selection of
resources to help plan and deliver their courses.

Lecturer slides: MS® PowerPoint presentations to accompany every chapter,
richly illustrated with photographs, figures, and tables from the textbook.

Testbank of multiple choice and true/false questions for every chapter.

xx
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

BCE Before the Common Era

BRIC Brazil, Russia, India, and China (or BRICS if South Africa is added)
EU European Union
FAO Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations
FTA free trade agreement
G7 Group of 7
G20 Group of 20
G77 Group of 77
GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
GDP gross domestic product
GHG greenhouse gases
HIPPO habitat destruction, invasive species, pollution, population, overharvesting
HIV/AIDS human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
ICC International Criminal Court
IGO intergovernmental organization
ILO International Labour Organization
IMF International Monetary Fund
INGO international non-governmental organization
IO international organization
IPPC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IR international relations
LGBTQ+ lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer (or questioning) and others
MDG Millennium Development Goal
MNE multinational enterprise
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NGO non-governmental organization
OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
SARS Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome
SDG Sustainable Development Goal
UDHR Universal Declaration of Human Rights
UN United Nations
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
WFP World Food Programme
WHO World Health Organization
WTO World Trade Organization

xxi
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Every book of this kind is a team effort, combining the creativity and hard work of
many people, some of whom I have met in person, others of whom I know only
through email exchanges and Zoom meetings, and yet others of whom (some of the
reviewers) were anonymous. I thank them all for their contributions and for making
the writing and production of this book such a pleasure.
The story begins with Stephen Wenham, who is no longer at Red Globe but with
whom I had the first conversations about writing this book. When it came to shaping
the initial proposal and working through the finished manuscript of the first edition,
Lloyd Langman and Lauren Zimmerman took charge, and both helped me develop
the ideas in the book, read every chapter carefully and thoroughly, and provided a
wealth of detailed and helpful feedback. For the second edition, Peter Atkinson and
Milly Weaver took the lead, helping me shape the changes, offering comments on
the entire manuscript, and overseeing the review process. The finished result is much
better for their help and input.
For reading through the manuscript and providing me with valuable feedback, I
would like to thank Aart Holstag of Shepherd University, Andrea Duffy of Colorado
State University, and Tim Wedig of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
(all in the USA), and Elsje Fourie of Maastricht University in the Netherlands. I would
also like to thank the anonymous reviewers of the original book proposal and draft of
the first edition, and the anonymous reviewers of the proposal and the draft for the
second edition. Among them, they came from Australia, Canada, Egypt, Singapore,
South Africa, the United States, and several European countries, and offered helpful
reflections and ideas from a variety of institutions and environments. My thanks also
to Sophie Dunbar for her copyediting, and to Liz Holmes for her work in overseeing
the production process. Last but not least, my love and appreciation to Leanne, and
to Ian and Stuart – both of whom are now at university, and taking classes in global
and international studies – for their support and for providing happy distractions.

xxii
INTRODUCTION

In early 2020, evidence of a new coronavirus emerged in China. Soon named

Covid-19, it spread with alarming speed, infecting millions of people all over the
world, hastening the deaths of hundreds of thousands, and leaving thousands more
with long-term health problems. It was not the first time we humans had experienced
a pandemic of this kind, because – about a century earlier – the world had been
blighted with a virulent form of flu (the so-called Spanish flu) that left an estimated
50–100 million people dead in its wake.
One of the main differences between the two pandemics was that news of the
outbreak of the Spanish flu in early 1918 was restricted because of wartime press
censorship, and because of concerns among warring countries that admitting to
the pandemic would undermine morale, make them look weak, and encourage
military attacks. There was little sense of a global problem, or even a shared
problem demanding a shared response. With Covid-19, the global connections and
implications were immediately clear, news of the disease spread like wildfire, most
governments immediately took action, scientists mobilized to develop vaccines,
borders were controlled and even sometimes closed, and for several months we were
all part of a global community tied together by a common challenge.
Covid-19 reminded us that we live in a global community. We may not always
remember this, we are often unaware of events in the wider world, and there are
many people who go about their daily business with little conception of the world
outside the immediate and the visible. The reality, though, is that our lives are routinely
impacted and shaped by pressures and influences with global dimensions. The story of
Covid-19 was a forceful reminder of the connections. In this case it was via a disease,
but we are also connected, directly or indirectly, through the political, economic, social,
technological, and environmental links that have made the world a smaller place.
It is these connections that are at the heart of global studies. As we look into its
different facets in the chapters that follow, we will be asking many questions. How
did these connections evolve? How are they shaped and influenced? Are they good,
or bad, or a mix of both? Do they unite us or divide us? How have they changed our
lives? What exactly is globalization and the global system? What do they mean for our
identities, our jobs, our societies, our governments, and our markets? Before we do this,
though, we need to be clear on the meaning of a few key concepts.

WHAT IS GLOBAL STUDIES?

The Chinese philosopher Confucius is reputed to have once said that the beginning
of wisdom is to call things by their right name. Whether or not he did, it is certainly
hard to understand the world around us unless we agree on the meanings of the
terms we use to describe it. Natural scientists have made more progress on this

1
2 INTRODUCTION TO GLOBAL STUDIES

than most, because the terms they use are typically consistently defined and applied.
In the social sciences and the humanities, by contrast, there is a lot more fluidity,
with terms and ideas often open to interpretation, and definitions often contested
according to the different perspectives of those doing the defining – we will see
plenty of examples of this in the chapters that follow. The problem brings to mind the
claim made by Humpty Dumpty in Through the Looking Glass: ‘When I use a word … it
means just what I choose it to mean – neither more nor less’.
As a subject, global studies suffers its share of uncertainty, fluidity, and
imprecision. Its intellectual roots may be long and deep, but as a distinct field of
study it dates back only to the turn of the new millennium, which means that our
understanding of its content and outlines is still evolving. To complicate matters, it is
made up of many different subjects and ideas, our understanding of which changes
with time and with the viewpoints of those who assess them. To complicate matters
even further, global studies is easily confused with four other concepts, each of
which we need to tie down.
First, there is international studies, which – if taken literally – is mainly
concerned with the interactions between two or more countries (or states), and with
what these countries share or have in common. In reality, it goes beyond countries,
and is interested in the cross-border interactions of people, institutions, processes,
communities, and groups. It looks at how they are connected in relation to specific
issues or challenges such as economics, human rights, health care, security, and the
environment. In contrast to global studies, which looks at the whole, international
studies is more focused on the parts.
Meanwhile, the term studies implies that our interests are broad, and might range
from the historical to the political, economic, legal, social, cultural, religious, scientific,
technological, linguistic, and environmental. Jan Nederveen Pieterse (2013) jokingly
notes the suggestion that we should avoid investigating subjects whose title includes
the word studies, because it suggests a lack of the kind of structure and depth we find
in a formal discipline, such as history, political science, or economics. He also points
out that the use of the term – as in its application to global studies, international studies,
gender studies, media studies, and so on – has been a relatively recent development, but
this should not imply that any of these fields of research is any less interesting or
important than the disciplines that preceded them. He rightly warns that newness can
mean greater unevenness and a looser understanding of the focus of a field, but he
fails to point out that newness also implies possibilities: global studies has made great
strides in its short life, and is more important and relevant today than ever before.
The second concept to tie down is international relations. As usually applied
and understood, it is more limited than international studies because it focuses on the
political and economic interactions between states. In some countries, international
relations (or IR, as it is known) is considered a sub-field of political science, where
it is both related to (but contrasted with) the sub-field of comparative politics. In
other countries, it is a free-standing discipline. Either way, it is interested in topics
such as diplomacy, war, peace, security, international organization, and foreign policy.
In contrast to the broader idea of studies, the narrower idea of relations implies a focus
on how states relate to one another. Some though (such as Barnett and Sikkink,
2011) see evidence that IR has moved in recent decades towards a new interest in the
global as opposed to merely the international.
 INTRODUCTION 3

Figure 0.1: Key concepts in global studies

TERM MEANING
INTERNATIONAL STUDIES The study of interactions, comparisons, and
commonalities involving two or more states.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS The study of (mainly) political interactions

between or among states, with a
focus on diplomacy and policy.

GLOBALIZATION The process by which the political, economic,

social, and cultural links among people,
institutions, states, and governments
become integrated at a global level.

GLOBALISM A philosophy, ideology, or policy based on taking

a global view of politics, economics, society,
culture, security, and the environment.

GLOBAL STUDIES The systematic study of the global system

and of its related features, qualities, trends,
institutions, processes, and problems.

GLOBAL SYSTEM The collected elements and components

– including people, institutions, principles,
procedures, norms, and habits – whose
interactions make up the global whole.

The third concept is globalization, which is distinct from international studies or

relations in the sense that it describes both a process and a phenomenon, involving the
evolution and effects of the development of the links between people, institutions,
and governments in different parts of the world. It has resulted – as Robertson (1992)
once put it – in ‘both the compression of the world and the intensification of the
consciousness of the world as a whole’. As with all terms that have the suffix –ization
(such as democratization, Europeanization, and polarization), it describes a phenomenon that
is always moving and evolving, and is neither static nor final. While usually associated
with political and economic change, it is important to appreciate that globalization
applies to almost every facet of human endeavour, including science, communication,
culture, religion, migration, and health. It is even more important to note that while the
term crops up frequently in the chapters that follow, it is not the same thing as global
studies, and this is not a book about globalization.
The fourth concept is globalism, which is an ideology, a set of beliefs, or an
attitude that favors a global view of politics, economics, and society, and supports
the kinds of trends we find in globalization. In contrast to nationalists, who see
the world from the perspective of their home countries, and place the interests
of those countries first, globalists see the world as a whole, arguing that national
interests add up to global interests, and that global interests help shape national
interests. In spite of the criticism directed by many nationalist movements against
4 INTRODUCTION TO GLOBAL STUDIES

globalism in recent years (spearheaded by leaders such as Donald Trump in the

United States, Vladimir Putin in Russia, and Narendra Modi in India), the two ideas
are not mutually exclusive, and nationalist criticisms of globalism as elitist and anti-
democratic threats to national sovereignty miss much of the story. It is possible to
simultaneously pursue local, national, and global views (see Rosenboim, 2017).
All of this brings us finally to the meaning of global studies. Whereas international
literally means between or among, the word global implies a more holistic view of the
world. If all other perspectives are partial, separated, or contained, global perspectives
are aggregated, combined, and connected. State borders cannot be ignored, to be
sure, but global studies goes beyond states and is concerned with matters that are of
common interest to us all, regardless of legal borders. Human rights, for example,
are the rights that all of us have by virtue of being human, and they rise above
citizenship of a particular country or community. Migration is not something that is
limited to a particular time or place; it has happened throughout human history, and
continues to happen today, for different reasons and with different results. And when
air pollution causes changes in the earth’s climate, we are all affected, regardless of
any identity we might have other than simply being human.
If you are using this book, you are probably enrolled in a course or a module
whose title includes some combination of the words international, global, and/or
globalization, and that may be offered by a department, a program or a school of either
international studies, global studies, or both. These possibilities tell you something
about the unsettled nature of the field. You would see even more possibilities with
just a quick scan of the titles of other textbooks in this field, which include not just
global studies and/or international studies, but sometimes spill over into global issues. The
list expands still further if you look at the contents of these books, which reveal
an overlap between international, regional, and global studies, and a wide range of
possible topics. In preparing to write this book, I looked carefully at all the others
on the subject, and found that no two covered the same ground. The most common
topics were economics, population, culture, war, and health, followed by history,
government, human rights, and the environment. Meanwhile, several books were
each unique in addressing geography, foreign policy, technology, crime, and terrorism.
Unconcerned and undeterred by such mixed signals, this book defines global
studies as the systematic study of the global system and of its related features, qualities,
trends, institutions, processes, and problems. The global system, meanwhile, which
is a term that appears often in the chapters that follow, is defined as the collected
elements and components – including people, institutions, principles, procedures,
norms, and habits – whose interactions make up the global whole.
In the world of global studies, we are interested in understanding how the global
system is constructed and how it works. We are focusing on the logical final point in
a progression that begins with the individual and moves through the familial to the
communal, the local, the national, the regional, and the international. In its efforts
to understand global connections and phenomena, global studies has four important
qualities:
 is transnational, meaning that it is concerned with events, ideas, activities, and
It
phenomena that are not limited by state boundaries. To be sure, global studies is
grounded in the local, the national, and the international, which is why Map 0.1
shows the world, but also indicates the borders of the states with which most
 INTRODUCTION 5

Map 0.1: The world

of us most readily identify, and at which level most of the decisions that most
immediately impact us are made. Global studies takes the discussion about these
decisions to the transnational level.
 is integral, meaning that it is concerned more with what unites us than with what
It
divides us, and with the manner in which decisions are shaped and implemented
at the global level. We will see that all states are influenced by the actions of
other states, that economies are impacted by cross-border investment and
trade, and that cultures borrow from one another, promoting a sense of global
consciousness. However, it is our interconnectedness and interdependence that
interests us when we take the global view.
 is inclusive, meaning that it does not see the world from the perspective of any
It
one group of people, but works to engage with the multiple perspectives of the
entire human race. As we will see in Chapter 5, the term ethnocentrism describes the
phenomenon of looking at other cultures according to the values and standards
of one’s own, and even perhaps believing in the relative inferiority of the others.
It also describes the more general idea of taking a narrow and exclusive view
of everything we see. In contrast to the ethnocentric (or the nationalistic) view,
global studies is interested in taking an inclusive view, in fostering a sense of
global literacy, awareness and belonging, and in helping us all better understand
our place within a diverse global community.
 is interdisciplinary, meaning that it looks at the world from multiple perspectives,
It
including those of history, geography, sociology, anthropology, demography,
science, technology, politics, law, and economics. Although this book has 13
apparently separate chapters, none of the topics with which they deal are isolated,
and they constantly overlap. There is a chapter on human rights, for example, but
those rights – and the persistent problems of inequality – are threads that can be
found woven throughout the book, and within each of its individual chapters.
6 INTRODUCTION TO GLOBAL STUDIES

Similarly, there is a chapter on the environment, but environmental problems are

intimately related to science, politics, law, and economics.
The world is so big and diverse that we can never fully grasp how people of different
nationalities, religions, cultures, educational backgrounds, and economic situations
see it, but global studies can help us find our way through the maze. Consider the
Indian parable of the blind people and the elephant: in order to learn what the
elephant looks like, they assign themselves to different parts of the animal, which
they touch with their hands before comparing notes. They disagree about what the
part they have touched tells them about the whole, but if they ask the help of others,
they gather more information, their perspectives widen, and they build a more
accurate picture of what the elephant looks like. Global studies works in a similar
way by combining multiple perspectives on the world, helping us more accurately
describe the qualities and dimensions of the global whole.

SETTING GLOBAL GOALS

The last few decades have seen governments – encouraged by the United Nations
– developing and adopting goals aimed at taking a global approach to addressing
problems and to improving the quality of life on Earth. One of the earliest of these
was Agenda 21, a plan of action drawn up at the UN Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro
in June 1992. Under this plan, which was focused on approaches to environmental
management, nearly 180 countries agreed to global cooperation on the principle of
sustainable development. As we will see in this book, progress in implementing
that principle has been mixed.
In 2000, the member states of the UN took a wider approach by adopting eight
Sustainable Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which ranged from cutting extreme
development:
Development that
poverty rates in half to achieving universal primary education, promoting gender
is planned and equality, and combatting HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases, all by 2015. These
implemented in had the effect of encouraging and coordinating the work of governments and non-
such a way as to
meet short-term governmental organizations, and were acclaimed by UN Secretary General Ban Ki-
needs without Moon as ‘the most successful anti-poverty movement in history’ (United Nations,
compromising
future needs.
2015).
Unfortunately, there was a lack of the necessary political will to take action, with
the result that poverty persisted, it was concentrated in the same parts of the world,
women were still often denied the benefits of progress in economic development
and health care, the differences between rural and urban areas continued, and the
environment continued to face serious threats. With these concerns in mind, the
United Nations in 2015 launched an Agenda for Sustainable Development, with
17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to be met by 2030. The problems of
poverty and hunger again featured prominently in the list – see Table 0.1 – which was
heavily weighted towards economic goals such as full employment and sustainable
growth, and towards environmental goals such as clean water, clean energy, resource
conservation, and climate change.
The MDGs and the SDGs have been useful in providing the world with a list
of goals and targets, and in encouraging governments to sit down and work out a
plan with which most of them can agree. However, while we have made progress
on many fronts since the early 1990s, the goals are often rather broad and vague,
 INTRODUCTION 7

Table 0.1: The UN’s Sustainable Development Goals

Goal Chapter Details

in book
1 No poverty 9 End poverty in all its forms everywhere.

2 Zero hunger 2 End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and
promote sustainable agriculture.

3 Good health and 12 Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages.
well-being

4 Quality education Ensure inclusive education and equitable quality education and
promote lifelong learning opportunities for all.

5 Gender equality 7 Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.

6 Clean water and 2, 13 Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and
sanitation sanitation for all.

7 Affordable and 2 Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern

clean energy energy for all.

8 Decent work and 9 Promote sustained, inclusive, and sustainable economic growth,
economic growth full and productive employment, and decent work for all.

9 Industry, 9 Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable

innovation, and industrialization, and foster innovation.
infrastructure

10 Reduced Multiple Reduce inequality within and among countries.

inequalities

11 Sustainable cities 2 Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and
and communities sustainable.

12 Responsible 2, 9 Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns.

consumption and
production

13 Climate action 13 Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.

14 Life below water 2, 13 Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas, and marine
resources for sustainable development.

15 Life on land 2, 13 Protect, restore, and promote sustainable use of terrestrial

ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification,
halt and reverse land degradation, and halt biodiversity loss.

16 Peace, justice, 4, 6, 8 Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable

and strong development, provide access to justice for all, and build effective,
institutions accountable, and inclusive institutions at all levels.

17 Partnerships for 6 Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global
the goals partnership for sustainable development.
Source: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2021).
8 INTRODUCTION TO GLOBAL STUDIES

and the means for achieving them are undermined by multiple obstacles. Different
levels of political will continue to be a problem, as do different levels of economic
and financial ability to make changes, as well as the challenges of encouraging
people to see the world around them differently, and to adopt new attitudes. As 2030
approaches, it is more than likely that another set of goals will have to be drawn
up, but – for now, at least – the SDGs give us a framework within which to think
about global needs. As you read through the chapters that follow, you will see regular
reference to the SDGs and to the challenges involved in achieving them.

THE WORLD AS A COMMUNITY OF 100 PEOPLE

The focus of our interest is nothing less than the entire world. However, it is a big
and complex place, and grasping its dimensions and diversity is not easy. It contains
about 7.8 billion people living in almost 200 independent states, identifying with
numerous nationalities and ethnicities, speaking thousands of languages and dialects,
following dozens of different religions, and interacting both directly and indirectly
through constantly changing webs of interests, needs, and opportunities. It would be
impossible for any of us – even if we travelled widely and spoke multiple languages
– to come fully to grips with all this diversity. One way of working around this
problem is to reduce the world to more digestible proportions by thinking of the
world as a community of 100 people. This is what it reveals:
There is an even split between men and women. This should come as no surprise, because
nature will make sure that there is a balance between the two. Within these numbers,
though, there are important trends: lower male life expectancy, for example, means
that as populations age, the number of women increases relative to men. Persistent
gender inequality also means that men and women continue to differ in terms of
their social roles, their economic status, and their political power.
Asians dominate. There are about 61 Asians in the community, living alongside
15 Africans, 13 people from the Americas, and 11 from Europe. Despite the
preponderance of Chinese, Indians, Indonesians, Japanese, and Koreans (among
others), however, the community is still very much defined and influenced by its
Western minority, and the focus of political and economic power has long rested
with its European and North American members. This is changing, though, as the
number, wealth, and global influence of Asians grow.
The community is aging. Thanks to better health care and nutrition, members of the
community are living longer, although internal differences persist. Of the 100, 26 are
aged 14 or younger, and 9 are 65 or older, leaving nearly two-thirds of the community
within the optimum age range to work and to have and raise children. The median
age of the community is just under 30, although the North Americans, the Chinese,
and the Europeans are older on average (about 37–39), while the Africans and
Middle Easterners are the youngest on average (20 and below).
Unequal access to education. Only 7 people in the community have a university degree,
while – at the other end of the scale – 16 are unable to read or write. The community
is better educated than at any time in its history, and education is helping level the
 INTRODUCTION 9

economic and social differences within the community, but higher education is still
the privilege of a small minority, and remains tied to higher levels of wealth and
better opportunities.
A large minority lacks shelter. While 79 of the members of the community have shelter
(some of it sophisticated and well supported by utilities and services), the remaining
21 have none. Even for many of those with shelter, it is less than ideal, often consisting
of slum dwellings and shanties with high crime rates and poor connections to basic
services. Most people in the community have access to clean water and sanitation,
but about 10 people do not, leaving them more susceptible to the resulting health
problems.
Democracy for the minority. Only about 48 people in the community live under mainly
democratic systems of decision-making, while the remaining 52 still languish
under authoritarian rule. Most of those living under democracy are its European,
North and South American, and Indian members, while the Chinese and Russian
members of the community – along with most of its Middle Eastern and African
members – struggle to make themselves freely heard, and find their rights routinely
limited. Those who live under democracy worry increasingly about the quality of
their influence, and throughout the community there is speculation about inequality,
elitism, and a lack of accountability and transparency.
A small minority controls most of the wealth. Although the community has more
than doubled the value of its economic output since 2000, just 28 members are
responsible for half of that output, and 20 of them consume almost 90 per cent
of the community’s resources; these are almost all Europeans, North Americans,
East Asians, and Australasians. The 18 Chinese members of the community are
catching up fast, though, and exerting influence more widely. About 80 members of
the community live on less than $10 per day, while 10 live in extreme poverty, barely
scraping by on less than $1.90 per day.
Urban areas dominate. Until recently, most of the people in the community lived in
its rural areas, but there has been a steady drift over the decades to its urban areas,
where 54 people now live. Many of those 54 remain poor and marginalized, while a
central elite has accumulated most of the wealth and power and consumes most of
its resources. Meanwhile, many of those in the rural areas must rely on subsidies in
order to grow the food on which the community relies.
Few members of the community eat well. About 30 of the members of the community
have enough to eat, 13 of them so much so that they have become obese. Meanwhile,
about 50 are malnourished and 20 are undernourished, with 10 regularly going
hungry. The problem is less one of supply than of distribution; the community has
more than enough food to feed itself, but its poorer members have less access to
supplies, which are often interrupted by conflict.
Access to health care is unequal. Although the health of the community overall has
improved, not everyone has benefitted. While its wealthier members can expect to
10 INTRODUCTION TO GLOBAL STUDIES

Gender Ethnicity Language Age

50 men 61 Asians 12 speak Chinese 26 are under

the age of 14
50 women 15 Africans 5 speak English
28 is the median
5 North Americans 5 speak Spanish
age
8 South Americans 78 speak other
9 are 65 or
11 Europeans languages
older

Literacy Education Shelter Clean water and

sanitation
84 can read and 7 have a college 77 have shelter 90 have access
write degree
23 do not 10 do not
16 cannot 12 have no more
than a primary
education
10 have no formal
education

Figure 0.2: The world as a community of 100 people

Source: Compiled from sources used in the chapters that follow.

live into their seventies and even their early eighties, and to have access to fine health
care, life expectancy for its poorer members is in the forties or the fifties.
Unequal internet connection. The wealthier and better served members of the community
mainly have ready access to the internet, on which they rely for an increasing number
of services and for almost all their information. Nearly half of the members of the
community remain unconnected, though, and are thereby denied the knowledge,
information, convenience, and access that come with being part of this critical
network. (But they are also spared the many problems that have arisen as a result of
misinformation on social media.)
 INTRODUCTION 11

Government Wealth Consumption Location

48 live under 28 produce Wealthiest 20 54 urban-dwellers

democracy nearly half consume
of the wealth 86 per cent 46 live in
52 live under of resources rural areas
authoritarian rule 80 live on less
than $10 per day Poorest 80 per cent
consume 14 per cent
Life expectancy

Nutrition Health Technology Religion

30 have enough Average life 53 use the internet 31 Chrisans

to eat expectancy is 72
47 do not 24 Muslims
50 malnourished For poorer members 15 Hindus
of the community
20 undernourished it is as low as 52 7 Buddhists
7 members of
other religions
16 have no
religion

Many languages are spoken. Although English is the language that most people in the
community use to communicate, particularly those who are better educated, only 5
people are native speakers. About 12 speak different forms of Chinese, and 5 speak
Spanish, but the remaining 78 speak a multitude of languages, and most are unable
to communicate with anyone else other than indirectly, or through a basic version of
English. Those who speak English find they can mingle more widely and build stronger
ties with the community, while those who cannot find themselves at a disadvantage.
Many religions are followed. The community is far from united in its religious beliefs.
Thanks to the influence of its Christian members, and their missionary achievements,
Christianity has had an important role in the history of the community. But while
nearly one-third of its members formally think of themselves as Christian, many of
them are drifting away from organized religion. Meanwhile, the number of those
12 INTRODUCTION TO GLOBAL STUDIES

who are Muslim is growing fast, about one-third of the members of the community
subscribe to other religions, and one-sixth have no religion at all.
Of course, there is only so far that we can take the analogy with a community of 100
people, because in the real world the population continues to grow (it has doubled
in size just since 1970) and most of its internal ratios are constantly changing. Even
so, these numbers give us an idea of the diversity of the global system, and of the
considerable inequalities that continue to persist within that system in spite of the
enormous strides that have been made over recent decades in economic productivity,
education, the provision of basis services, and technology.

CHANGES TO THE SECOND EDITION

Textbooks are evolving projects, constantly changing in line with developments
in the topics they cover, the changing needs of students and instructors, and new
scholarship. This second edition remains true to the overall structure and goals of
the first edition, but it has been updated and changed in several key ways.
Chapters: The order of the chapters has been changed slightly, and a mainly new and
greatly expanded chapter on health and disease has been added.
General changes: More examples have been added from around the world to
illustrate wider arguments made in the book, all figures have been updated with the
most recent data, coverage has been added on the effects and implications of the
Covid-19 pandemic, more discussion has been included throughout of the causes
and effects of inequality, and the discussion questions and lists of Further Reading
have been revised and updated.

SOME NOTES ON APPROACH

It is important to know the underlying goals of a textbook, of which five in
particular stand out. First, the major continuing theme in the book is inequality.
We are probably all aware of inequalities in our local communities, but these are
compounded at the global level, where the gaps that exist within human society
are often large. Inequalities persist among men, among women, and between men
and women. People have different levels of access to each other, to resources, to
food and shelter, to jobs, to technology, to their political leaders, and to health care.
They are impacted differently by political, economic, and social circumstances, by
the balance between security and insecurity, by disease, and by environmental quality.
The situation is summarized succinctly in the World Social Report published by the
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2020), which warns
of the existence of a ‘deeply unequal global landscape’ in which ‘income disparities
and a lack of opportunities are creating a vicious cycle of inequality, frustration and
discontent across generations’. However, the report also argues optimistically that
the future course of such challenges can be reversed, and that the creation of more
equitable societies is within our reach.
 INTRODUCTION 13

Table 0.2: Changes to the second edition

Chapter 1 More examples have been added of key historical developments in

The rise of the global system different parts of the world, and the Timeline has been expanded.

Chapter 2 Few changes in structure, but many updates and changes have been
Population and resources made to reflect recent developments.

Chapter 3 This has been moved up from Chapter 4, coverage of health and disease
Science and technology has been moved to its own new chapter, explanation of the role of
science in global studies has been expanded, there is new coverage of
science denial, broadened explanation of the nature of technological
change, a new Global and Local feature, a new section on the post-truth
world, and a new Contemporary Debates feature.

Chapter 4 This has been moved up from Chapter 5, discussion of the definition of
States and government states and nations has been expanded, and there is new coverage of the
impact of Covid-19.

Chapter 5 This has been moved down from Chapter 3, there is new coverage of
Identity and culture nationalism and a new section on gender, and adjustments have been
made to the discussion of religion.

Chapter 6 Formerly ‘Law and International Organizations’, this includes an expanded

Global governance explanation of regimes, and more details on regional organizations.

Chapter 7 This includes a new Contemporary Debates feature, a new section on

Human rights women’s rights, and new details on the debate over rights.

Chapter 8 This has been moved up from the end of the book, and the section
War, peace and security on the global security regime includes more on collective security and
cybersecurity.

Chapter 9 This includes new coverage of the effects of Covid-19, and an expanded
Economy discussion of the causes and effects of economic inequality.

Chapter 10 This includes new coverage of supply chains and global value chains,
Trade more details on the global trade regime, and more on developments in
free trade.

Chapter 11 The meaning of several key concepts has been fine-tuned, there is more
Migration on the evolving debate over migration, and the example of the Gulf
states has been added.

Chapter 12 This is mainly a new chapter, with new sections on global health, health
Health and disease care systems, the global health regime, and Covid-19.

Chapter 13 This includes expanded coverage of the environmental regime, and

The global environment new details on developments in approaches to biodiversity and climate
change.
14 INTRODUCTION TO GLOBAL STUDIES

Second, this book is – above all – an introductory textbook designed for students
coming new to the topic of global studies, and living in a variety of different settings
and countries. It grew out of the needs and preferences of my own students, who
were valuable guinea pigs for the approaches taken in the chapters that follow.
Everything was tested on them before it appeared in this book, and they helped me
determine what should be included and excluded. Because it is introductory, it sets
out to cover the entire field of global studies. Think of it as a sampler dish, offering
a taste of the variety of topics within global studies, each of which can be covered
in more depth using more specialized sources and bodies of literature. Also, because
it is introductory, it sets out to include as many perspectives as possible, although
focused positions are taken throughout the book.
Third, although each chapter appears to deal with a distinct topic, whether it is
population and resources, or human rights, or the environment, it is important to
remember that there are multiple ties that bind all these topics. While Chapter 3
focuses on science and technology, for example, these are topics that spill over into
the chapters on economics, trade, health, and the environment. Chapter 3 is not the
end of the discussion, and is simply where we see the beginning of the kinds of
connections that are at the heart of global studies.
Fourth, in a book that takes the broad and introductory view, generalizations
are often necessary. They have the disadvantage of sacrificing precision, but they
have the advantage of providing the shortcuts that are sometimes needed to make
larger points. The most potentially troublesome generalization made in the chapters
that follow is the division of the world into two communities based on a mix of
political, economic, and social features: the North (more democratic, wealthier, and
post-industrial states) and the South (less democratic, poorer, and/or industrializing
states). Most states fit squarely within one of these groups, but others sit on the
margins, and this point is always worth remembering. Not everyone supports the use
of these labels, which critics dismiss as outmoded, but no-one has yet come up with
a more workable alternative, and they can be useful as a guide through a complex
global community; see the discussion in Chapter 1. More nuanced political categories
are discussed in Chapter 4, and more nuanced economic categories in Chapter 9.
Finally, because this is a book about global studies, it is obviously important that it
should take a global view. In some ways, the book itself stands as a microcosm of the
global at work: it is written in English by an American-based author (who is British-
born, Kenyan-raised, and has citizenship of the US and the UK), for a German-
owned publisher headquartered in the UK (with offices in many countries). As a
migrant, and someone who sees himself as a global citizen, I have made a particular
effort not to see everything from a Western (or male) perspective. However, as a
Westerner who draws heavily from research and data generated mainly by other
Westerners and made available through Western publishers, I find this sometimes
easier said than done. The book also combines international and comparative
perspectives: global studies is just as much interested in how communities relate to
one another as with how they compare with one another.
 INTRODUCATION 15

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. What effects has Covid-19 had on the global system, and which of its effects
are most likely to be lasting?
2. What is the difference between international studies and global studies?
3. Why is an interdisciplinary approach to global issues such as migration and
human rights important?
4. Is the exercise of drawing up goals such as the Millennium Development Goals
and the Sustainable Development Goals useful?
5. Which of the measures in the feature ‘The world as a community of 100 people’
is most important to understanding the future of the global system?
6. How would you explain the importance of global studies to a friend or family
member?

KEY CONCEPTS

Global studies Globalization International studies

Global system International Sustainable
relations development
Globalism

USEFUL WEBSITES

Global Studies Association at https://globalstudiesassoc.wordpress.com

Global Studies Consortium at http://globalstudiesconsortium.org
World Bank Development Indicators at https://data.worldbank.org/indicator

(Note: The Victorian British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli is credited with having once railed against ‘three
kinds of lies: lies, damned lies, and statistics’. Sources of data will always be contested, but this World Bank
website includes reliable data on a wide variety of topics, much of it from other UN agencies. They, in turn,
usually rely heavily on national governments. Unless otherwise specified, most of the data in this book come
from that source.)

FURTHER READING
Chirico, JoAnn (2019) Global Problems, Global Solutions: Prospects for a Better World (Sage). An
assessment of key global problems – including inequality, crime, and climate change – and of
their potential solutions.
Guillén, Mauro F. (2020) 2030: How Today’s Biggest Trends Will Collide and Reshape the Future of
Everything (St Martin’s Press). A book written by a professor of international management,
reviewing key global trends and speculating about how they will evolve.
Haass, Richard (2020) The World: A Brief Introduction (Penguin). A primer on the world, written by
an acclaimed American observer, and including chapters on its history, its regions, and the key
topics of global studies.
16 INTRODUCTION TO GLOBAL STUDIES

Norberg, Johan (2020) Open: The Story of Human Progress (Atlantic Books). A survey of human
history, focusing on the openness of humans to change, and the achievements this has brought in
science, technology, culture, government, and other fields of endeavour.
Steger, Manfred B., and Amentahru Wahlrab (2017) What is Global Studies? Theory and Practice
(Routledge). A survey of the field, showing its links with globalization, and outlining its key
principles.

ACADEMIC JOURNALS
The following are some of the major academic journals dealing with global studies and
globalization.

Asia Journal of Global Studies http://www.aags.org

Global Affairs https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/rgaf20/
current
Global Challenges https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/
journal/20566646
Global Environmental Politics https://www.mitpressjournals.org/loi/glep
Global Governance https://brill.com/view/journals/gg/gg-
overview.xml
Global Media and Communication https://journals.sagepub.com/home/gmc
Global Networks https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/
journal/14710374
Global Policy http://www.globalpolicyjournal.com
Global Social Policy https://journals.sagepub.com/home/gsp
Global Society https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cgsj20/
current
Global Studies Law Review https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/law_
globalstudies
Globalization and Health https://globalizationandhealth.biomedcentral.
com
Globalizations https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/rglo20/
current
Identities: Global Studies in Culture https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/gide20/
and Power current
Journal of Global Analysis https://cesran.org/globalanalysis
Journal of Global Ethics https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/rjge20/
current
Journal of Global Health http://www.jogh.org/home.htm
Journal of Global History https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/
journal-of-global-history
Journal of Globalization and https://www.degruyter.com/journal/key/JGD/
Development html
New Global Studies https://www.degruyter.com/journal/key/NGS/
html
Transcience https://www2.hu-berlin.de/transcience
THE RISE OF THE
1
GLOBAL SYSTEM

PREVIEW
CONTENTS
This chapter provides the historical context within
which to understand the rise of the global system. The roots of the modern
It begins with a review of the mainly Western roots world
of the modern world, then looks at the spread of
Europe goes global
European influences via exploration, colonization,
industrialization, and imperialism. The chapter then World war and the end of
looks at the impact on globalism and global ideas of empire
two world wars, the end of Europe’s empires, and the The Cold War era
Cold War. It goes on to review nine key trends that lie
Nine global trends
at the heart of the shaping of today’s global system,
ending with a discussion about the meaning and effects Globalization
of globalization.

HIGHLIGHTS
The roots of the global system can be traced back over
several centuries, but its construction has accelerated
over the last 150 years.
Europe led the way through expanding its global interests
and connections, such that much of what today defines
‘global’ is also Western (although this is changing).
Two world wars and the end of empire dramatically
changed the structure of the global system and the
balance of power.
The Cold War saw tensions between two superpowers
(the US and the Soviet Union) as well as the emergence
of the Third World.
We are today living through an era shaped by critical
new trends in economics, politics, culture, technology,
security health, and environmental change.
In terms of understanding the global system, globalization Source: Getty Images/Ktsdesign/Science photo library
is the dominant theme, although it is not as new as it
seems, and opinion is divided on its implications.

17
18 INTRODUCTION TO GLOBAL STUDIES

THE ROOTS OF THE MODERN WORLD

Fort Jesus stands guard over the entrance to the harbor of Mombasa, Kenya’s
second-largest city and major port. Built by the Portuguese in the 1590s, it was
captured and recaptured at least nine times, falling to Omani Arabs in 1698 after a
two-year siege, before finally being taken over by the British in 1895. The fort no
longer serves a defensive purpose, but it has stood as a witness to the emergence of
what we now think of as the modern world. Its construction followed in the wake
of Portuguese success in navigating their way around Africa, its ownership changed
hands as political influence in the region moved from one power to another, and
– more recently – the fort has witnessed the arrival of naval vessels from major
military powers, of tankers from major oil producers, of containers carrying goods
through the global trading system, of tourists seeking the palm trees and white sands
of the Kenyan coast, and of terrorists seeking to make a political point.
This single building symbolizes and captures many (but by no means all) of the
changing qualities of what we now define as the global: the ideas, influences, and
forces that encouraged people to build connections with one another and to redefine
boundaries and opportunities. We have migrated, invaded, and gone to war with one
another, built trade connections, built cooperative institutions, and agreed complex
rules for governing our interactions. The effect has been to change the way we see
ourselves and each other, to change the way we interact, and to reshape cultures,
societies, economies, and the physical environment. How and why did this happen?
For the majority of human history (in what we might call the pre-modern era),
most people were local in their experiences, their outlook, and their consciousness.
Some societies were (and remain) nomadic, others participated in migrations and
invasions that took them to new locations, and yet others traded with one another.
Most people, though, had neither the capacity nor the desire to travel, and their
interests and knowledge rarely extended far beyond their immediate farm, village,
or town. Unless they were wealthy or powerful, most lived and died not far from
where they were born, and knew little of the wider world. Political and economic
relationships were geographically limited in scope, and even the few who left home
as soldiers, explorers, or entrepreneurs had little idea what they would find over the
horizon, and no certainties that they would see home again.
Today’s circumstances are quite different: the modern world is distinctive for the
reach and interconnectedness of human interests and contacts. True, most people
still have neither the time nor the resources to travel far from home, and continue
to live in or near the communities in which they were born, but global connections
have grown, and more people have been directly impacted by those connections:
people travel and migrate in greater numbers, they can follow the news and collect
information from around the world with relative ease, and they are routinely subject
to the effects of decisions made hundreds or even thousands of kilometres away.
At the same time, the world has been influenced by common ideas, languages, and
cultures promoted by the global reach of corporations, media, and technologies.
Although we think of globalization as a relatively new phenomenon (see later
in this chapter), the process of building global connections began centuries ago.
History is replete, for example, with the stories of empires whose effects were to
build political, economic, and social connections among disparate peoples: consider
the Achaemenid Empire (or First Persian Empire) that included much of southwest
 1: THE RISE OF THE GLOBAL SYSTEM 19

Asia during its peak in 550-330 BCE, the Maurya Empire that spread across most
of present-day India and Pakistan between 322 and 185 BCE, or the Tang Empire
that included most of present-day China and central Asia between 618 and 907.
Meanwhile, trade routes connected the East and the West (the Silk Road that emerged
in the 2nd century BCE), India and the Greco-Roman world (the Spice Route), and
communities around the Sahara and the Mediterranean.
These connections were regional, though, and they only began to become global
with the rise of European powers, who led the way in exploring, colonizing, and
industrializing. As a result, the building of the global system was founded on values
and ideas emanating from the West, which in turn came to sit at the heart of what West: A political,
economic, and
we define as the modern world. The roots of what we usually define as modern lie in cultural concept
changes that took place in Europe, with most historians dating the modern era to the associated with
early 16th century and the European Renaissance. It was during the early modern era Europe and with
communities
(lasting from approximately 1450 to the French Revolution in 1789 [Wiesner-Hanks, that grew out
2013]) that transformative changes came to science, technology, politics, and the arts in of European
settlement
Europe, forming the basis for its expansion and the spread of Western ideas. and invasion.
It would be wrong to think of either modernity or the global system as exclusively Distinguished
from Eastern ideas
Western, or to think that Western is exclusively European; there was much happening associated with
in other parts of the world, after all, and the West was shaped and influenced to a Asia, notably China,
large degree by external ideas and pressures; consider the impact of the Islamic Japan, and India.

Golden Age (8th century to 14th century) on science and the arts, its effects still
Modern: Literally
felt today in Arabic numerals, the decimal system, algebra, geometry, the concept of the present or
zero (borrowed by the Arabs from India), and many Arabic words used in Western contemporary
science, such as nadir, zenith, alkali, and alcohol. times, and a term
most often used
Under different circumstances, it might not have been the Europeans who in connection with
prevailed, and the history of the world might have turned out very differently. history, technology,
social norms,
culture, and the
arts.
Source: MisoKnitl/iStock

The ruins of Persepolis in modern-day Iran stand as a reminder of the achievements of the
Achaemenid Empire and its role in one of the earliest examples of globalization.
20 INTRODUCTION TO GLOBAL STUDIES

Between 1404 and 1433, for example, seven massive and expensive naval expeditions
were dispatched by Ming China, reaching Southeast Asia, then India, then the Persian
Gulf, and finally the east coast of Africa. The first voyage alone included more than
300 ships. Had the expeditions gone further, and had it been China that colonized
and settled other parts of the world, the story of globalization might have been quite
different. As it was, a combination of political divisions, overspending, and natural
disasters brought the voyages to an end, and China’s horizons contracted. Later, the
Mughal Empire of India – the world’s largest economy at its peak in the 18th century
– might have achieved wider influence had it not also decayed from within.
Although there were many landmark events during the early modern era, one
in particular stands out. It was between May and October of 1648 that delegates
met at a series of conferences in the cities of Osnabruck and Munster, in what was
then the Duchy of Westphalia (now part of Germany), and made several decisions
that were to have important repercussions for Europe, and ultimately for the world.
Their immediate goal was to bring an end to two wars: the Thirty Years’ War in
the Holy Roman Empire and the Eighty Years’ War between Spain and the Dutch
Republic. They succeeded, agreeing three treaties that are known collectively as the
Peace of Westphalia.
More broadly, though, the treaties brought a new political order to central
Europe, establishing the principles of respect for the boundaries of states and of
non-interference in the internal affairs of states. The modern state system – also
Westphalian known as the Westphalian system – now took hold in Europe, was later exported
system: The to other parts of the world through the global reach of Europe, and is today at
modern state
system that
the core of the global community of states within which we all live. As we will
emerged out of see in Chapter 4, many have since questioned the wisdom and the reality of the
the 1648 Peace of Westphalian system, and the future of states is debated, but for better or for worse it
Westphalia, based
on the sovereignty is the point of reference from which we understand today’s global system.
of states and
political self-
determination.
EUROPE GOES GLOBAL
On the back of these changes, the relative isolation of the pre-modern era was
replaced with the new connections that would lead in stages (see Figure 1.1) to the
global system as we know it today. The role of Europe was central to this process, its
influence exported on the back of four key developments that would establish and
draw the outlines of the modern world: exploration, colonization, industrialization,
and imperialism.
Exploration. The era of exploration, which ran from the late 15th to the late 16th
century, saw Europeans set out to visit, understand, and connect with other parts of
the world, in what has since been described as the first age of globalization (Black,
2002). They were not the first to do this, to be sure – the Chinese, the Arabs, and
the Persians had been active explorers before them – but Europeans had important
advantages: they sought to trade with more distant parts of the world, they had
invented long-distance sailing ships that made this possible, and they had the support
of governments and benefactors.
The Portuguese and the Spanish led the way, Prince Henry the Navigator (1394–
1460) of Portugal launching an interest in exploration that would outlast him by
decades. The roster of European explorers grew with the exploits of Christopher
 1: THE RISE OF THE GLOBAL SYSTEM 21

Figure 1.1: Stages in the growth of the global system

ERA DATES FEATURES

PRE-MODERN Prior to the early Few connections, no sense

16th century of a global system.

EMERGENCE Early 16th–early Emergence of Europe as global

20th century actor via exploration, colonialism,
industrialization, imperialism.

WORLD WAR 1914–45 Global conflict centred on Europe.

COLD WAR Late 1940s–late 1980s Bipolarity; ideological conflict

between superpowers.

GLOBALIZATION Since 1990 Multipolarity; strengthening of

global connections; rise of Asia.

Columbus (an Italian sailor supported by Spain, who reached the Americas in 1492),
Vasco da Gama (who reached what is now India in 1498), Pedro Álvares Cabral
(who reached what is now Brazil in 1500), and Ferdinand Magellan (who began the
first known circumnavigation of the earth in 1519–22, which was completed by the
Spanish commander Juan Sebastián Elcano).
Colonization. The discoveries of the era of exploration not only changed Europe,
leading to competition among its leaders and peoples for the new opportunities so
revealed, but also brought change to other parts of the world, created new connections,
and expanded the opportunities and desire to trade. The Spanish and the Portuguese
established claims to large swathes of South and Central America between 1492 and
the early 19th century, while the British and the French established claims in Asia,
North America, and – later – in Africa; see Map 1.1. In 1600, the East India Company
was founded in London to oversee British interests in India (Robins, 2012), to be
followed two years later by the Dutch East India Company, with its sights set on
Southeast Asia. Trade interests combined with competition for political influence to
launch the era of European colonialism, underpinned by four key motives: Colonialism: Efforts
by the governments

Settlement, as in the case of England’s North American colonies. or citizens of one
region to occupy

Extraction, as in the case of efforts to set up trade ties in pursuit of commodities and control foreign
territories with a
such as spices, sugar, minerals, or slaves. (It is revealing that stretches of the West view to settlement,
African coastline were originally named by Europeans as the Grain Coast, the economic
Slave Coast, the Ivory Coast, and the Gold Coast.) exploitation, or
strategic advantage.

Strategic advantage, as in the case of the establishment of military bases to
protect economic and political interests.
 desire to ‘civilize’, expressed in the efforts of missionaries to spread Christianity,
A
and of colonizers to ‘improve’ other peoples and cultures.
22 INTRODUCTION TO GLOBAL STUDIES

British Dutch Portuguese Belgian

French Spanish Russian Italian

Map 1.1: European empires 1800–1950

Note: This is not a snapshot in time, but instead shows the parts of the world where European empires took
hold at different times.

Few developments had such a deep and lasting impact as the Euro-American
slave trade, which was active from the early 16th century until its abolition in the
early 19th century (Thomas, 1999). It took a triangular form, with slaves being taken
from West Africa to the Americas, the slaves working on plantations and in mines
that produced commodities such as sugar, cotton, timber, and minerals for export
to Europe, and European producers exporting processed goods such as weapons
and textiles to West Africa. Millions of slaves were taken to the Americas, most
of them to Portuguese and Spanish colonies and to the Caribbean, helping build
the economies of these regions as well as of the major slaving powers (notably
Portugal, Britain, and France). The implications of the economic and social effects
are still debated today, with Baptist (2016), for example, noting that slavery lay
at the heart of the expansion of the United States into a modern industrial and
capitalist society.
Perhaps the ultimate act of colonial conquest was the agreement reached among
European powers at the 1884–85 Berlin conference. Aimed at resolving brewing
tensions over the control of Africa, it launched the ‘scramble for Africa’ that
would result in the continent’s division between Britain, France, Belgium, Portugal,
Germany, Italy, and Spain. In few parts of the world are the effects of colonialism
still felt quite so keenly as they are in Africa, particularly south of the Sahara.
Industrialization. Just as European powers were busy looking to other parts of the
world, so they were undergoing dramatic domestic change as a result of the invention
of new technologies that allowed them to shift from limited production using animal
and human power to mass production using machines driven by steam and coal.
 1: THE RISE OF THE GLOBAL SYSTEM 23

The industrial revolution (approximately mid-18th to mid-19th century) allowed

Europeans to produce more, encouraging them to seek new sources of raw materials
and new markets in which to sell their commodities, thereby building on the pressures
to colonize and expand trade links, and in turn creating more global connections.
The rise of industry also fundamentally changed domestic economies and societies:
factories were created, people moved to cities, populations grew, education improved,
and workers made new demands for political rights. Industrialization also resulted in
the accumulation of wealth and capital in the urban centers of Europe and North
America, changing the balance of power in ways whose effects are still felt to this
day. It also – as we will see in later chapters – led to the mismanagement of resources
and widespread environmental damage.
Imperialism. While colonialism saw tangible change in the sense that direct control
was assumed by colonizing powers over foreign territories, imperialism describes Imperialism: A
policy – usually by
both a philosophy and a set of effects, expressed both in colonialism and in efforts a government or a
to build spheres of influence. One of the most prominent European imperialists was state – to extend
Cecil John Rhodes (1853–1902), a British entrepreneur – and a white supremacist – power and influence
through diplomacy,
whose goal was British rule from one end of Africa to the other, but whose longer- economic control,
term hope was for British rule over the entire world; he once suggested that to have or military conquest.
been born an Englishman was to have ‘won the lottery of life’. His name lived on
after his death with the creation of the southern African colonies of Northern and
Southern Rhodesia (now Zambia and Zimbabwe), and the provision in his will for
Rhodes scholarships that support study at the University of Oxford by students
from the English-speaking world. This was all well and good for the privileged elites
of imperial powers, perhaps, but the working classes who made up the bulk of
soldiers and laborers upon whom imperialism was able to grow would have taken
a different view. So would many of the residents of European colonies, who were
treated at best with condescension, and at worst with brutality.
The end of Europe’s empires in the 20th century did not mean the end of
imperialism, and charges continue to be made even today of a neo-imperialism that Neo-imperialism:
Efforts by powerful
perpetuates many of the inequalities and the exploitation that were characteristics of actors to extend
the imperial era. The argument is made that different actors – which may be states, their influence by
institutions, or even corporations – are using economic, social, or even cultural demanding changes
or concessions
means to shape global and international trends (see Chapters 9 and 10). That many from less powerful
international banks, or organizations such as the World Bank and the International actors.
Monetary Fund, are dominated by the rich countries, and that they often demand
concessions from poorer countries in return for loans or investments, is often
criticized as a form of neo-imperialism (see Salamah, 2017). This philosophy of
leaders and followers explains many of the political, economic, and social inequalities
that continue to persist in the global system.

WORLD WAR AND THE END OF EMPIRE

The global changes brought by exploration, colonialism, industrialization, and
imperialism were to be broadened and deepened during the first half of the 20th World war: Military
conflict involving
century. Few events played a bigger role in the reconfiguration of the balance of many states in
political and economic power than two world wars that dramatically reshaped the different parts of
global system, and fed into the end of European global power. Both World War I the world.
24 INTRODUCTION TO GLOBAL STUDIES

(1914–18) and World War II (1939–45) were in many ways European civil wars that
pulled in others, and can also be seen as one war with a 21-year break; the disputes
that led to the first outbreak of violence were not resolved with the peace treaty that
ended World War I, paving the way for World War II.
The tensions that led to the outbreak of the first war in 1914 were not immediately
obvious. There had been few major conflicts involving the major powers since the
end of the Napoleonic wars in 1815, trade was expanding, medicine and sanitation
were improving, and new technology – headlined by the invention of the steamship,
the public railway, the telegraph, the telephone, and the automobile – had brought
new levels of economic productivity and had strengthened global connections
among states, making peace a more preferable state of affairs than war.
However, the global system had also come to be dominated by the so-called
Great power: great powers – Britain, France, Germany, and Russia – which had the largest
A state with a
large military and
economies, the most powerful militaries, the strongest positions in international trade,
continental or global and interests that were continental or global in scope (see Levy, 1983). Meanwhile,
interests. most other parts of the world were either part of the empires controlled by the great
powers, or else (like the United States) they avoided becoming involved in great
power rivalry, or else (like China, Japan, and most of Latin America) they remained
on the margins of the emerging global system.
Although the great powers emphasized peace and prosperity in their relations with
one another, they had made large investments in weapons and armies, and had built a
network of alliances and diplomatic ties that were overlaid by nationalist aspirations,
economic competition, and colonial rivalries (Macmillan, 2014). Tensions grew such
that it took only the assassination in June 1914 of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the
heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, by a Bosnian Serb nationalist to set off a chain
of events that would lead to the outbreak in August 1914 of a war that was not
only avoidable but was also improbable (Clark, 2012). Although World War I (then
known as the Great War, and supposedly ‘the war to end all wars’) was fought mainly
in Belgium and France, it reached as far as the Middle East and parts of Africa,
and involved combatants from British colonies and dominions (notably Australia,
Canada, India, and New Zealand), and eventually the United States.
The effects were tumultuous:

There were as many as 40 million casualties, including an estimated 18 million
deaths.

The new technology of war meant much greater numbers of civilian deaths than
in any previous war.

The economies of the major combatant states were severely damaged.

Divisions were imposed on the Middle East that would cause many problems
later.

The war sparked the collapse of the Russian regime and the creation of the
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (the USSR, or Soviet Union).

The way was paved for the rise of Hitler.
Another effect of the war was to broaden support for international cooperation,
leading to the creation in 1920 of the League of Nations, headquartered in Geneva,
Switzerland. Its goal (according to the Treaty of Versailles that ended the Great War)
Another random document with
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Il richiamo della
foresta
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
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eBook.

Title: Il richiamo della foresta

romanzo

Author: Jack London

Translator: Gian Dàuli

Release date: August 26, 2023 [eBook #71490]

Language: Italian

Original publication: Milano: Modernissima, 1924

Credits: Barbara Magni and the Online Distributed Proofreading

Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced
from images made available by The Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK IL RICHIAMO

DELLA FORESTA ***
Il Richiamo della Foresta
 JACK LONDON

IL RICHIAMO
DELLA FORESTA
ROMANZO
PREFAZIONE E TRADUZIONE DI
GIAN DÀULI

MCMXXIV
MODERNISSIMA
MILANO
 PROPRIETÀ LETTERARIA RISERVATA
Stab. Tipo-Lit. FED. SACCHETTI & C. — Via Zecca
Vecchia, 7 — Milano
INDICE
 JACK LONDON

Credo che non vi sia scrittore il quale abbia vissuto e sofferto, amato
e odiato con tanta disperata e selvaggia intensità, come Jack
London. I Gorki, i Dostoiewski, gli Upton Sinclair, i Rimbaud, i
Baudelaire, tra miserie fisiche e morali, hanno saputo, sì,
rappresentare visioni mai concepite da altri, ma vivendo una vita
che, per quanto agitata, non soffrì che in parte del grandioso e
avventuroso travaglio che agitò l’esistenza dura ed eroica del grande
scrittore americano, le cui opere suscitano in noi sentimenti di paura
e di tenerezza, di amore e di dolore e, soprattutto, di ammirazione.
Ci pare di trovarci di fronte all’uomo delle caverne che riveli alla
nostra sensibilità moderna i misteri e le ferree leggi della vita
primitiva.
Perciò, con senso di pena, ho visto in questi giorni pubblicata, a cura
del Prezzolini, la prima traduzione italiana di uno dei romanzi di Jack
London, «Il lupo di mare», come uno dei tanti libri per ragazzi. Poveri
innocenti! Le opere di London affidate nelle mani di adolescenti che
s’affacciano alla vita, e non conoscono ancora il male, e ignorano i
feroci egoismi degli uomini, la cecità del Dio cristiano, le leggi
inesorabili della natura? Quale errore!

***

La favola di questi romanzi, per quanto avventurose ne siano le

vicende e pittoresco il paesaggio entro il quale si svolge, appare
poca cosa in confronto dello spirito realistico che l’ànima e della
visione totale della vita e del destino dell’uomo che l’autore vuole e
riesce a comunicarci. Egli mira al nostro cuore e alla nostra
coscienza, più che alla nostra mente e alla nostra fantasia, da
selvaggio armato di frecce avvelenate e infallibili. Ossequiente alle
leggi naturali della vita che accomunano l’uomo all’animale, nella
foresta, egli ci mostra, a fini sociali, nell’animale, l’uomo, e gli istinti
dell’uno nell’altro, rivivendo, con profondo senso primigenio,
selvagge emozioni ereditarie che dormono nella natura umana,
attraverso il ricordo di antenati preumani e di migliaia di generazioni.
Così che si ripensa, per associazione d’idee, alle crudeltà della
guerra mondiale, agli errori ed orrori della rivoluzione russa, ai
massacri degli ebrei, alle violenze dell’attuale guerriglia sociale, alle
aberrazioni quotidiane della vita umana costantemente insidiata da
brutale malvagità, e vien fatto di pensare: — Possiamo, dunque,
senza vergogna, affermare d’essere fatti ad immagine di Dio? O non
forse è vero che anche noi, come gli altri animali, barcolliamo nelle
tenebre, spinti dagl’istinti più bassi, che nelle forme più estreme e più
elementari sono legge di vita per i cani e per i lupi? Pare oggi, infatti,
che la legge della mazza e dei denti abbia sopraffatto millennî di
diritto civile, e ci riconduca in pieno mondo londoniano, dove il più
forte, per istinto, non per crudeltà, abbatte ed uccide il più debole,
divorandoselo poi, e la ferocia della passione sensuale fa strage, e i
maschi si uniscono e combattono insieme sotto il pungolo della
fame, e s’uccidono l’un l’altro appena il pungolo è attenuato,
ciascuno conducendo via la compagna quando ha ucciso i rivali.
Solo ritegno conosciuto, in questo mondo primigenio, è l’istinto della
propria conservazione, che tiene unito il maschio alla femmina e
spinge il maschio a nutrirla! Dappertutto è libertà assoluta,
dappertutto è la paura della morte onnipresente e sovrana.
Ma il London non si limita a mostrarci, con crudele realismo, il
rapporto naturale tra la vita selvaggia e la vita civile, ma rappresenta
il contrasto diretto tra l’una e l’altra, affermando, invece della licenza,
la legge; invece dell’istinto, il trionfo dell’autorità. Devozione del forte
al debole, venerazione del debole per il forte, ecco la grande legge
della vita che combatte gli impulsi selvaggi: ideale questo o, meglio,
regola di vita veramente civile, che la società umana potrebbe a
dovrebbe attingere se non fosse così mal ordinata da sembrare fatta
per la conservazione e lo sviluppo degli istinti primitivi.

***

Per dare degnamente inizio alla pubblicazione delle opere complete

di Jack London, scegliemmo, nella sua vasta produzione, due
romanzi: «Il richiamo della foresta» («The Call of the Wild») e
«Zanna bianca» («The white fang»), i quali a nostro avviso,
caratterizzano, meglio di tutti gli altri, non solo il temperamento dello
scrittore, ma il processo di sviluppo della sua anima di pensatore
temprato dall’esperienza della vita.
Nel primo, «Il richiamo della foresta», è il racconto di un cane che,
attraverso perigliose vicende, per la crudeltà degli uomini e
l’asprezza dell’esistenza finisce col diventar lupo, facendo, cioè, a
ritroso, di gradino in gradino, il cammino inverso della civiltà, da una
vita sicura, tranquilla, soleggiata, familiare, quale godeva. Aveva
fede negli uomini, e la perde; credeva nell’onestà e nell’onore, e
finisce col rubare per vivere, e uccidere per non essere ucciso: e
quando l’ultimo amore umano cade, egli si ritrova nella selva,
animale primitivo signoreggiato dai soli istinti naturali.
La vita di questo cane che diviene lupo, rispecchia materialmente e
spiritualmente la vita dello stesso scrittore. Egli ebbe certamente un
primo albore d’infanzia felice nell’amore dei suoi, sino a quando,
fanciulletto, passava intere giornate sotto un albero a sorvegliare,
per i contadini, il ritorno degli sciami delle api dalla loro vita operosa
e errabonda. Breve albore al quale seguì ben presto la miseria più
dura. Non ancora decenne, per aiutare la sua famiglia caduta in
povertà, egli vende giornali per le vie di San Francisco, per le vie
della sua amata «Frisco», dove egli era nato il 12 gennaio del 1876.
Poco dopo, è operaio in una fabbrica di prodotti alimentari, dove
sente i primi morsi dell’odio contro la piovra sociale, e i primi impeti
di ribellione. Infatti, a soli quindici anni egli abbandona la famiglia e il
lavoro per unirsi a una banda di pirati, e a sedici anni possiede una
sua barca, la Razzle Dazzle, e la sua donna, una fanciulla della
stessa età, ed è chiamato dai contrabbandieri il Principe del Banco
delle Ostriche, perchè egli solo osa fare il contrabbando nella baia di
San Francisco, sotto gli occhi della polizia, con una donna a bordo.
Vestito di lana grigia, con scarponi da marinaio, e la larga cintola di
cuoio rigonfia d’una grossa rivoltella, solido e robusto benchè ancora
imberbe, egli si sente re del proprio destino, e con pacata
sfrontatezza ingoia alcool, tra perduta gente, con la tenera
mantenuta al fianco, nella bettola dell’Ultima Fortuna. Durò un anno
quella vita selvaggia ch’egli definiva, sette anni dopo, come la più
rischiosa della sua esistenza; durante la quale guadagnava in una
settimana quello che più tardi non riusciva a guadagnare in un anno.
Diciassettenne, si decide o per amore di avventure o forse con la
speranza di liberarsi dall’abitudine di bere, a partire, mozzo, per una
crociera al Giappone, su un trealberi; ma non muta tenore di vita;
come egli stesso confessa nel suo libro «Memorie di un bevitore»:
«Incominciava la sera quando arrivammo ad un caffè e... è tutto
quello che vidi del Giappone! E purtanto il nostro veliero stette
quindici giorni nel porto di Yokohama! Quindici giorni passati a bere
in compagnia dei migliori ragazzi di questo mondo».
Dal Giappone passa alla caccia delle foche nei mari della Russia
orientale, e quando ritorna in patria, si dà a tutti i mestieri, ma
soprattutto a quello del vagabondo, contro il suo vangelo sociale che
considerava il lavoro fisico come un dovere per l’uomo, un dovere
che conferisce alla salute e santifica la vita. «L’orgoglio che io
traevo», scriss’egli, «da una giornata di lavoro ben compiuto, non si
può nemmeno concepire. Io mi sentivo lo sfruttato ideale, lo schiavo
tipo, ed ero quasi felice della servitù». Ma forse egli traeva a quel
tempo più orgoglio dall’essere considerato da tutti come il «boy
socialista», il vagabondo rivoluzionario. Per un certo tempo egli fa
parte dei «two thousand stiffs», dei duemila irrigiditi, i terribili
sovversivi che, condotti dal generale Kelly, mossero dalla costa del
Pacifico alla socializzazione del mondo. La piccola armata di ribelli
catturava treni, metteva a sacco città e villaggi, militarizzava tutti
gl’uomini che incontrava sul suo cammino. Quando le autorità
governative riescono ad arrestare la marcia di questi sovversivi e a
disperderli, Jack London ritorna al suo vagabondaggio ed è spesso
messo in prigione, come disoccupato senza fissa dimora.
Così, Jack London è in condizioni da ascoltare e sentire in sè tutto il
fascino dell’appello della vita selvaggia, the call of the wild, e alla vita
selvaggia si abbandona con l’impeto inconsiderato della sua
esuberante natura. E davanti agli aspetti sempre più terribili della
realtà, fra esperienze strazianti, lo spirito gli si rinvigorisce e s’affina.
Il destino l’afferra, l’attanaglia, l’abbatte, l’abbrutisce: il cane diventa
lupo, ma il lupo è signore della selva, dominatore nella vita
selvaggia. Ma Jack London è un sensitivo, un delicato a dispetto
della sua vita, uno spirito universale che non può perire schiacciato
dal contingente; ed ecco ricominciare il travaglio affannoso dell’uomo
che, per virtù del suo ingegno, pur rincantucciato nell’antro, ad
affinar la selce, nella desolata solitudine della Vita selvaggia, spia se
stesso, studia le voci arcane della natura, e, attraverso ostacoli
tremendi, risale alla superficie della civiltà, mercè la potenza del
patissero.
Il lupo diventa cane. (White fang).
Jack London ritorna spesso col pensiero al primo libro letto da
bambino, l’Alambra, di Washington Irving, e cerca altre letture. Vuole
istruirsi, e finisce — ha allora diciannove anni — per far ritorno alla
famiglia, stabilita, a quel tempo, ad Oakland, dove l’attende la
dolorosa sorpresa di trovare il padre graduato dell’odiata polizia. Egli
vince, tuttavia, la ripugnanza che l’occupazione del padre e la vita
ordinata destano in lui, ed accetta il posto di portinaio in una scuola
secondaria. Poco dopo, collabora al bollettino letterario della stessa
scuola, e, ad un tratto, diviene scrittore. Un giornale di San
Francisco offre un premio per un articolo descrittivo: Jack London
tenta la prova a vince. Incoraggiato dal primo successo, invia un
altro articolo allo stesso giornale, che glielo rifiuta, questa volta.
Allora, disgustato del suo mestiere di portinaio, riprende la vita
nomade, e attraversa a piedi tutto il continente americano fino a
Boston. Visita il Canadà, diviene minatore d’oro e pescatore di
salmone nell’Alaska. Ma, intanto, il suo pensiero, in mezzo a tante
traversie, si forma e precisa. Ha letto Spencer e Carlo Marx: la
società gli appare sempre più mal combinata, il capitalismo odioso,
con i suoi eccessi che ne fanno un mostro crudele, divoratore; allora
il socialista per istinto diviene socialista rivoluzionario per
ragionamento, convinto che il socialismo «mira, se non altro, a
mettere ciascuno al suo posto».
Al ritorno dall’Alaska, incomincia a predicare in pubblico le sue idee
socialiste, la bellezza della rivoluzione e del mondo nuovo che deve
sorgere dal crollo della società capitalistica, ed è, alla fine, arrestato,
non più come vagabondo, ma come rivoluzionario.
Uscito di prigione, Jack London sente il bisogno di compiere la sua
istruzione: va a San Francisco e riesce a farsi ammettere
nell’Università, conciliando il bisogno dello studio con la necessità di
guadagnarsi il pane, giorno per giorno. Si occupa in una stireria. «Il
ferro e la penna si alternavano nella mia mano», ricorda egli più
tardi, «ma dalla mia mano stanca la penna cadeva sovente, e
sovente i miei occhi si chiudevano sui libri».
Dopo tre mesi di accannito lavoro, egli, robustissimo, non riesce più
a reggersi. Allora decide di ritornare a piedi ad Oakland, di
riconciliarsi con la famiglia; ma una nuova crudele delusione
l’attende. Il padre è morto, la madre e i fratelli sono in miseria.
Questa nuova traversìa, se lo costringe per qualche tempo ancora al
lavoro manuale, non gli toglie la speranza di un avvenire diverso e
migliore. Nelle solitudini nevose della terra del Nord «dove nessuno
parla, dove tutti pensano», egli s’era ripiegato su se stesso ed aveva
intravisto il suo vero orizzonte, che era quello del lavoratore
intellettuale. Riprende a scrivere. Un giornale di California accetta un
suo racconto, un altro gli chiede degli scritti. «Le cose
incominciavano a prendere una buona piega, e sembrava che io non
dovessi aver più bisogno, per qualche tempo almeno, di scaricare
carbone». In fondo, la Società, maledetta da Jack London,
incominciava a tendergli la mano. Nel 1900 appare il suo primo
Volume: The son of the wolf, «Il figlio del lupo» [1], raccolta di
racconti del paese dell’oro, che gli fece acquistar subito fama di
scrittore originale e poderoso, a ventiquattr’anni!
D’allora seguirono nuovi libri quasi senza interruzione e con
crescente successo. Sposatosi, con la sua amata compagna,
London gira il mondo e attende alle sue opere. Ma lo spirito
d’avventura non si spegne in lui. Egli vive un certo tempo nei
bassifondi di Chicago e di Londra, fa il giro del mondo in un
minuscolo yacht, lungo appena quindici metri, fa il corrispondente di
guerra al Giappone e in Manciuria nel 1904 e al Messico nel 1914,
nè cessa mai la sua inesorabile requisitoria contro la Società mal
costituita.
A soli quarantanni, nel 1916, dopo aver pubblicato una cinquantina
di volumi, la Morte lo coglie proprio all’inizio della sua vera gloria di
scrittore più letto e più discusso, più odiato e più amato, nel suo
paese. Ancora oggi non si sa come egli sia morto; e il mistero che
vela gli ultimi istanti della vita del rude avventuriero e scrittore di
genio, è degno di quel capolavoro di irrequietezza che fu, tra opere
pari, l’anima di questo Grande.

***

Così visse Jack London, lo strano romanziere che s’avvia a diventar

popolare in tutto il mondo, popolare, per la ragione semplicissima
che nello scrittore è l’uomo, ricco di una sua esperienza nuova da
raccontare, con parola nuova.
Già scrivendo di Jack London nell’Azione di Genova, nel febbraio del
1921, lamentavo che, purtroppo, bisogna cercare nelle opere
straniere quei più vasti orizzonti ideali e quell’aria pura e vivificante
di cui ha bisogno il nostro spirito, stanco o viziato, per ritornare
fattivamente alla meditazione dei più profondi problemi dello spirito e
della vita sociale.
Oggi, più che nel ’21, c’incalzano e premono da tutte le parti
formidabili problemi rivoluzionarî, e ci sentiamo oppressi da un alito
di continuata tragedia nascosta che gli sbandieramenti patriottardi
non riescono a mascherare del tutto, nè le fanfare e i canti a
completamente soffocare. Il domani si presenta pauroso agli spiriti
alacri e indipendenti, nei quali è un’avidità di sapere, di udire la
verità, o parole coraggiose e nuove che aiutino a rintracciare la
verità, a risolvere la profonda crisi di pensiero e di sentimento che
travaglia le coscienze migliori. Che ci dà oggi la letteratura nostrana?
Lettere alle sartine d’Italia e vergini da diciotto carati, romanzetti
pornografici e sentimentali ed esercitazioni stilistiche e cerebrali,
senza mai un accento di umana commozione per le tragedie politico-
sociali del mondo o anche solo una parola che la mostri consapevole
del profondo travaglio spirituale della patria. Oh, intellettuali italiani!
eccovi una folata d’aria gelida purificatrice! Anche senza farvi uscire
dal sicuro romitaggio del vostro egoismo o dai caffè affumicati cari
alla vostra presuntuosa pigrizia, anche senza farvi deporre livree o
indossare armi. Jack London vi condurrà, con le sue opere, dalla
bettola dell’Ultima Fortuna ai confini del mondo, sui perduti sentieri di
tutti gli ideali e di tutti gli ardimenti! Giova almeno con lo spirito
partecipare alla grande avventura del mondo! Senza l’azione,
l’azione costante, la Morte è là in agguato e non tarda a lanciarsi su
di noi, inesorabile.
Troverete nel «Richiamo della foresta» e in «Zanna bianca» la
rappresentazione realistica dell’Umanità che lotta costantemente
contro la prepotenza dell’infinito, dell’inafferrabile, dell’imponderabile.
Scenda o risalga il millenario cammino della civiltà — il cane diventi
lupo o il lupo diventi cane — ogni creatura vivente, insoddisfatta,
cerca sensazioni nuove, è costretta a sgombrare il proprio cammino,
a vincere mille ostacoli, chè la vita si rinnova con sempre maggiore
Varietà di forme e con più rapidi mezzi di distruzione. Questi due
romanzi racchiudono una lezione in atto; questa: che la civiltà non
deve indebolire il carattere nè affievolire lo spirito; il lupo che diviene
cane è travolto, e forse il cane trova il suo completo sviluppo nel
lupo! Da questa crudele lezione, i socialisti, conservatori, comunisti e
aristocratici possono trarre elementi per scindere la parte viva da
quella morta della propria filosofia o del proprio credo. La lettura di
queste opere ci può lasciare immutati, ma non impassibili: l’odio e
l’amore trovano in esse accenti definitivi che toccano le radici della
nostra coscienza e dello nostra sensibilità. E mentre l’occhio spazia
per vastità nuove e terribili, e ammira terre e solitudini sconosciute, e
vede esperienze impensate, il cuore, il cuore dell’eterno fanciullo che
è in noi, mormora inconsapevolmente una parola d’amore e di
solidarietà ultraumana.

***

Pubblicheremo, in seguito, «Martin Eden», «L’amore della vita», «Il

vagabondo delle stelle» e gli altri romanzi nei quali Jack London
profuse i ricordi e le impressioni dei suoi movimentati viaggi e
vagabondaggi attraverso il mondo. Ma forse daremo ai lettori italiani,
prima di essi, la traduzione di almeno uno dei suoi romanzi sociali,
del terribile Tallone di ferro, che a noi sembra oggidì opera di viva
attualità.
Il «Tallone di ferro», scrisse Anatole France, presentando, l’anno
scorso, il volume ai lettori francesi, «è il termine energico col quale
Jack London disegna la plutocrazia. Il libro che, tra le sue opere,
porta questo titolo, fu pubblicato nel 1907. Rintraccia la lotta che
scoppierà un giorno tra la plutocrazia e il popolo, se il Destino, nella
sua collera, lo permetterà. Ahimè! Jack London aveva il genio che
vede quello che è nascosto alla folla degli uomini e possedeva una
scienza che gli permetteva d’anticipare i tempi. Egli previde
l’assieme degli avvenimenti che si sono svolti nella nostra epoca. Lo
spaventevole dramma al quale ci fa assistere in ispirito, nel Tallone
di ferro, non è ancora divenuto una realtà, e noi non sappiamo dove
e quando si compierà la profezia dell’americano discepolo di Marx.
«Jack London era socialista spinto, socialista rivoluzionario. L’uomo
che, nel suo libro, distingue la verità e prevede l’avvenire, il saggio, il
forte, il buono, si chiama Ernesto Everhard. Come l’autore, fu
operaio e lavorò con le sue mani. E voi sapete che colui che fece
cinquanta volumi prodigiosi di vita e d’intelligenza e morì giovane,
era figlio di un operaio e incominciò la sua illustre esistenza in
un’officina. Ernesto Everhard è pieno di coraggio e di saggezza,
pieno di forza e di dolcezza, tratti tutti che sono comuni a lui e allo
scrittore che l’ha creato. E a integrare la somiglianza che esiste tra
loro, l’autore assegna, a colui ch’egli realizza, una moglie d’anima
grande e di spirito forte, della quale il marito fa una socialista. E noi
sappiamo, d’altro canto, che Mrs. Charmian lasciò, con suo marito
Jack, il Partito del Lavoro dopo che cotesta associazione diede segni
di moderatismo.
«Le due insurrezioni che formano materia del libro che io presento al
lettore francese sono così sanguinarie, e presentano nel disegno di
quelli che le provocano una tale perfidia e nell’esecuzione tanta
ferocia, che ci si chiede se esse sarebbero possibili in America, in
Europa, specie in Francia. Io non lo crederei, se non avessi
l’esempio delle giornate di Giugno e la repressione della Comune del
1876, che mi ricorda come tutto sia permesso contro i poteri. Tutto il
proletariato d’Europa ha sentito, come quello d’America, il Tallone di
ferro.
«Per il momento, il socialismo in Francia, come pure in Italia e in
Ispagna, è troppo debole per temere il Tallone di ferro, poichè
l’estrema debolezza è l’unica salvezza dei deboli. Nessun Tallone di
ferro calpesterà questa polvere di partito. Qual’è la causa della sua
diminuzione? Ci vuol ben poco per abbatterlo in Francia dove la cifra
dei proletarî è esigua. Per diverse ragioni la guerra, che si dimostrò
crudele col piccolo borghese spogliandolo senza farlo gridare,
giacchè questi è un animale muto; la guerra non fu troppo
inclemente per l’operaio della grande industria, che trovò da vivere
fabbricando armi e munizioni e un salario, magro sin troppo dopo la
guerra, ma non caduto, tuttavia, mai troppo in basso. I dominatori del
momento vegliavano, e quel salario non era, in sostanza, che della
carta che i grossi proprietarî, vicini al potere, non penavano troppo a
procurarsi. Bene o male, l’operaio visse. Aveva udito tante
menzogne che non si stupiva più di nulla. Fu quello il momento che i
socialisti scelsero per disgregarsi e ridursi in polvere. Questa pure è,
senza morti e feriti, una bella disfatta del socialismo. Come
accadde? E come mai tutte le forze di un grande partito
s’addormentarono? Le ragioni da me esposte non sono sufficienti a
spiegarlo. La guerra ci deve entrare per qualche cosa, la guerra che
uccide gli spiriti come i corpi.
«Ma un giorno la lotta del lavoro e del capitale ricomincerà. Verranno
allora giorni simili alle rivolte di San Francisco e di Chicago, delle
quali Jack London ci mostra, per anticipazione, l’indicibile orrore.
Non vi è alcuna ragione, pertanto, di credere che in quel giorno (o
vicino o lontano) il socialismo sarà ancora frantumato sotto il Tallone
di ferro e affogato nel sangue.
«Avevano gridato nel 1907 a Jack London: «Voi siete uno
spaventevole pessimista!». Socialisti sinceri l’accusavano di gettare
lo spavento nel partito. Avevano torto. Bisogna che quelli che hanno
il dono prezioso e raro di prevedere, pubblichino i pericoli che
presentono. Ricordo di avere udito dire parecchie volte dal grande
Jaurès: «Non si conosce abbastanza fra noi la forza delle classi
contro le quali abbiamo a combattere. Hanno la forza e si attribuisce
loro la virtù; i preti hanno messo da parte la morale della chiesa per
coltivare quella dell’officina; cosicchè la società tutt’intera, allorchè
queste classi saranno minacciate, accorrerà a difenderle». Egli
aveva ragione, come London ha ragione di porgerci lo specchio
profetico dei nostri errori e delle nostre imprudenze.
«Non compromettiamo l’avvenire: ci appartiene. La plutocrazia
perirà. Nella sua potenza si scorgono di già i segni della rovina. Essa
perirà perchè ogni regime di casta è votato alla morte; il salariato
perirà perchè è ingiusto. Perirà gonfio d’orgoglio, in piena potenza,
come perì la schiavitù e la servitù.
«E già, assentandolo attentamente, ci si accorge che è caduco.
Questa guerra, che la grande industria di tutti i paesi del mondo ha
voluto, questa guerra che è stata la sua guerra, questa guerra nella
quale essa riponeva la speranza di nuove ricchezze, ha causato
tante distruzioni e così profonde, che l’oligarchia internazionale è
essa stessa scossa e s’avvicina il giorno in cui essa crollerà su
un’Europa rovinata.
«Non posso annunziare che perirà d’un colpo e senza lotta. Essa
lotterà. L’ultima sua guerra sarà forse lunga e avrà diverse fortune. O
voi, eredi del proletariato, o generazioni future, figli di giorni nuovi,
voi lotterete, e allorchè dei crudeli rovesci vi faranno dubitare del
successo della vostra causa, riprenderete fiducia, e direte col nobile
Everhard: «Perduro per questa volta, ma non per sempre. Abbiamo
appreso molte cose. Domani l’idea risorgerà, più forte in saggezza e
in disciplina».

***

Non abbiamo potuto resistere alla tentazione di riprodurre nella sua

interezza la presentazione che Anatole France fa del Tallone di ferro,
perchè, confortati dal suo giudizio, nell’ora torbida che attraversa
l’Europa tutta, premuta com’è dal tallone del bolscevismo
dell’estrema sinistra e dell’estrema destra, dalle dittature rosse e da
quelle monarchico-militaristiche, è più che mai necessario che quelli
«che hanno il dono prezioso e raro di prevedere, rendano noti i
pericoli che presentono».
A parte il grande godimento intellettuale che dà l’opera di Jack
London, essa racchiude in sè un insegnamento e un ammonimento
che non debbono andare del tutto perduti. Sin dal 1904, egli aveva
scritto una terribile requisitoria contro la società capitalistica attuale.
Il suo inesorabile «j’accuse», dal titolo «War of the Classes», Guerra
delle classi, vibra di sincera e profonda rivolta contro la borghesia
trionfante, e predica il socialismo come una santa crociata. In lui
l’amore del proletario è qualche cosa di più alto, di più universale
dell’amore di patria; e nell’accusare e nel difendere trova accenti che
impressionano e commuovono, perchè ci fa sentire nella sua
personale e dolorosa esperienza tutta l’ingiustizia di una società
«dove sono uomini che sprecano ricchezze non guadagnate col
proprio lavoro, e uomini che languono nella miseria per mancanza di
lavoro».