FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

UNIT 2
INTRODUCTION
A highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of processed
materials above the natural soil sub-grade, whose primary function is to distribute the
applied vehicle loads to the sub-grade.
The pavement structure should be able to provide a surface of acceptable riding quality,
adequate skid resistance, favourable light reflecting characteristics, and low noise
pollution.
The ultimate aim is to ensure that the transmitted stresses due to wheel load are
sufficiently reduced, so that they will not exceed bearing capacity of the sub-grade. Two
types of pavements are generally recognized as serving this purpose, namely flexible
pavements and rigid pavements.
This chapter gives an overview of pavement types, layers, and their functions, and
pavement failures. Improper design of pavements leads to early failure of pavements
affecting the riding quality.
An ideal pavement should meet the
following requirements:
•Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe value on the sub-
grade soil,
•Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed upon it,
•Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles,
•Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at high speed,
•Produce least noise from moving vehicles,
•Dust proof surface so that traffic safety is not impaired by reducing visibility,
•Impervious surface, so that sub-grade soil is well protected, and
•Long design life with low maintenance cost.
Flexible pavements
Flexible pavements will transmit wheel load stresses to the lower layers by grain-to-grain
transfer through the points of contact in the granular structure.
 The wheel load acting on the pavement will be distributed to a wider area, and the stress decreases
with the depth. Taking advantage of this stress distribution characteristic, flexible pavements normally
has many layers. Hence, the design of flexible pavement uses the concept of layered system.

 Based on this, flexible pavement may be constructed in a number of layers and the top layer has to
be of best quality to sustain maximum compressive stress, in addition to wear and tear.

 The lower layers will experience lesser magnitude of stress and low quality material can be used.
Flexible pavements are constructed using bituminous materials. These can be either in the form of
surface treatments (such as bituminous surface treatments generally found on low volume roads) or,
asphalt concrete surface courses (generally used on high volume roads such as national highways).

 Flexible pavement layers reflect the deformation of the lower layers on to the surface layer (e.g., if
there is any undulation in sub-grade then it will be transferred to the surface layer). In the case of
flexible pavement, the design is based on overall performance of flexible pavement, and the stresses
produced should be kept well below the allowable stresses of each pavement layer.
Types of Flexible Pavements
The following types of construction have been used in flexible pavement:
•Conventional layered flexible pavement
•Full - depth asphalt pavement
•Contained rock asphalt mat (CRAM)
Conventional flexible pavements are layered systems with high quality expensive
materials are placed in the top where stresses are high, and low quality cheap materials
are placed in lower layers.
Full - depth asphalt pavements are constructed by placing bituminous layers directly
on the soil sub-grade. This is more suitable when there is high traffic and local materials
are not available.
Contained rock asphalt mats are constructed by placing dense/open graded
aggregate layers in between two asphalt layers. Modified dense graded asphalt concrete
is placed above the sub-grade will significantly reduce the vertical compressive strain on
soil sub-grade and protect from surface water.
Typical layers of a flexible pavement
Typical layers of a conventional flexible pavement includes seal coat, surface course,
tack coat, binder course, prime coat, base course, sub-base course, compacted sub-
grade, and natural sub-grade
Seal Coat: Seal coat is a thin surface treatment used to water-proof the surface and to
provide skid resistance.
Tack Coat: Tack coat is a very light application of asphalt, usually asphalt emulsion
diluted with water. It provides proper bonding between two layer of binder course and
must be thin, uniformly cover the entire surface, and set very fast.
Prime Coat: Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to an
absorbent surface like granular bases on which binder layer is placed. It provides
bonding between two layers. Unlike tack coat, prime coat penetrates into the layer
below, plugs the voids, and forms a water tight surface.
Surface course
Surface course is the layer directly in contact with traffic loads and generally contains
superior quality materials. They are usually constructed with dense graded asphalt
concrete(AC). The functions and requirements of this layer are:
•It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness, drainage, etc. Also it will prevent
the entrance of excessive quantities of surface water into the underlying base, sub-base
and sub-grade,
•It must be tough to resist the distortion under traffic and provide a smooth and skid-
resistant riding surface,
•It must be water proof to protect the entire base and sub-grade from the weakening
effect of water.
Binder course
This layer provides the bulk of the asphalt concrete structure. It’s chief purpose is to
distribute load to the base course The binder course generally consists of aggregates
having less asphalt and doesn’t require quality as high as the surface course, so
replacing a part of the surface course by the binder course results in more economical
design.
Base course
The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface of binder
course and it provides additional load distribution and contributes to the sub-surface
drainage It may be composed of crushed stone, crushed slag, and other untreated or
stabilized materials.
Sub-Base course
The sub-base course is the layer of material beneath the base course and the primary
functions are to provide structural support, improve drainage, and reduce the intrusion of
fines from the sub-grade in the pavement structure.
If the base course is open graded, then the sub-base course with more fines can serve as
a filler between sub-grade and the base course A sub-base course is not always needed
or used. For example, a pavement constructed over a high quality, stiff sub-grade may
not need the additional features offered by a sub-base course. In such situations, sub-
base course may not be provided.
Sub-grade
The top soil or sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the stresses from
the layers above. It is essential that at no time soil sub-grade is overstressed. It should be
compacted to the desirable density, near the optimum moisture content.
Flexible Pavement Analysis
 Flexible pavement analysis involves assessing the behavior and
performance of pavements that are constructed with flexible
materials, typically asphalt or bitumen

The analysis includes evaluating the structural, functional, and

environmental aspects of the pavement to ensure its durability
and safety
Design factors for flexible pavements
 Mix design of materials to be used in each pavement component layer

Thickness design of the pavement and the component layers

Thickness design of the pavement and the
component layers
1. Design wheel load
2. Subgrade soil
3. Climatic factors
4. Pavement component materials
5. Environmental factors
6. Special factors in the design of different types of pavement
Design procedures for flexible pavement
For flexible pavements, structural design is mainly concerned with determining
appropriate layer thickness and composition.
The main design factors are stresses due to traffic load and temperature
variations.
Classification of Methods-
Empirical Methods
Semi-empirical Methods
Theoretical methods
Design procedures for flexible pavement
Empirical Methods – based on physical properties or
strength parameters of soil subgrade.
Semi-empirical Methods- when design is based on stress-
strain function and modified based on experience
Theoretical methods- based on theoretical analysis and
mathematical computations
 CBR Method
• The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test is a penetration test that measures the
strength of sub grade soil, sub base, and base course material. It's a commonly
used method for designing the thickness of highways and airfield pavements.
• We still use CBR for pavement design though its an empirical technique as it is
a relatively simple test with a long record of use and hence, understanding of
likely performance also it is easy to perform, inexpensive and has spread
almost everywhere in the world.
• The CBR is a measure of resistance of a material to penetration of a standard
plunger under controlled density and moisture conditions. The CBR test may be
conducted on a remoulded or undisturbed specimen in the laboratory. The test
is simple and has been extensively investigated for field correlations of flexible
pavement thickness requirement.
• The laboratory CBR apparatus consists of a
mould of 150 mm diameter with a base plate and
a collar, a loading frame and dial gauges for
measuring the penetration values and the
expansion on soaking.
• If a soaked (wet) measurement is desired, the
specimen in the mould is soaked in water for
four days and the swelling and water absorption
values are noted.
• The surcharge weight is placed on the top of the
specimen in the mould and the assembly is
placed under the plunger of the loading frame.
• Samples are collected at the required site we are going to design the pavement.
• Sieve the sample through 20 mm IS sieve, take 5 kg of the sample of soil specimen add water to
soil in the quantity such that optimum moisture content is reached.
• Then soil and water are mixed thoroughly, spacer disc is placed over the base plate at the bottom of
mould and a coarse filter paper is placed over the spacer disc.
• Mould is cleaned and oil is applied all over it, now 1/5th of the mould is filled with the prepared
soil and the layer is compacted by giving 56 distributed blows.
• The top layer of the compacted soil is stroked off then the next layer is filled and the process is
repeated again and again. The collar is attached to the mould after the third layer and the process is
pursued.
• Collar is removed after the fifth layer and the extra soil is scraped. Base plate is removed and the
mould is inverted and then it is clamped to base plate.
• On the top surface of soil 2.5 kg of surcharge is placed. Mould is then taken to the testing machine.
• The plunger is penetrated into the soil and a seating load of 4kg is applied so that the contact
between soil is plunger is established.
• Now the dial reading are standardized to 0. Apply the load on the piston so that the penetration rate
is about 1.25 mm/min.
• Record the load readings at penetrations of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 4.0, 5.0, 7.5, 10 and 12.5 mm
The CBR values are usually calculated for penetration of 2.5 mm and 5mm .
generally, CBR value at 2.5mm will be greater than at 5mm and this value is
taken as CBR for design purpose.
CBR design chart
(recommended by IRC)
*Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
Solution-
• Prepare a plot between load in kg versus penetration of plunger for the test
data obtained for soil subgrade

• Loads at 2.5mm penetration= 55kg

and 5mm penetration = 78kg

Area of plunger of dia 5cm= 19.6cm2

Pressure at 2.5mm penetration=

55/19.6 kg/cm2

Pressure at 5mm penetration=

78/19.6 kg/cm2
``
CBR value of soil at 2.5mm penetration=
(55/19.6) * (100/70) = 4%

CBR value of soil at 5mm penetration=

(78/19.6) * (100/105) = 3.8%

Adopt value = 4%
Calculation of design thickness of different layers

A=P(1+r)^(n+10)

Where A= no. of heavy vehicles per day for design

P= no. of heavy vehicles per day at least count
r= annual rate of increase of heavy vehicles (~7.5% for rural roads)
n=no. of yrs between the last count and the yr of completion of construction

A=1200(1+8/100)^(3+10)
= 3260 vehicles/day

Hence, use design curve F

• From F curve, total pavement
thickness
over subgrade having CBR 4%
= 55cm

• To compute the thickness of

compacted soil, design curve F
is used for CBR 7% = 40cm,
hence required thickness = 55-
40=15cm

• Similarly, thickness of
pavement required over poorly
graded gravel of CBR 20% and
CBR 95% = 21 cm & 8cm resp.
Limitations of CBR method
• The CBR method of pavement design gives the total thickness of the pavement above
the subgrade irrespective of the materials used in component layers.

CBR method of pavement design by cumulative standard axle load

where N is the cumulative number of standard axles to be catered for the design in terms of million standards
axle (msa),
A is the initial traffic in the year of completion of construction in terms of the number of commercial vehicles
per day,
D is the lane distribution factors,
F is the vehicle damage factor, n is the design life in years, and
r is the annual growth rate of commercial vehicles (r=0.075 if growth rate is 7.5 percent per annum).
Numerical Example
Solution
Solution
Solution *Bituminous macadam (BM) shall
consist of mineral aggregate and
appropriate binder, mixed in a hot mix
plant and laid with a mechanized paver

*Semi-dense bituminous concrete

(SDBC) is a type of asphalt concrete
that can be used in flexible pavements
as a binder course or wearing course.

*DBM (Dense Bituminous Macadam) is a

part of flexible pavement and the work
shall consist of construction of single or
multiple layers on wmm or sub base

*Premix Carpet (PC) is an open graded

bituminous mix which is widely used as
an overlay on urban sections and as a
surface course on rural roads in India.
Solution
Burmister’s Method (Layered)
•Burmister introduced a semi empirical method for the design of flexible pavements. In this
method, he considered pavement as number of layers. And some assumptions are
considered which are as follows:
•The material in each layer is homogeneous
•The material is isotropic
•The material is elastic in nature
•Contact between the layers is continuous
•Unloaded top layer is free from normal and shearing stresses
•The surface layer is infinite in length (horizontal direction) and finite in depth (vertical
direction).
•The underlying layers are infinite in both directions.
Method
In the Burmister’s design process, firstly conduct plate bearing test on the soil. The
diameter of plate used is 30cm. now determine the modulus of subgrade soil (Es).

In the next step, determine the deflection factor from the below formula

After obtaining the deflection factor from above formula, now select the value of ratio of
modulus of subgrade soil to the modulus of pavement material (Es/Ep) for the given value
of (h/a ratio) from the graph.
 Displacement equations
For flexible plate

For rigid plate

where Δ = maximum vertical deflection; p= uniform pressure; a= plate radius; Es= modulus
of elasticity of soil; F2= displacement factor; h= value of base layer thickness
After obtaining the deflection factor from above formula, now select the value of ratio of
modulus of subgrade soil to the modulus of pavement material (Es/Ep) for the given value
of (h/a ratio) from the graph.
Now for the design load (P) and tyre pressure (p) determine the contact radius (a) from
the below formula.

And then again, find the new value of deflection factor F2 for the design deflection value
using displacement equation
For the obtained values of new deflection factor and Es/Ep ratio, select the appropriate
h/a ratio from the above graph. And finally, by substituting contact radius (a) in h/a ratio
we can get the value of base layer thickness (h).
Question on Burmister’s method

As per the ques –

Δ = maximum vertical deflection = 0.5cm;
p= uniform pressure = 1.25kg/cm2 for soil subgrade and 4 kg/cm2 for base course;
a= plate radius = 15 cm;
Es= modulus of elasticity of soil; F2= displacement factor;
h= value of base layer thickness
Construction of Components
a. Surface Course:
The surface course is the topmost layer of the flexible pavement and is
generally the layer of the best quality as it has to withstand maximum stress
and wear and tear.
It is primarily designed to resist the imposed loads, prevent water ingress to
the underlying layers, and ensure a skid-resistant riding surface.
It is generally made with bitumen bonded with aggregates graded 25 mm – 0.75
mm (filler ).
Its thickness varies between 25 to 50 mm.
b. Binder Course:
The binder course is the intermediate layer between the surface course and the
base course and duly transmits the wheel load from the surface to the base
course.
It is a bitumen-bound aggregate ( nominal size ) layer.
This course is also called a levelling course.
Its thickness ranges from 50 mm to 100 mm.
c. Base Course:
Mainly, hard crushed aggregates are used in the construction of this layer.
The base course is the backbone of flexible pavement.
Its thickness ranges from 100 mm to 300 mm.
d. Sub-base Course:
The sub-base course is the layer beneath the base course that provides
additional structural support and boosts sub-surface drainage.
It is usually an optional layer and may not be constructed if the base course
comprises superior quality materials.
Its thickness ranges from 100 mm to 300 mm.
e. Sub-grade:
The sub-grade is the lowermost layer of the flexible pavement and usually
consists of a compacted layer of natural soil. Its primary function is to bear
all the imposed stresses from the upper layers.
4. Construction of flexible
pavement
The general construction can be sub-divided as follows:
Sub-grade Course Construction:
Generally, the materials used to construct the sub-grade course include
natural soil or murram. The construction procedure consists of uniformly
spreading the natural soil layer and then compacting it at optimum moisture
content.
b. Sub-base Course Construction:
The materials used to construct this layer include crushed stones, gravel, and
coarse sands.
The first step in constructing this layer includes spreading the selected
materials over the prepared sub-grade layer maintaining the specified
thickness and cross slope.
The layer is compacted by the use of rollers at optimum moisture content.
Its thickness ranges from 100 mm to 300 mm.
c. Base Course Construction:
Mainly, hard crushed aggregates are used in the construction of this layer.
Initially, the crushed aggregates are mixed with water in a suitable
proportion in a mixing plant to produce a wet mix of macadam (WMM).
The mix is then transported to the site and spread uniformly over the sub-base
course, usually with the aid of a paver. The layer is then compacted utilizing
a roller and allowed to dry for at least 24 hours.
Its thickness ranges from 100 mm to 300 mm.
Application of Prime Coat
A prime coat is an application of a low viscosity cutback bitumen above the
base course.
It is commonly prepared by mixing bitumen ( 80%) and kerosene (20%).
To make one litre of prime coat, we need 1.05 kg bitumen and 0.10 kg kerosene
and burn it to an adequate temperature.
After preparing the prime coat, it is spread over the base course surface and
allowed to dry for about three days.
It is applied at a rate of 6-9 kg per 10 sqm.
The purposes of Prime Coat are:
~ To fill the capillary voids present in the base course.
~ To bind the materials into a single unit.
~ To harden or toughen the surface.
~ To develop sufficient adhesion between base and binder course.
e. Binder Course Construction
The binder course is the intermediate layer between the surface course and the
base course and duly transmits the wheel load from the surface to the base course.
It is constructed with a bitumen-bound aggregate ( nominal size ).
This course is also called a levelling course.
Its thickness ranges from 50 mm to 100 mm.
f. Application of Tack Coat
A tack coat is provided between the binder course and the surface course. Asphalt
emulsion diluted with water is used as tack coat material.
It is applied at 6.0 to 7.5 kg per 10 sqm area; this quantity may be increased to
7.5 to 10 kilograms of a non-bituminous base.
g. Surface Course Construction:
A surface course is also known as a wearing course. The main aim of the
wearing course is to provide skid-resistance surface, friction, and drainage
for the pavement.
It is the topmost layer that comes in direct contact with wheel loads.
Its thickness ranges from 25 mm to 50 mm.
Stresses in Flexible Pavements
Engineering Properties of Bituminous Materials - The behaviour of bitumen is determined
with reference to anticipated climatic conditions and intensity of traffic loads. These input
parameters play a vital role during selection of suitable binders for construction of
pavements.
Thus, engineering properties of bitumen should be determined considering the following
factors.
• Temperature (maximum, minimum and average values)
• Loading time
• Intensity of load Bitumen behaves differently in different combinations of the above
values.

For example, bitumen behaves elastic under short duration of loading at normal
temperature. But, in case of prolonged loading and as the temperature increases, it loses
elasticity and flows like a fluid. This is the reason why bituminous pavements at higher
temperature tend to deform without cracking.
Advantages of Flexible Pavement
The advantages of flexible pavement can be listed as follows:
a. The initial construction cost is low.
b. It doesn’t require joints.
c. There is no effect of temperature variation on stress variation.
d. Repair works can be carried out quickly.
e. The thickness can be increased easily as per the need.
f. No glare due to sunlight. (Glare: shine with a strong or dazzling light.)
g. It is more comfortable for travel.
Disadvantages of Flexible
Pavement
The disadvantages of flexible pavements can be listed as follows:
a. The life span is decreased with repeated prolonged use.
b. Maintenance cost is relatively higher.
c. It is susceptible to heat, oils, greases, and chemicals.
d. Poor night visibility due to the use of asphalt
 Failure in flexible pavements

The major flexible pavement failures are

fatigue cracking,

rutting, and

thermal cracking.
 Fatigue cracking
The fatigue cracking of
flexible pavement is due to
horizontal tensile strain at the
bottom of the asphaltic
concrete. The failure criterion
relates allowable number of load
repetitions to tensile strain and
this relation can be determined in
the laboratory fatigue test on
asphaltic concrete specimens.
 Rutting
Rutting occurs only on
flexible pavements as indicated
by permanent deformation or
rut depth along wheel load
path. Two design methods
have been used to control
rutting: one to limit the vertical
compressive strain on the top
of subgrade and other to limit
rutting to a tolerable amount
(12 mm normally).
 Thermal Cracking
Thermal cracking includes both low-temperature cracking and thermal
fatigue cracking.
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