Art and Science: A Philosophical Sketch of Their Historical Complexity and Codependence

Author(s): NICOLAS J. BULLOT, WILLIAM P. SEELEY and STEPHEN DAVIES

Source: The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, Vol. 75, No. 4, SPECIAL ISSUE:
SEVENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY ISSUE (FALL 2017), pp. 453-463
Published by: Wiley on behalf of The American Society for Aesthetics
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 NICOLAS J. BULLOT, WILLIAM P. SEELEY, AND STEPHEN DAVIES

Art and Science: A Philosophical Sketch of Their

Historical Complexity and Codependence

ABSTRACT

To analyze the relations between art and science, philosophers and historians have developed different lines of inquir
type of inquiry considers how artistic and scientific practices have interacted over human history. Another project
determine the contributions (if any) that scientific research can make to our understanding of art, including the con
that cognitive science can make to philosophical questions about the nature of art. We rely on contributions made t
projects in order to demonstrate that art and science are codependent phenomena. Specifically, we explore the code
of art and science in the context of a historical analysis of their interactions and in the context of contemporary
the cognitive science of art.

Philosophers and historians have developed dif- science because the cognitive and social
from
ifestations
ferent types of research projects to analyze the re- of the arts fundamentally differ
lations between art and science. A first typethose that characterize the sciences. A common
of in-
way to defend this simple image consists in de-
quiry considers how artistic and scientific practices
have interacted over human history. Another riving
line it from the Two Cultures view (Snow 1993;
of research aims to determine the contributions see Blair and Grafton 1992 for a historical anal-
(if any) that scientific methods can make to our ysis). This view assumes that the culture of the
understanding of art, including the contributions arts and humanities fundamentally differs from
that cognitive science can make to philosophical the culture of the sciences. A typical defender
questions about the nature of art. In this article,
of the Two Cultures perspective may emphasize
we critique the "Two Cultures" view that separatesthe importance of personal experience and idio-
art history from the history of science and holds graphic knowledge in artistic culture and contrasts
these with the quest for impersonal objectivity
that scientific methods are irrelevant to our philo-
sophical understanding of art. By contrast to thisand nomothetic explanations of natural phenom-
view, we argue that the arts and the sciences are ena in science (see, for example, Popper 1979,
codependent phenomena. Specifically, we explore who characterizes science as a quest for objec-
the codependence of the arts and the sciences tivity).
in The conceptions of art holding that it is
in principle impossible for science to explain the
the broad context of a historical analysis of their
nature and values of the arts are similarly con-
interactions and in the specific context of contem-
porary debates on the cognitive science of art. ducive to the Two Cultures view. To those who
assume the Two Cultures view, the arts and the
I. THE CODEPENDENCE THESIS sciences are two independent realms of human
endeavor.
According to a conception that belatedlyAlthough they might not explicitly defend the
emerged
Two Cultures
in the history of art theory, art essentially view, several philosophers have
differs

The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 75:4 Fall 2017

© 2017 The American Society for Aesthetics

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454 The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism

maintained the status quo

II. THE associated
DEPENDENCE with that
OF SCIENTIFIC COGNITION
ON ARTISTIC INNOVATION AND AESTHETIC SKILLS
view by defending theses consistent with it. For ex-
ample, several philosophers have held that works
of art are devised to Catherine
elicit Elgin introduced a seminal
subjective andview id- tha
lends support to the
iographic processes, such as an act of intuit- codependence thesis. Her
claim is that "the
ing expressive communication arts and the
(Croce scienceshav-
1909), perform
many of
ing a unified experience of theaesthetic
same cognitive functions,
pleasure both serv
ing to advance
(Beardsley 1969), or valuing anunderstanding"
object from (1993, 13).an
To es
tablish that the arts and
aesthetic perspective (Anderson 2000). Recently, the sciences tap into
shared pool of cognitive
a number of analytic philosophers resources,
have Elgin relie
radically
on the
called into question the notion of exemplification
explanatory value understood
of the i
contemporary biologicalGoodman's (1968) sense: ansciences
and cognitive exemplification
of
an item that at once refers to and instantiates a
art. For example, among the sternly pessimistic as-
category.
sessments of the science of Goodman's
art,exampleGraham is a carpet sam-
McFee
ple. Other examples of exemplification
(2011) maintains that contemporary include
neuroscience
diagrams and notational
is irrelevant to our philosophical systems such as musical
reflections upon
scores.
an art form like dance. Other philosophers opt
for less radical forms Exemplification
of pessimism. occurs in
Asboth
a the arts an
self-
the sciences,engaged
declared moderate pessimist where it serves
withfunctions
neu-in r
lation to highlighting,
roscience, David Davies (2013) argues that re-underscoring, convey
or summarizing
cent psychological empirical information.
research on Moreover,
danceex
plification of unsuspected
does not directly settle any of the core norma- features may elic
conceptual change.
tive and ontological questions As noted by Elgin,
investigated by "W
The Rite
the philosophy of dance (for of Spring
example, exemplifies tonal patter
specify-
classical music cannot accommodate, or the
ing the factors that make dance an art form).
Davies's concerns echoMichelson-Morley
other comparable experiment exemplifies assess-
phe-
ments made by moderatenomena classical physics cannot
pessimists coherently de-
(Hyman 2010;
Noë 2015; Langer 2016)scribe,
andthe inadequacies
by a of availablemoderate
few conceptions
are made
optimists (Seeley 2011, 2013;manifest" (1993, 17). and Reber
Bullot
2013), who argue that The use of exemplification in both theand
neuroaesthetics arts and the
cognitive neuroscience theofsciences therefore
art rest suggests
on thatathe arts and
mistaken
ontology of art and an theunreasonably
sciences rely on at least onereductionist
common tool-
methodology. box of cognitive skills (that is, those perceptual
The pessimistic views recently expressed by an- and inferential skills required for comprehend-
alytic philosophers of art may surreptitiously pro- ing and using exemplification). If the arts and the
long the contentious influence of the Two Cul- sciences sometimes rely on the same core cogni-
tures view. To propose an alternative conceptual tive toolbox, then this shared cognitive founda-
framework to this divisive pessimism, we devote tion may lead them to be mutually dependent in a
this article to a thesis that undermines the Two number of contexts. Recent research in cognitive
Cultures view: we defend a codependence the- science- including Thagard (2005), Carruthers,
sis holding that a history of dependence rela- Stich, and Siegal (2002), Seeley (2011), Bullot and
tions has linked the arts and the sciences and Reber (2013)- and the historical philosophy of
continues to link them in the current historical the relations between art and science- including
context. We use dependence relations to denote McAllister (1989), Freedberg (2003), Hecht,
networks of cognitive, social, and technological Schwartz, and Atherton (2003), and S. Davies
interactions between artistic and scientific phe- (2012)- provides a diverse body of evidence to
nomena. One of the faults of the Two Cultures support Elgin's claim and our codependence the-
view is to omit the existence and significance of sis. This can be shown by reviewing a number of
these interactions, and therefore to silence the key dependence relations linking artistic and sci-
entific practices.
history of relations between artistic and scientific
cultures. A first, remarkable relation of dependence oc-
curs when aesthetic and artistic skills make an

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 Bullot, Seeley, and Davies Art and Science 455

essential contribution to epistemic

psychological andprocesses
communicational and
scaffolds for
scientific discoveries. We may scientific understanding.
abbreviate this(See rela-
Sterelny 2010,
tion as follows: artistic innovation -»Wimsatt
Sutton 2010, and scientific
2014 on thein-
importance
novation. Western science since the Renaissance of scaffolds in cultural cognition.)
offers multiple instances of the indispensable con- A clear example of the dependence of scientific
cognition on artistic practices is found in the mu-
tributions of artistic skills to scientific learning and
innovation. There is abundant evidence of this de- tual influence between the tools of optics and nat-
pendence relation in the epistemic roles played uralistic European painting (Kemp 1990). From
by illustrations and pictorial exemplifications in as early as Alberti ([1435] 2011) pictures have
a variety of scientific contexts (for example, been treated as retinal prostheses, artifacts that
Freedberg 2003, Hecht, Schwartz, and Atherton record the projection of reflected light from the
2003, Lopes 2009). Moreover, there is psycho- environment onto a two dimensional surface. This
logical evidence indicating that the development model facilitated the development of more care-
of drawing capacities supports the development ful and precise methods for exploring and docu-
of perceptual expertise and cognitive processes. menting the structure of the natural world. This
Specifically, Aaron Kozbelt has shown that draw- relationship was also influenced and inflected by
ing skill influences performance in visual analysis an understanding of the nature of the psycholog-
tasks among expert draftsmen (2001; Kozbelt and ical relationship between the consumer and the
Seeley 2007), which suggests that artists' produc- work. The perspectivai systems developed in Re-
tive practices influence their perceptual and cog- naissance painting produced well-known percep-
nitive abilities (Ruskin [1857] 1971, 27-28). tual distortions that led to the development of sys-
As shown by David Freedberg (2003), the ca- tematic workarounds to counteract them (Kubovy
pacity to produce precise drawings and illustra- 1986; Hyman 2006). The development of systems
tions of specimens was a critical instrument for of perspective was thereby a step in the process of
the research into natural history undertaken by analyzing the limitations of our perceptual anal-
members of the Academy of Linceans, a scien- ysis skills and creating tools to overcome these
tific circle founded by Federico Cesi (1585-1630) limitations.
and his friends. (This capacity can be called an There are also contexts in which judgments
an artistic skill because such illustrations rely on about aesthetic properties play important epis-
the use of tools, depiction principles, and sys- temic roles in scientific decision making. The
tems of social learning of well-known artistic tra- specific relation that obtains in these cases
ditions.) Anatomists like Vesalius (about 1550) may be aesthetic skills - ► scientific decision
used extraordinary pictorial skills, as did the mi- making. Philosophers of science have demon-
crobiologist and neuroanatomist Santiago Ramón strated that researchers' sensitivity to aesthetic
y Cajal (1911) in communicating his histologi- properties- such as beauty, simplicity, proportion,
cal observations with the microscope (Newman, and coherence- is integral to scientific judgment.
Araque, and Dubinsky 2016). Scientific treatises This claim has been developed to account for de-
have long been illustrated with pictorial exemplifi- cision making in science in general (McAllister
cations, and scientists specializing in this craft have 1989, 1996; Thagard 2005) and in mathematics in
been acknowledged for their excellence. Note, for particular (Montano 2014).
instance, the popularity of Robert Hooke's Mi-
crographia of 1667, which for the first time in-
cluded detailed plates of what could be seen only III. THE DEPENDENCE OF ARTISTIC CREATIVITY
with the aid of a microscope or telescope. These ON SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION
examples demonstrate that pictorial exemplifi-
cations were essential for developing analytical To establish the codependence thesis as plausible
skills needed to identify biological kinds (Wilson, we can also rely on evidence that the reciprocal
Barker, and Brigandt 2007) and to communi- of artistic innovation -* scientific innovation ob
cate the results of empirical enquiries carried out tains in highly significant historical contexts. Tha
with these analytical skills. Consistent with Elgin's is, we can rely on contexts in which scientific cog
(1993) thesis, these examples illustrate that artis- nition and inventions ("scientific scaffolds") ar
tic drawing skills were essential in providing both necessary conditions for cultural innovation in th

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456 The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism

mathematics
aesthetic and artistic domains. Abehind
rich acoustic
body phenomena
of werehis-
torical evidence supports studied
this. and further developed by Galileo. The
golden did
The Greeks, for example, ratio was
notanalyzed by Fibonacci
clearly dis-(about
1100) and Kepler
tinguish empirical investigation (about 1600).
from Meanwhile,rev-
artistic the
elation or either of these from
pursuit philosophy
of scientific and
knowledge and the produc-
tion of art
theology. In that spirit, they were still not clearly
classified musicseparated. Many
with
of those we think
mathematics. If this was because theyof as artists
found were equally
math- con-
ematics useful for theorizing cerned with about
scientific matters.
and As an example of
teaching
music, we might have an the early
influence ofinstance
scientific culture onofartistic inno-
scien-
tific innovation - ► artistic vation (that is, scientific innovation
innovation. It-> was
artistic inno-
the
Greek mathematician and vation geometer
), Piero della Francesca (about 1450), along
Pythagoras
(about 2500 BP) who first with other artists of the period,the
investigated employed re- Eu-
lation between pitch and clidean
the geometry
length and algebra
ofin vibrating
the development
strings. As is well known, of linear perspective and
Aristotle notdepth-representation
only phi- in
losophized, including about painting.
art,As well,but thinkalso
of Leonardo
wrote da Vinci,on
physics and natural history. who mixedHe the discoursed
creation of artworks with on sketched
mu-
sic theory, the construction inventions,
ofengineering
musical diagrams, and dissection
scales, and
on optics and perception. and Vitruvius
anatomical studies, or of Dürer (about
Pollio (about 1500)
2000 BP), a Roman architect and his studies
and of animals.
engineer, (Here they an- follow
alyzed, among other things, Alberti's ([1435]
the 2011) injunction that
acoustic the artist
proper-
ties of theaters (1914 Bk. should5study§6-8;the mechanics
see Boyer of movement and in or-
Merzbach 2011). It was Vitruvius der to be able to represent
(Bk. action.)
3, § The 1)scientific
who
theorized the ideal bodily enculturation of prominent Renaissance
proportions as based artists is
on whole-number ratios- apparent in da Vinci's ([1651] 2005)
as exemplified treatise on
later in
Leonardo da Vinci's (about 1470)
painting, which reads image oftreatment
like a scientific Vit-of
ruvian man- and who advocated that these same its subject, and in Dürer's writings on geometry
ratios be used in buildings for their aesthetic ad-and proportion.
vantage. This would be an early instance of scien- Further, with respect to material culture and
tific innovation -► aesthetic/artistic innovation. technical scaffolds, the scientific innovation - ►
It was a different proportion, the so-called artistic innovation relation obtains in any context
golden ratio, that fascinated Pythagoras andwhere artistic practices use artifacts developed by
Euclid (about 2300 BP). It is a measure sectioned scientific practices and cultures (for example, op-
into a and b with the property that a + b divided by tical artifacts like microscopes and cameras, cin-
a is equal to a divided by b , which is know as (p and ematographs, computers and data gathering in
is expressed as the irrational number 1.68103 - arts using digital media). The relation also obtains
This ratio featured in Greek and later architec- whenever scientific theories and methods inspire
tural and sculptural design. It was said to have new artistic ideas (for example, paintings inspired
been used by the famous Greek sculptor Phidias by discoveries in biology and geography, the use of
(about 2450 BP) and takes its Greek-letter name stochastic mathematics to generate musical com-
from his. The use of the ratio has been widely position by Iannis Xenakis 2001, science in archi-
praised for lending harmony and beauty to con- tecture).
structions and paintings (Livio 2002). In the twen- A related case involves using a philosophical or
tieth century, it was championed for its aesthetic scientific theory in order to assess the artistic merit
merit by Le Corbusier in his architecture. of an artistic endeavor ( philosophical/scientific in-
(For detailed reviews of the literature on the novation -> artistic innovation). The aim of some
golden ratio, along with skepticism about the al- scientific theories is to provide nomological or
legation of its positive aesthetic character, see mechanistic explanations of artistic behaviors or
Berlyne 1971 and Green 1995. Note that scien- phenomena (for example, empirical aesthetics or
tific errors have sometimes inspired artistic inno- neuroaesthetic theories). But some other theories
vations and that this might be a case in point.) are used normatively and philosophically, as ways
The themes and approaches of Greco-Roman to interpret works of art that have had major ef-
times continued in the following 1700 years. The fects on the course of art history. A clear example

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Bullot, Seeley, and Davies Art and Science 457

of this relation is found in the influence of

music is an outgrowth of emotionally heightened
Marxism in the arts. Neither Marx nor Engels
speech.
The common view among present-day evolu-
developed systematic aesthetic theories, though
Marx intended to do so (Hemingway 2014).tionary
Ac- theorists is that art is a by-product or span-
drel,
cording to their broader theory, art is part of thewithout adaptive significance in evolutionary
superstructure . As such it is a by-product ofterms.
and But at the close of the twentieth century
gives expression to underlying social forcesand with the move to naturalize aesthetics, others
and
dynamics. The considerable influence of Marxism have argued that art's antiquity, universality, and
and socialism on the arts (for example, Socialist
pleasurableness imply that it was adaptive for our
Realism in the Soviet Union and, mutatis mutan- ancestors, either as a tool for seduction (Miller
dis , Social Realism in the United States) came,2000, Dutton 2009) or for other survival bene-
then, more from its economic and political analy-
fits, such as forging group and interpersonal bonds
(Dissanayake 2000). (For a review of recent theo-
sis of class struggle than from its aesthetic theory.
However, while art may be a by-product of the riesso-
and critical discussion, see S. Davies 2012.)
cioeconomic base, it can reflect back on this base
in a way that suggests social critique and revision
(, scientific and philosophical innovation - ► artistic
IV. THE CODEPENDENCE OF SCIENTIFIC AND ARTISTIC

innovation). This is crucial in explaining the im-

UNDERSTANDING IN THE SCIENCE OF ART

portance of Marxism and socialism to some artists

(such as Bertolt Brecht and Diego Rivera)One thread
and that draws the arts and the sciences to-
commentators on art and cultural history (such gether is an interest in the cognitive skills deployed
as Benjamin and the Frankfurt School; Baxandall in artistic practice. For example, how do artists
and Morawski in Marx and Engels 1974). develop their productive practices from reflection
A major scientific innovation in the nineteenth on their own perceptual, emotional, and cognitive
century was the account of evolution presented experience?
by Moreover, how are consumers' minds
Charles Darwin and Alfred Russell Wallace. This affected by the artifacts produced by artists? The
was the key scientific innovation that enabled fu- nature of these psychological interactions renders
ture evolutionary accounts of art (an instance of the relation between the sciences and the arts a
scientific understanding -► artistic understanding).two-way street, fostering a reciprocal relationship
However, Darwin had little to say about the arts in between both (scientific understanding «-> artistic
general. He used the term "art" to mean "skill" inunderstanding). This suggests that evidence for the
almost all instances. But he did call birdsong mu- codependence thesis is to be found in the cognitive
sic (1880, pt. 2, chap. 13), and he held that femalesciences of art.
mate choice in insects, birds, and other animals Some precursors of the empirical study of the
is based on aesthetic judgments of their mates' arts date from the eighteenth and nineteenth cen-
beauty (1880, pt. 1, chap. 3:92; pt. 2, chap. 11:329;
turies. During the eighteenth century, aesthetics
pt. 3, chap. 21:616.) That is, he (wrongly) saw all and the philosophy of art were clearly established
perception-based pleasure as aesthetic in char-as subjects for philosophical theorizing. A repre-
acter (S. Davies 2012). While he thought it wassentative work here is Baumgarten's Aesthetica
mysterious that music was avidly pursued, given ([1750] 2014). Baumgarten construed aesthetics
its lack of "use to man in reference to his daily as involving taste, not merely sensory awareness,
habits of life" (1880, pt. 3, chap. 19:569-570), he and attempted to use deductive logic to distill
the scientific laws that governed beauty and aes-
allowed that, like the stridulations of insects, song
plays a role in courtship (1880, pt. 1, chap. 3: 87;thetic appreciation (Davey 2009). Meanwhile, the
pt. 3, chap. 19: 572). Wallace, for his part, held that
nineteenth century saw the arrival of experimental
music and dancing are adventitious by-products psychology, with particular interest in perception.
of our brainpower and excessive vitality. "As with Gustav Fechner (1876), Hermann von Helmholtz
the mathematical, so with the musical faculty, it (1895), and Wilhelm Wundt (1908) performed
is impossible to trace any connection between its experiments on the golden ratio and on visual art
possession and survival in the struggle for exis- and music. Helmholtz influenced the scientists-
tence" (1889, 468). In a similar vein, Darwin's sup-in particular, Michel Chevreul- whose work on
porter, Herbert Spencer ([1857] 1910) argued that interactions between colors was the ultimate

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458 The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism

source of George Seuraťs pointillist

tools for revealing, technique
facts about the neurophysio-
(scientific innovationlogical - ► artistic
and psychological innovation).
mechanisms underlying
Famously, Seurat also ordinary copied perception
Mach (Zeki 1999; Cavanagh into
bands 2005). his
paintings to enhance figure Related research employs digitalsegregation
ground image analysis
in the compositions (Latto techniques 1995;
to study theRatliffe
image features and im-
1992).
Scientists (Emch 1900; Birkhoff
age statistics 1933;
that underwrite Eysenck
our capacity to rec-
1941) in the early twentieth ognize the subjects of pictorial representations
century attempted
to distill formulas capturing and sort them intothe stylisticprinciples
categories (Bonnar, of
beautiful geometric forms. Gosselin, andBy Schyns 2002; Greene
the and Oliva
midcentury,
a less reductive and more familiar kind of art 2009; Graham et al. 2012). This research has been
study was pioneered by Rudolf Arnheim (1954, used both to develop digital image analysis tech-
1970, 1982). Arnheim applied the principles of niques and to further our understanding of the
Gestalt psychology- which seek pattern, closure,
nature of artistic style.
and the like- to the appreciation of art (seeIt should come as no surprise that such a
also Ramachandran and Hirstein 1999). Daniel
broad range of research in cognitive science has
been dedicated to understanding artistic produc-
E. Berlyne (1971, 1974), who revived and mod-
tion and the nature of our interactions with art-
ernized Fechner's psychophysics of art, argued
that the attraction and pleasure caused by art
works. Artworks are artifacts designed to trigger
affective, perceptual, and cognitive responses that
was a function of its surprise, ambiguity, novelty,
enable consumers to recover the works' expres-
complexity, and uncertainty. More controversially
sive, formal, aesthetic, and broader representa-
perhaps, he argued that the response was most
efficacious when it was at a moderate level. Colin tional content. The success of this communicative
Martindale (1990), another cognitive psycholo- project requires artists to develop a systematic,
gist, was a critic of Berlyne on this last point. albeit tacit, understanding of the relationship be-
Martindale focused more on the vicissitudes of tween the content of their works (for example,
the structure of natural landscapes or the expres-
stylistic change and how this affects the aesthetic
response. Art seeks novelty, Martindale maintains,sion of emotions), their medium (for example, the
geometry of optics or the physics of acoustic phe-
and styles succeed each other in a predictable fash-
ion. A more recent idea proposed by Rolf Reber, nomena), and the science of perception (for exam-
Norbert Schwarz, and Piotr Winkielman (2004) ple, Carroll and Seeley 2013b). One would expect,
suggests that aesthetic pleasure comes with the therefore, that the psychological relationships be-
ease with which the artwork is cognitively and per-tween artists, artworks, and consumers should be
ceptually processed. It has been argued that this of interest to anyone who wishes to understand
view can be amended to account for obtainingart. However, as noted above, a number of practi-
enjoyment from complex, challenging artworks cal and philosophical problems have been raised
(Bullot and Reber 2013). for this view of the relation between science and
Neuroscientific explorations of the range of art.

formal devices, abstractions, and compositional David Davies (2013) has introduced a distinc-
strategies artists employ in their works havetion between moderate optimism and moderate
served as the foundation for a new research pro- pessimism that is useful in articulating general
gram in neuroaesthetics (Zeki 1999; Livingstone skepticism about the explanatory relationship be-
2002; Chatterjee and Vartanian 2014; Pearce et al. tween cognitive science and art. Moderate opti-
2016) that extends to experimental research in mists (for example, Seeley 2011, 2013; Bullot and
a broad range of media- for example, dance Reber 2013) begin with the assumption that art-
(Biasing et al. 2012), music (Peretz and Zatorre works are communicative artifacts. The content
2003; Huron 2006; Levitin 2006; Patel 2008; communicated might be social or political crit-
Koelsch 2015), and film (Zacks 2014). icism, some art theoretical point, a perceptual
Neuroaesthetics also provides an example of representation of a scene or object, the expres-
the artistic innovation -* scientific innovation re- sion of emotional or aesthetic properties, or the
lation. A central assumption of neuroaesthetics isartistic exercise of teasing the formal coherence
that artworks, like behavioral deficits studied inout of a complex, abstract composition. Artworks
neuropsychology, reflect, and so can function as are the vehicles that mediate this communicative

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 Bullot, Seeley, and Davies Art and Science 459

exchange. Questions about the structure

cal and normative and con-
questions concerning the nature
tent of artworks, artistic understanding,
of art and artistic practices. Empirical
aesthetic
studies can
experience, and other forms be used
of to confirm
artisticor disconfirm
apprecia-
the conceptual
tion can thereby be approached
schema provided from a compu-
by philosophers of art, but in and
tational perspective as questions
of themselves about
such studies dothe ways
not provide material
in which consumers recover salient information sufficient either to adjudicate among competing
theories or to provide independent resolutions to
from the perceptible aspects of artworks in order
to engage with their content. standing philosophical puzzles.
Psychology, psychophysiology, and neuro-The view of the relationship between empir-
ical results and conceptual analysis that Davies
science, among other disciplines, are fields that can
be used to model the processes governing our in- presents is unreasonably austere. Theorizing does
teractions with artworks. Scientific research about not happen in a vacuum. The discovery of novel
perception can contribute to clarifying a range psychological facts concerning the nature of our
of debates in aesthetics, including debates about engagement with artworks has the potential to in-
aesthetic attention, the nature of film, and pic-fluence the subsequent modification or develop-
torial representation (Carroll and Seeley 2013a; ment of conceptual schema. Of course, there is no
Nanay 2016). Research from these scientific fields reason to think this will always be the case. It is
can contribute information to help confirm exist- an open empirical question whether, and to what
ing theories, adjudicate standing debates, and in extent, empirical facts constrain and influence the-
some cases resolve long-standing questions aboutory building in any particular context. The moder-
the nature of art and associated artistic practices ate optimist embraces this fact. The moderate pes-
(Seeley 2011). For example, research from the psy- simist, therefore, owes us some principled reason
chology and neuroscience of dance supports the to believe that the kind of information collected
notion that metakinesis, or a form of kinesthetic in cognitive science is never germane to concep-
understanding, underwrites audience engagement tual analysis, theory building, and the explanation
with choreographed dance works (Montero 2006,of normative assessment. Short of any such rea-
2013; Carroll and Seeley 2013b). And Margaret sons, moderate pessimism looks to collapse into
Livingstone (2002) has shown that Leonardo ma- an austere version of moderate optimism.
nipulated spatial frequency information in the Some moderate optimists (for example, Seeley
surface of the Mona Lisa to produce her enig- 2011, 2013; Bullot and Reber 2013) and pessimists
matic expression, both confirming and modifying (Hyman 2010; Noë 2015; Langer 2016) have ar-
Gombrich's (1950) account of the painting by pro- gued that the methodology adopted in empirical
viding a mechanism to explain the dynamics of our studies of the arts fails to locate art. Research
perceptual interactions with its depicted subject. in cognitive science and aesthetics rests on an
Moderate optimists are positive about the ex- assumption that our interactions with artworks
tent to which these kinds of explanatory relation- depend on no more cognitive apparatus than our
ships between science and art generalize. They ar- ordinary affective, perceptual, and cognitive inter-
gue that answers to questions about the nature actions with the world. Consequently, pessimists
of art often require that we look under the hood argue that empirical results may help explain how
to evaluate whether our best models of artistic we perceive objects in depth in a painting, the
practice match to the psychological details of our dynamics of a sculptural composition, or the ex-
interactions with artworks. Where the results of pressive content of choreographed movements.
this kind of research contribute to our understand- Likewise, empirical results may facilitate explana-
ing of individual artworks and associated artistic tions of our preferences for artifacts that we cat-
practices, we should embrace them and incorpo- egorize as art. But empirical results do not do so
rate them into our understanding of art and artistic in a way that explains why these representations,
practices. formal aesthetic properties, or expressive qualities
Moderate pessimists (for example, D. Davies count as artistically salient qualities of the work,
2013) share many intuitions with moderate op- why we categorize these artifacts as distinct from
timists. However, they question the explanatory their ordinary, nonartistic affective, perceptual, or
scope of empirical results. In particular, they ques- cognitive counterparts. This is a difficult problem.
tion whether these results generalize to theoreti- It often leads to an extreme pessimism about the

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 460 The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism

relationship between science the application

and of previously
art worked
(McFee out concep-2011;
Noë 2015). tual schema to our interactions with individual art-
Extreme pessimists argue works. The that the
critical piece of thelocation
puzzle is to explain of
art lies in the normative the normative conventions themselves,
conventions that not how
govern
artistic practice and shape our appreciative judg- they are applied.
ments about individual artworks. The influence of The moderate optimist might just bite the bul-
these normative conventions in our engagement let on this point. Cognitive science is well suited
with art, they argue, lies outside the purview of to explain how normative conventions govern our
our perceptual engagement with artworks (Danto engagement with artworks. But perhaps it is ill
2001; McFee 2011). On the one hand, explanations suited to explain why we appeal to those conven-
of the application of these normative conventions tions as opposed to others. However, this point
in artistic judgments will call upon the same sets of too could be challenged. Recent evolutionary ac-
cognitive practices deployed in the application of counts of culture and the arts (for example, Dutton
normative conventions in any domain. So, again, 2009; Sterelny 2010; S. Davies 2012; Wimsatt 2014)
they will fail to locate art. On the other hand, the fall under the umbrella of cognitive science. Their
same cognitive processes will be involved whether account of cultural change is poised to help an-
these conventions are applied correctly or incor- swer why questions about the normative conven-
rectly, whether the resulting judgments are apt or tions that govern our interactions with artworks.
not. Therefore, cognitive science will not be of Further, the normative conventions that define
any use in understanding how these normative different categories of art are the outcome of a
conventions define our understanding of art or complex social negotiation mediated by the com-
shape our appreciative judgments. Cognitive sci- municative exchange between artists and artistic
ence, hence, fails to locate art because it falls short communities. Therefore, facts about our percep-
in helping us understand the normative dimen- tual engagement with actual artworks have the
sion of artistic appreciation. This is also a difficult potential to help elucidate important aspects of
problem. the cultural evolution of art-historical categories.
The first step to addressing these two difficul- We touch finally on an objection due to Gopnik
ties is to note that our knowledge of the norma- (2013, also Chatterjee 2013). He notes that our in-
tive conventions that define categories of art does terest in art has always been an interest in the
not float free of our perceptual and cognitive en- meanings of artworks, in their semantic content.
gagement with artworks. For instance, one source This is as true of current conceptual and abstract
of our appreciative judgments about a work is modernist works as it was of seventeenth-century
knowledge of the normative conventions govern- Flemish landscapes and Baroque paintings of re-
ing artistic production in an art-historical category. ligious themes. The perceptual and aesthetic qual-
Knowledge of these conventions has the capac- ities of a work are some of the tools artists have
ity to modulate our perception and subsequent used to facilitate our understanding of this seman-
aesthetic experience of a work (Walton 1970). tic content. But it is the particular semantic con-
We can explain these effects in terms of the role tent that matters in the end. The methods of cogni-
played by top-down processing in selective atten- tive science give us no purchase on mental content
tion and object recognition (Pessoa, Kastner, and at this latter grain of particularity.
Ungerleider 2002; Kastner 2004; Barrett and Bar This is also a compelling and difficult prob-
2009; Pessoa and Adolphs 2010). If so, we can lem. But, again, the moderate optimist can simply
explain how knowledge of the normative conven- bite the bullet. Matters of interpretation can be
tions constitutive of a category of art guide atten- left to critics, art historians, and critical theorists.
tion, modulate our perceptual engagement with It is sufficient to establish the relationship scien-
an artwork, and in some cases shape our experi- tific understanding - ► artistic understanding in this
ence of it. case by recognizing that categorization processing
It is here that a moderate pessimist will draw plays a regulative role in our affective, perceptual,
a line in the sand. Psychological analyses of the and cognitive engagement with artworks, that art-
role played by normative conventions in our per- works are fine-tuned to these processes via the
ception and subsequent understanding of a work ongoing communicative exchange between artists
are interesting and important. But they involve and their artistic communities, and that research

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 Bullot, Seeley, and Davies Art and Science 461

in cognitive science can thereby

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