ASNT PTP Level II Book VT

VISUAL
TESTING
CLASSROOM
TRAINING BOOK
The American Society

for Nondestructive Testing
VT
CLASSROOM
TRAINING BOOK
Written for ASNT by:
Dietmar F. Henning
Level III Service LLC

Copyright by ASNT (all rights reserved). Licensed to Mr Gyanendra Kumar Dwivedi, 311244, 6/24/2017 4:23:24 AM EST. Single User License only. Copying,
reselling and networking prohibited.
Copyright © 2017 by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. (ASNT) is not responsible for the authenticity or
accuracy of information herein. Published opinions and statements do not necessarily reflect the opin-
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recommendation of ASNT.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form, by means electronic or
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sion of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
IRRSP, NDT Handbook, The NDT Technician and www.asnt.org are trademarks of The American Society
for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. ACCP, ASNT, Level III Study Guide, Materials Evaluation, Nondestructive
Testing Handbook, Research in Nondestructive Evaluation and RNDE are registered trademarks of The
American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
first printing 03/17

ebook 06/17
Errata, if available for this printing, may be obtained from ASNT’s web site, www.asnt.org.
ISBN: 978-1-57117-393-5 (print)

ISBN: 978-1-57117-394-2 (ebook)
Printed in the United States of America
Published by:
The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
1711 Arlingate Lane
Columbus, OH 43228-0518
www.asnt.org
Edited by: Bob Conklin, Educational Materials Editor

Assisted by: Cynthia M. Leeman, Educational Materials Supervisor
Tim Jones, Senior Manager of Publications
ASNT Mission Statement:

ASNT exists to create a safer world by advancing scientific, engineering, and technical knowledge in
the field of nondestructive testing.
ii
Acknowledgments
The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. is grateful for the volunteer
contributions, technical expertise, knowledge, and dedication of the following individuals who
assisted with this first edition of the Visual Testing Classroom Training Book:
William E. Blum – NDT Consulting Group, Inc.

Robert E. Cameron
Bruce G. Crouse – Inspection Services, Inc.
William C. Plumstead, Sr. – Plumstead Quality & Training Services
The Publications Review Committee includes:
Joseph L. Mackin, Chair – International Pipe Inspectors Association

Martin T. Anderson – Global Technical Services
Mark R. Pompe – West Penn Testing Group
iii
About the Author
Dietmar F. Henning graduated in 1975 with a master’s degree

in Chemical Engineering from the Technical University of
Darmstadt, Germany, where he prepared his Ph.D. thesis
in 1979. During his first series of jobs in the chemical industry,
he became acquainted with NDT. After taking several
Level III classes at the German Society for NDT (DGZfP), he
found employment in 1983 with LVZ, an NDT service company
and training center. As their classes were mostly focused on
U.S. standards, in 1986 Henning went to Columbus, Ohio,
to take the ASNT Level III examinations, which he passed
in six methods. He has been a member of the Certification
Management Council, as well as the IR, ET, VT, UT, RT, PT,
LT, ML, and MT Committees. In addition he has worked
on the Handbook Development Committee, in particular
toward development of the fourth edition of the Leak Testing
Handbook. Henning is also a member of the Materials
Evaluation Committee, where he serves as an associate technical
editor. Henning maintained his relationship with ASNT when
he formed his own business, VECTOR, in 1989.
As a German delegate, Henning served in several European and

ISO standard committees for personnel certification in NDT,
visual testing, and thermography. In 1993, the European NDT
certification system (EN 473) was initialized, and Henning
founded his own Certification Body, SECTOR Cert. The
company provides ISO certifications for several industries in
a multitude of countries, such as Germany, Czech Republic,
Turkey, and the United States. Henning sold his company in
2007 and retired in 2010. At that time, he immigrated to the
United States where he worked part-time for Central Piedmont
Community College (CPCC) in Charlotte, North Carolina.
Henning is married to a U.S. citizen and became a U.S. citizen
himself in 2015.
v
Foreword
Purpose
The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. (ASNT) has prepared this series of
Personnel Training Publications to provide an overview in a classroom setting of a given
nondestructive testing method. Each classroom training book in the series is organized
to follow the body of knowledge found in ANSI/ASNT CP-105: ASNT Standard Topical
Outlines for Qualification of Nondestructive Testing Personnel (2016). Level I and Level II
candidates should use this classroom training book as a preparation tool for nondestructive
testing certification. Note, however, that an NDT Level I or Level II may be expected to know
additional information based on industry or employer requirements.
Supplementary Material
Although the classroom training book may be purchased and read as a standalone product, it
is intended to be used in conjunction with the Lecture Guide and PowerPoint™ presentation
for instructors and Student Guide for students. These guides contain a condensed version of
the material in the classroom training book and quiz questions per chapter (lesson) for review
purposes.
vii
Preface
Visual testing (VT) is a diverse NDT method. Applications are manifold; many are simple and
need almost no training, whereas some are complex and hard to learn. Imagine a technician
in a manufacturing facility who uses his or her naked eye to look for discontinuities on the
outer surface of tubes. This is a relatively simple task, which requires several hours of mostly
practical training. Compare this with a visual technician in a nuclear plant who has to look
inside a tube in a high-radiation area. A lot of classroom training hours, on-site training, and
experience will be necessary to do this job properly. Depending of the specific application, the
training program and the necessary number of training hours can be very different.
Readers may question what distinguishes a Level I topic from a Level II topic. In large part,
the organization of this book follows the sequence for visual testing in ANSI/ASNT CP-105:
ASNT Standard Topical Outlines for Qualification of Nondestructive Testing Personnel (2016).
Keep in mind, however, that the content that has been put under Level I (chapters 1-7) does
not necessarily address Level I applications for every company. Thus, the decision was made
to focus on VT during manufacturing, including typical discontinuities, in chapters 5 and 6
(Level I), whereas inservice applications, including associated discontinuities, are located in
chapter 12 (Level II). This might be adequate for most technicians in an NDT service company,
but NDT personnel employed at a foundry or a nuclear facility may require additional
information. With regard to employer certification, a Level I is whatever the employer defines
as such in the certification procedure, referred to as the written practice. The employer is fully
responsible for this program. Thus, the responsible Level III should select from this book
whatever is determined to be adequate for personnel qualifying to Level I or II.
Historically, the certified welding inspector (CWI) program of the American Welding Society
dominated the perception of what a VT technician should know. Although this central
certification program is focused on a limited number of special applications, it is widely used
in the welding industry. However, it is not applicable to the numerous applications outside
of welding. This book tries to cover more industries (without claiming to be exhaustive), as
well as give guidance for the VT of welds and products other than welds and for inservice
examination. The examples provided, however, cannot cover all imaginable applications.
Therefore, where this book describes certain techniques only generally, employers (users)
should add their specific procedures to set up their certification program.
Today, one-third of ASNT’s members live and work outside of the U.S. Therefore, a classroom
training book should consider industrial practices and specialties with regard to international
standards. For the most part, there are no major differences or contradictive practices in the
VT of globalized industry. However, a difference between what is defined as direct visual
examination and remote visual examination should be mentioned. The European standard
EN 13018 calls all techniques “direct” wherein the light from the examined surface travels to
the observer’s eyes without interruption. An interruption would clearly be the use of a digital
camera, which converts light into electric signals and vice versa. This would be called remote
visual testing. Likewise, ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code, Section V, Article 9, defines
direct visual examination as a “technique performed by eye and without any visual aids.”
ix
Visual Testing Classroom Training Book | PREFACE
ASME defines remote visual examination (VE) as a “VE technique used with visual aids for
conditions where the area to be examined is inaccessible for direct VE.” This definition implies
that the use of borescopes that transport light by lenses or fibers could constitute a remote
examination. In ASME, we find, however, a third definition of enhanced visual examination: a
“VE technique using visual aids to improve the viewing capability.” This includes magnifying
aids, borescopes, video probes, fiber optics, and so forth. It is obvious that the ASME and
European definitions do not match fully. Additional inconsistencies can be found when
consulting more standards and literature. For example, the ASNT Handbook: Visual Testing
uses the term indirect VT.
After a multitude of discussions with people in the NDT community, it was decided to use the
following terms for the purpose of this book:
l Direct Visual Testing: VT applying no visual aids except mirrors and magnifiers.
l Indirect or Remote Visual Testing: VT using aids for enhanced vision including borescopes
as well as equipment that is remotely driven because the area examined is inaccessible.
The user should consult the applicable standard for the wording that is deemed adequate in a
specific application.
x
Contents
Acknowledgments..................................................................................................................iii
About the Author .....................................................................................................................v
Foreword.................................................................................................................................vii
Preface.....................................................................................................................................ix
Chapter 1: Introduction to Visual Testing...............................................................................3

Definition of Visual Testing........................................................................................................ 3
History of Visual Testing............................................................................................................. 4
Overview of VT Applications: Capabilities and Limitations................................................. 4
Chapter 2: Physics and Fundamentals of Visual Testing......................................................7

The Nature of Light................................................................................................................... 7
Light Sources.............................................................................................................................. 8
Light Intensity and Illumination................................................................................................ 8
Measurement of Illumination................................................................................................. 10
Interaction of Light with Matter............................................................................................. 10
Luminance and Reflectivity................................................................................................... 11
Reflectivity Contrast................................................................................................................ 12
Environmental Factors and Safety........................................................................................ 12
Perception and Illusion........................................................................................................... 14
Chapter 3: Visual Testing Techniques..................................................................................17

Direct Visual Testing................................................................................................................ 17
Tactile Testing................................................................................................................... 19
Indirect or Remote VT............................................................................................................. 19
RVT Cameras.................................................................................................................... 20
Translucent Visual Testing....................................................................................................... 20
Examples of VT Applications................................................................................................. 21
VT in a Tube Mill................................................................................................................ 21
VT in a Foundry................................................................................................................. 21
Inservice Inspection in Nuclear Power Plants............................................................... 21
Chapter 4: Basic Visual Testing Equipment.........................................................................23

Mirrors....................................................................................................................................... 23
Magnifiers................................................................................................................................. 23
Borescopes.............................................................................................................................. 25
Rigid Borescopes.............................................................................................................. 25
Fiber Borescopes.............................................................................................................. 27
Video Borescope............................................................................................................. 28
Remote Visual Inspection Systems........................................................................................ 30
xi
Visual Testing Classroom Training Book | CONTENTS
Light Sources and Special Lighting....................................................................................... 31

Measurement Tools ................................................................................................................ 32
Rulers.................................................................................................................................. 32
Calipers.............................................................................................................................. 33
Micrometers...................................................................................................................... 34
Feeler and Wire Gages................................................................................................... 35
Go/No-Go Gages............................................................................................................ 35
Calibration of Gages....................................................................................................... 36
Automated Systems................................................................................................................ 36
Chapter 5: Visual Testing of Welds.......................................................................................37

Welds and Welding Processes ............................................................................................. 37
Welding Discontinuities........................................................................................................... 40
Cracks................................................................................................................................ 40
Pores.................................................................................................................................. 40
Inclusions........................................................................................................................... 42
Root Discontinuities.......................................................................................................... 42
Undercut........................................................................................................................... 43
Other Welding Discontinuities......................................................................................... 44
Direct Visual Testing of Welds................................................................................................ 48
High-Low Gage................................................................................................................ 48
General Purpose Gage (Cambridge)........................................................................... 48
Standard-Related Gages (VWAC and Palmgren)...................................................... 49
Testing of Fillet Welds.............................................................................................................. 51
Wire Gage......................................................................................................................... 54
Inspecting for Surface Quality............................................................................................... 55
Chapter 6: Visual Testing of Castings and Wrought Products...........................................57

Casting Process....................................................................................................................... 57
Casting Discontinuities............................................................................................................ 59
Hot Tears............................................................................................................................ 59
Cold Shuts......................................................................................................................... 60
Unfused Chills and Chaplets........................................................................................... 60
Scabs................................................................................................................................. 61
Other Casting Discontinuities.......................................................................................... 61
Testing Sequence................................................................................................................... 62
Direct Visual Testing of Rolled Products............................................................................... 65
Rolling as Manufacturing Process.................................................................................. 65
Visible Discontinuities in Rolled Products....................................................................... 66
Evaluation of Plates (Wrought Products)............................................................................. 70
Chapter 7: Visual Testing Procedures..................................................................................73

Sample Instruction.................................................................................................................. 73
Instruction for Direct VT of Welds.......................................................................................... 73
Inspection Objectives............................................................................................................. 75
Timing or Sampling Plans........................................................................................................ 77
xii
xii
VT Personnel...................................................................................................................... 77
Stages of Weld Inspection.............................................................................................. 78
Final Weld Evaluation...................................................................................................... 79
Inspection Checklists/Checkpoints....................................................................................... 81
Working Conditions during Inspection................................................................................. 81
Inspection Techniques............................................................................................................ 82
Classification of Discontinuities.............................................................................................. 83
Step 1: Consult the Standard......................................................................................... 83
Step 2: Measure............................................................................................................... 83
Step 3: Compare.............................................................................................................. 85
Reporting................................................................................................................................. 85
Chapter 8: Elements of Vision...............................................................................................89

Anatomy of the Eye and Mechanics of Vision................................................................... 89
Adaptation and Accommodation....................................................................................... 90
Vision Limitations, Perception, Orientation, and Disorders......................................... 90
Visual Angle............................................................................................................................. 91
Vision Acuity Examination, Characters, and Tables .......................................................... 92
Snellen Acuity Measure................................................................................................... 92
Landoldt Rings.................................................................................................................. 92
Jaeger Test........................................................................................................................ 92
Shades of Gray and Color Differentiation.................................................................... 92
Chapter 9: Elements of Lighting............................................................................................95

Fundamentals of Light ........................................................................................................... 95
Light Sources............................................................................................................................ 96
Incandescent Radiators.................................................................................................. 96
Luminescent Radiators.................................................................................................... 98
Fluorescent Light....................................................................................................... 98
High-Intensity Discharge Light.................................................................................. 99
Light-Emitting Diodes................................................................................................ 99
Lasers........................................................................................................................ 100
Adequate Light Levels......................................................................................................... 101
Glare and Fatigue................................................................................................................ 102
Lighting Requirements.......................................................................................................... 103
Chapter 10: Optics...............................................................................................................107

Transmission of Light through Solid and Liquid Media...................................................... 107
Refraction of Light................................................................................................................ 107
Refractive Indexes of Glasses.............................................................................................. 109
How Prisms Change the Direction of Light........................................................................ 110
How Lenses Focus Light........................................................................................................ 111
Lens Optics and Lens Trains................................................................................................. 111
Rod Lenses...................................................................................................................... 112
Borescope Magnification.............................................................................................. 113
Fiber Optics and Fiber Bundles............................................................................................ 113
Digitization and Charge-Coupled Devices....................................................................... 115
xiii
Visual Testing Classroom Training Book | CONTENTS
Digital Technology................................................................................................................ 117
Chapter 11: Advanced Visual Testing Equipment............................................................119

Endoscopes and Borescopes.............................................................................................. 119
Rigid Borescopes................................................................................................................... 119
Fiber Borescopes................................................................................................................... 121
Video Borescopes................................................................................................................. 122
Video Borescope Measurement Techniques............................................................. 123
Comparison Technique.......................................................................................... 123
Shadow Technique................................................................................................. 123
Stereo Technique ................................................................................................... 124
Laser Measurements............................................................................................... 124
Light Sources for Borescopes............................................................................................... 126
Specialized Inspection Systems........................................................................................... 127
Push-Tube Cameras....................................................................................................... 127
Pipe Crawler Camera System ..................................................................................... 128
Subsea Remote Camera System................................................................................. 129
Checklist for Selecting Suitable Equipment....................................................................... 130
Chapter 12: Service-Induced Discontinuities....................................................................135

Inservice versus Inherent and Processing Discontinuities................................................. 135
Types of Inservice Loads...................................................................................................... 135
Discontinuities Caused by Mechanical Loads........................................................... 136
Discontinuities Caused by Thermal Loads.................................................................. 136
Creep and Creep Damage.................................................................................. 136
High-Temperature Corrosion.................................................................................. 139
Thermal Fatigue....................................................................................................... 139
Discontinuities Caused by Chemical Loads............................................................... 141
General Corrosion................................................................................................... 141
Localized Corrosion: Pitting.................................................................................... 141
Stress-Corrosion Cracking....................................................................................... 142
Discontinuities Caused by Abrasive Wear or Localized Erosion............................... 143
Wear......................................................................................................................... 143
Erosion....................................................................................................................... 144
Erosion Corrosion..................................................................................................... 145
Cavitation................................................................................................................ 146
Chapter 13: Evaluation........................................................................................................147

General Evaluation Scheme............................................................................................... 147
Evaluation Criteria and Techniques................................................................................... 148
Verbal Description of Criteria....................................................................................... 148
Optical and Tactile Comparisons................................................................................ 149
Size-Based Criteria.......................................................................................................... 152
Chapter 14: Codes, Standards, and Specifications.........................................................155

VT as an Engineering Task.................................................................................................... 155
xiv
xiv
VT as a Technician Task....................................................................................................... 156
U.S. Visual Testing Standards................................................................................................ 156
ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code........................................................................... 156
American Welding Society Codes............................................................................... 157
AWS D1.1.................................................................................................................. 157
AWS D17.1/D17.1M................................................................................................. 157
European Standards............................................................................................................. 158
ISO Standards........................................................................................................................ 159
References............................................................................................................................161
Figure Sources......................................................................................................................163
Glossary.................................................................................................................................167
Index......................................................................................................................................175
xv
LEVEL I
1
Introduction to Visual Testing
Definition of Visual Testing

Visual testing might be called the foundation of NDT. Looking at
a technical component during and after manufacturing to check if
it serves the intended purpose must have been the first attempt to
perform quality control (QC). This was combined with measurement
when tolerances were specified and became tighter. Subsequently, the
search for discontinuities became part of visual quality control. Later
on, many companies separated the visual search for discontinuities and
named it in line with other NDT methods: visual testing (VT) or visual
examination (VE). (Note: ASNT prefers the term “testing” when used
with nondestructive testing methods.)
There was skepticism when VT was introduced in SNT-TC-1A at an
ASNT conference in Charlotte, NC, in 1988. The U.S. nuclear industry
pushed for it, whereas most other industries hesitated because of the
additional costs. As an NDT method with certification, VT stayed
a U.S. specialty until the European Committee for Standardization
(CEN) incorporated VT in its certification standard, EN 473 (2001).
Certification was the tool to bring different countries and cultures
together; nevertheless, VT was finally accepted by the industry only after
this standard clearly stated the paradox that a simple visual test with the
naked eye would not be regarded as visual testing. However, real life just
stepped over that small obstacle; industry started to demand certification
of all types of VT technicians once the standard was publicly available.
There is one aspect in which a direct visual test differs from any
other NDT method. The discontinuities that the inspectors look for are
visible. That makes VT unique because all other NDT methods look at
indications of the discontinuities and never show the discontinuities
directly. The inspector discerns the liquid penetrant (PT) and
magnetic particle (MT) indications with the naked eye, but it is not the
discontinuity itself, whereas other methods such as ultrasonic (UT) and
electromagnetic (ET) testing show acoustic or electronic signals only. Or
put it this way: PT and MT start where VT ends, once the discontinuities
become too small to be seen directly. The use of optoelectronic devices
and charge-coupled device (CCD) cameras in visual testing may blur
categorization with image enhancement techniques so that we look at a
screen instead of the object itself.
3
Visual Testing Classroom Training Book | CHAPTER 1
History of Visual Testing

The history of NDT is part of the history of industry. Boiler inspection in
the late 1800s and early 1900s was an early application of visual testing
in the United States. Inspectors would check the interiors of boilers that
their company would ensure for corrosion and cracking. The first edition
of the ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code (1915) clearly states visual
acceptance criteria for a casting: “free from blemishes, scale or shrinkage
cracks.”
The history of borescopy started, however, outside the industry,
in medicine. Endoscopes—the word derives from the Greek words for
“look inside”—were used in medicine to look in the interior of the
human body. George S. Crampton, a physician with the ambitions of
an engineer, transferred his experiences from medical applications into
industrial applications. In 1921, he developed the first borescope for
Westinghouse Company to check for discontinuities inside a steam
turbine (Figure 1). A similar patent was filed separately in 1927 for a
borescope to inspect the inside of gun bores (Figure 2). During World
War II, Crampton actively supported the U.S. Army by checking the
bores of anti-aircraft guns.
Figure 1: Tests of forgings for steam turbine generator shaft in the

1920s.
Overview of VT Applications: Capabilities and

Limitations
Visual testing is done in all stages of the “life” of a component or
machine, basically during and after manufacture as well as at regular
intervals during service. Very often, testing is performed in two steps:
1. Overview or general visual testing.
2. Local or detailed visual testing.
4
Introduction to Visual Testing
Figure 2: Drawing from a patent for a borescope for gun barrels.
Step 1 is screening for anomalies done at a lower sensitivity

(illumination and magnification). When anomalies are suspected, then
in a second step, the anomalies are verified and characterized at a higher
sensitivity (illumination and magnification) in order to determine if
these are acceptable or have to be rejected.
Details become more visible when a contrast is established by
l differences in reflectivity,
l color differences or discoloration, or
l casting shadows.
The different types of contrast may occur separately or jointly/
superimposed. Cracks normally become visible by a black/white contrast
established by a difference in the reflection of light between the crack and
its surroundings. General corrosion might be indicated by a difference
in colors, as corrosion products are colored, salty substances. Stress-
corrosion cracking might be shown as black/white contrast enhanced by
colored corrosion products.
The types of details that can be detected by VT are
l discontinuities such as cracks and voids,
l shape deviations such as excessive reinforcement of welds, and
l surface roughness or surface patterns.
5
Visual testing can be a very simple (just look!) but powerful

application. However, very tight cracks cannot be seen with the unaided
eye. In order to find them, other NDT methods have to be applied
such as magnetic particle (MT) or liquid penetrant testing (PT).
Discontinuities that are not surface-breaking cannot be found by VT or
PT and may be detected in only a very limited way by MT. Volumetric
NDT methods, such as ultrasonic testing (UT) or radiographic testing
(RT), although able to detect surface discontinuities, are effective at
indicating discontinuities in the interior of a material.
Normally, VT must be performed by a Level II rather than a Level I
individual because performance of VT inspection and evaluation often
cannot be separated.
6
2
Physics and Fundamentals
of Visual Testing
The Nature of Light
Visual testing requires light to cause visual stimulation. Light is
electromagnetic radiation, as is ultraviolet (UV), infrared (IR), or
X-radiation. The only difference among these types of radiation is their
wavelength or energy, which are inversely related. The shorter the
wavelength, the greater the energy content of the radiation. Visible light
is defined as electromagnetic radiation in the range of 400-700 nm. (See
Figure 1.) White light is a mixture of colors, which looks white when all
wavelengths in the visible spectrum are present. Colors become visible
when one or more wavelengths in the light spectrum are missing, for
example, by absorption at a surface.
Light has an approximate velocity of 186 000 mi/s (300 000 km/s)
depending on the medium in which it travels. The denser the medium,
the less the velocity. Therefore, light travels fastest in a vacuum.
0.01 nm 1 nm 100 nm 1 mm 1 cm 1m 1k
400 nm 700 nm
Figure 1: Electromagnetic spectrum with enlargement of visible light perceived

by the human eye.
7
Light Sources
There are natural and artificial sources of light. The most important
natural source is the sun. Many visual tests are performed in daylight.
Direct sunshine, however, is often too intense and causes glare from
reflections. The intensity of daylight can change, abruptly at times, due
to the time of day and weather conditions and is not always sufficient
indoors. Therefore, much VT is performed under artificial light, the level
of which can be well controlled and kept constant. The intensity of a
light source is measured in candela (cd) in SI (International System of
Units). A measurement of 1 cd was originally the intensity of a candle
having a wick length of 3/8 in. or 0.4 in. (1 cm). The modern definition is
more exact but harder to understand. (See Glossary term for “candela.”)
The intensity of other light sources can be determined by comparison
with this standard. Therefore, proper illumination of the surface to be
tested is essential. Illumination is measured in footcandles (imperial) or
lux (SI), abbreviated fc or lx, respectively. A footcandle (now little used
except in the U.S.) is equal to the illumination produced by a light source
of one candela (1 cd) intensity (I) at a distance of 1 ft (30.5 cm) from
a surface. This is equivalent to one lumen (1 lm) per 1 ft2 (929 cm2) or
10.76 lx.
Conversions for luminance from non-SI to SI units are provided in
Table 1.
Table 1: Luminance conversions.

Non-SI Unit Multiply by (×) SI Unit
candela per square foot 10.76 candela per square meter (cd/m2)
(cd/ft2)
candela per square inch 1.550 candela per square meter (cd/m2)
(cd/in.2)
footlambert (ftl) 3.426 candela per square meter (cd/m2)
lambert (l) 3 183 candela per square meter (cd/m2)
Light Intensity and Illumination

A light source of an intensity I illuminates a surface at a distance d. The
illumination E at the surface will be greater given the following:
l the greater the intensity of the light source
l the shorter the distance between source and surface
It is easy to accept that using a light source with double intensity
would double the illumination on the surface. This is true only if the
distance stays the same. When the distance is doubled—while the light
intensity stays the same—the logic is that the illumination is lower.
However, it is not half of the original illumination, but one-fourth.
Why is that? Look at Figure 2. This light source is a small point,
and the rays originating from the source diverge more and more
with the distance. As a result, they illuminate an area that becomes
larger and larger with the distance. Since the quantity of emitted light
remains constant, the light level per unit area becomes more diffused.
8
Physics and Fundamentals of Visual Testing
Radiation source
Interval d
Interval d2
Irradiated
surface
Interval d
Irradiated
surface
Figure 2: Decreasing intensity of light based on distance from light

source.
Consequently, the illumination becomes lower with distance. If the

distance from the light source to the test surface is doubled, the area
doubles in two dimensions—length and width—and the illumination will
be lower by one-half times one-half, which is one-fourth. As a number
multiplied by itself is written as the number empowered by two, we can
write the law of illumination or inverse square law as follows:
I
(Eq. 1) E=
d2
where
E = the illumination on the surface
I = the intensity of the light source
d = the distance of the light source from the surface.
This law is applicable only where the light hits the surface
perpendicularly. An increasing tilt of the surface further lowers the light
level.
Why is that important, when we can measure the illumination?
We can, but we do not always have a light meter handy with us when
we are on site. This law helps ensure adequate lighting without actual
measurements.
9
Measurement of Illumination
Good light meters or sensors consist of a sensor that is electrically
attached to a reading device (Figure 3). The sensor consists of a mixture
of semiconductors layered over a certain area, which is covered by a
diffusor. This mixture has been designed to simulate the sensitivity of the
human eye. The sensor has to be put on the surface to be tested. Before
taking a reading, the technician must select the desired unit (fc or lx) and
the right range.
Figure 3: Light meter with sensor and built-in display.
Interaction of Light with Matter

Light that strikes an opaque surface might be absorbed and re-emitted
as heat radiation or directly reflected without a change of its energy or
wavelength. Direct VT makes use of reflection. When only reflection
is used for VT, only surface discontinuities can be revealed. When,
however, the heat emission is imaged with fast infrared cameras, then
discontinuities in the interior of the material can be indicated using
thermal/infrared testing (IR). (Note: The IR test method is beyond the
scope of this book.)
Transparent materials, such as glass or certain plastics, allow
transmittance of light. When materials are transmissive or translucent,
inhomogeneities in the interior can be found visually in a technique
referred to as translucent visual testing. (See Figure 4.)
Reflection may be specular (mirror-like) or diffuse depending on the
condition of the surface. A rough, uneven, faceted surface will reflect the
light rays in a number of directions depending on the micro-geometry
at the specific point where they impinge, as can be seen in Figure 5(a). A
smooth, even, polished surface will work as a mirror and rather reflect
10
Absorbed light
Incident light Transmitted light
Reflected light
Figure 4: Absorption, reflection, and transmittance of light.
(a) (b)
Figure 5: Reflection of light: (a) rough, uneven surface; (b) smooth

surface.
the radiation in one direction. In this case, the angle of incidence is equal
to the angle of reflection, as shown in Figure 5(b).
Luminance and Reflectivity

The light emitted from its source will be reflected from the test object
surface into the eyes of the observer. Depending on the reflectivity f of
the surface at the point of impingement of each light ray, the ray will
have to carry a certain amount of light into the eye. This amount will be
perceived as luminance L (cd/m2) (or brightness in European standards)
of that point in the area under observation. (See Figure 6.)
Reflectivity f is the ability of a surface spot to reflect light; a perfect
mirror reflects 100% of the incident light, f = 1.0. In contrast, a dark
hole absorbs all light; therefore, f = 0. The luminance also depends on
the illumination of the surface. Double illumination or reflectivity yields
double luminance (proportionality).
11
l (cd)
)
m2
/
Cd
α1
L(
a
α2 α2
L (lx)
Figure 6: Perceived luminance of a reflected light source.
Reflectivity Contrast
Two spots of different reflectivity, fB and fU, send two rays of different
luminance, LB and LU, to the eye. This creates a luminance difference
ΔL = LB – LU in the eye. Therefore, the human eye perceives a contrast
between these neighboring spots on the surface. A crack reflects much
less than the area of a well-prepared metallic surface. Therefore, a
crack can be recognized by its different reflectivity as compared to the
surrounding discontinuity-free surface areas, as shown in Figure 7.
Good contrast for visual testing can be achieved by a well-prepared
surface and high illumination. The difference in luminance reflected from
the sound, unblemished surface and from a defective area constitutes the
contrast. Generally, the contrast can be doubled when the illumination or
the reflectivity of the sound material is doubled. Colors and shades may
also contribute to the contrast by either diminishing or enhancing it.
When the light rays are directed under a specific angle relative to the
surface, a surface texture may cast shadows and is better seen. Cracks
and dents in such rough surfaces may be effectively seen when a single
ray is reflected from these discontinuities into the eye of the observer.
It can therefore be advantageous to look at a faceted or uneven surface
at other angles than those of the incident rays, as shown in Figure 8(a).
Reflections from small details in a dark environment (dark field) are
sometimes easier to be seen in a darker, less illuminated environment
than in a light, glaring environment, as in Figure 8(b). Too much light
tends to blind or at least fatigue the eye.
Environmental Factors and Safety

The environment of the test site should not influence the outcome of a
test. However, visual tests cannot always be conducted in clean and quiet
surroundings. On the contrary, it is often a distracting, dirty, and noisy
12
working atmosphere that tends to influence the physical and mental

condition of the inspector. To keep this influence within acceptable
limits, the inspector must be self-aware. In extreme situations, the
inspector should demand improvements of the situation prior to the test.
When the condition of the surface to be inspected does not allow a test at
the required sensitivity, the inspector requires appropriate changes such
as additional lighting, better access at the test site, or removal of dirt and
dust.
For safety reasons and to limit distractions, the inspector may
need to wear a hard hat, safety shoes, and earplugs, depending on the
location of an assignment. Precautions should be taken to prevent
falls, as necessary. Also an inspection may require the wearing of safety
glasses and/or gloves. When inservice work is done, more rules may
need to be followed such as radiation protection or precautions against
chemicals. These special rules are normally available from the individuals
responsible for safety in the plant.
Light source
Sensor
LU
E
LB
E
fR,B
fR,U
(a)
(b)
Figure 7: Reflectivity from a crack: (a) diagram; (b) photograph of

cracks in a wind power mill gear box.
13
Sensor
Light source
(a)
(b)
Figure 8: Visual examination of a poorly reflecting (textured) surface:

(a) diagram; (b) crack next to a weld.
Perception and Illusion

Each light signal detected by the photoactive cells in the eye is sent to
the brain, which forms an image from the different signals. In order
to accomplish this, the brain interprets the signals before it forms an
image. There may be so many signals and details that the brain must
extract the essentials from the abundance of information. Toward this
end, the brain compares known patterns with the perceived patterns.
Known patterns may be recognized more quickly, whereas unknown
patterns may be realized later or completely overlooked. This may result
in a misleading perception and lead to wrong conclusions. Adequate
inspection techniques and onsite training help to avoid those errors.
The mental condition jointly with the alertness of the inspector has a big
influence on the success of a visual test.
14
(b)
(a) (c)
Figure 9: Optical illusions: (a) perceived black spots where white

lines intersect; (b) perceived unequal lengths of lines with opposing
arrows; (c) perceived nonparallel lines with stripes.
Typical examples for misinterpretations of optical clues by the brain

are shown in Figure 9. Figure 9(a) presents an array of black squares.
When viewing these, most people have the impression that round spots
are located in the interstices of the squares. The two long lines in Figure
9(b) are drawn with arrow-tips pointing in different directions. At
first glance, this causes the upper line to appear longer than the lower
line. In Figure 9(c), the stripes, which are tilted in different directions,
produce the illusion that the distance between the two lines is larger on
the left than on the right end. Misinterpretations caused by illusions
such as those in Figures 9(b) and (c) can be avoided by making careful
measurements.
15
3
Visual Testing Techniques
There are two basic visual testing techniques:

l direct visual testing
l indirect or remote visual testing
Direct visual testing (DVT) differs from the indirect technique
because the inspector is in the presence of the test object with an
unobstructed view of the test surface. Indirect or remote VT requires
a borescope or remote-controlled camera to view surfaces otherwise
inaccessible to the inspector.
Direct Visual Testing

The classic definition of DVT is based on physics: If the path of the light
between the surface under inspection and the eyes of the operator is not
interrupted, the visual test is called direct, as shown in Figure 1.
Typically, DVT is done with the unaided eye, although it may use
mirrors or magnifiers to enhance or transmit an image. As long as the
light from the surface is optically guided by mirrors, prisms, or lenses, it
is still light that was originally reflected from the surface to be tested. No
conversion of light occurs. The path of light is not interrupted.
Light source Eye
Figure 1: Direct visual testing with uninterrupted light ray to the eye.
17
Standards mostly define the largest distance for a direct visual test as
24 in. (61 cm). The requirement for the use of optical aids depends on
the viewing angle relative to the surface. Standards such as the ASME
Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code mostly require aids when this angle falls
under 30°. (See Figure 2.)
Max. 24 in. (610 mm)
Permissible
viewing angle
30° 30°
Figure 2: Maximum permissible viewing angle and distance as defined

by standards.
When VT is performed with the naked eye alone, standards require

no special verification of the test sensitivity. However, the inspector must
have adequate vision and field of view.
Thus, the main factors that influence the sensitivity of DVT are:
l the vision of the inspector;
l the level of illumination on the surface to be tested; and
l the condition of the inspected surface (for example, color, rust, scale,
paint, and oils).
Certified VT inspectors must therefore have their eyesight tested
annually. In addition to near-vision acuity, per SNT-TC-1A, the
inspector should be tested for color contrast differentiation, including
shades of gray used in the method, upon initial certification and every
five years thereafter. Also, the illumination on the surface to be tested
must be verified by measurement with a light meter. If necessary,
additional light sources (auxiliary lighting) must be provided. For
example, some procedures allow illumination from a flashlight as long as
it meets or exceeds the light intensity requirements at a given distance.
Finally, the illumination level must be adequate to the objects to be
tested. As an example, standards specify the following:
l sand castings: 32 fc (350 lx)
l inservice inspection: 50 fc (540 lx)
l welds during manufacture: 100 fc (1080 lx)
These are examples only. Inspectors should check the procedure for
the required level in the specific visual testing application.
18
Tactile Testing
Direct visual testing can be divided into two inspection practices:
l general VT or overview testing
l local or detailed VT
In addition to direct viewing, local or detailed VT may require test
surfaces within arm’s reach to be tactilely tested. In this regard, the
test object is subjected to measurements and other NDT for surface
roughness determination. Acceptance criteria based on discontinuity size
or a series of surface replicas may be applied.
Indirect or Remote VT
What options are available to the inspector when an unimpeded direct
view is no longer possible because of a remote distance, an improper
viewing angle, or physical barrier? In situations where the inspector does
not have access to place the eye within 24 in. (61 cm) of the test surface
or the viewing angle is less than 30°, mechanical and optical instruments
can supplement the eye. If the path of the light is interrupted—for
instance, by a digital recorder—and the light that reaches the eye of
the observer does not come directly from the surface, this technique is
classified as indirect visual testing or remote visual testing (RVT).
(See Figure 3.)
Confined spaces with limited access such as the interior of motor
blocks or the combustion chamber of a turbine engine would require
transport of the image around corners and sometimes even over
considerable distances. This could be accomplished by the use of rigid or
fiber borescopes.
Eye
Auxillary equipment
digital recorder
Light source
Evaluation
Figure 3: Remote visual testing with interrupted light ray to the eye.
19
In DVT, use of a mirror produces an image comparable to a direct

view with the naked eye, even though the mirror image is reversed,
may show some distortion, or involves a change in magnification. With
indirect VT, the lens chain in a rigid borescope or a bundle of glass fibers
may influence the image much more. Glass and fibers absorb light and
change the wavelength mix of the light so that the original white light
assumes a color hue by travelling through these materials. Thus, the
indirect image of a surface through a borescope can look very different
compared with the direct view. Consequently, an indirect view may
require verification of the test resolution.
RVT Cameras
Whenever DVT with the naked eye can be performed, it should be the
inspector’s first choice, rather than applying indirect VT or RVT. RVT
should be applied when the area to be inspected is not readily accessible
because of environmental circumstances such as
l test object configuration and geometry,
l high radiation levels,
l chemical contamination,
l high temperatures, and
l deep water.
A positive feature of RVT is that the evaluation can be done later, as
a separate step, from a remote location. The RVT camera may have to be
moved through the critical area by remote-driven machines such as
l robots,
l manipulators,
l submarines,
l vehicles, or
l crawlers.
The inspector steers the robotic machine from outside the inspection
area while making observations via in-situ images displayed on a screen.
The recording can be saved and kept on file for documentation.
Translucent Visual Testing

The techniques mentioned so far are based on the reflection of the light
from the surface to be tested. Most test objects are opaque, although
some, such as certain plastics, are translucent. Special materials for
the aerospace industry are produced from many composite layers
glued together. Lack of bond between layers is indicated by a different
transmissivity of light. When a strong, diffuse light source is placed on
one side of the object and the inspector looks from the other side, these
lacks of bond are readily visible. Section 5, Article 9, of the ASME Boiler
& Pressure Vessel Code describes this technique as translucent visual
testing.
20
Examples of VT Applications
VT in a Tube Mill
The endpoint for the production of thin steel tubing is often a table
where the completed tubes are visually inspected (Figure 4). The outer
surface is directly checked for blemishes, nicks, gouges, scratches, and
cracks while each tube is rotated. Wall thickness is typically measured at
0°, 90°, 180°, and 270°. The diameter is measured crosswise on both ends.
The inner surface is checked by looking through the tube against a strong
source of diffuse light. When the interior of the tube appears round, no
more tests are conducted. If it is not round, then a closer look inside
with a borescope is necessary. Since the angle of vision is practically 0°,
visual aids are necessary.
Figure 4: Visual inspection of fabricated pipes on a table.
VT in a Foundry
Another application of visual testing is in a foundry where sand castings
are produced. After the liquid metal has solidified in the sand mold,
the sand is removed, the risers cut off, and the surface blasted. The
blasted surfaces are visually checked for discontinuities. The inspectors
use a series of photos or replicas in order to identify and grade the
discontinuities for acceptability determination. (Two such replicas are
shown in Figure 5.) This is done by a direct comparison of the photos/
replicas with anomalies on the casting surface—a classic case of direct
visual testing without any visual aids.
Inservice Inspection in Nuclear Power Plants

High radiation areas have to be visually inspected at regular intervals. As
no human being can go into these areas, testing has to be done remotely.
For inspection of most of these areas (for example, reactor vessels or the
primary loop of a pressurized water reactor), a subsea vehicle is equipped
with a high-resolution digital recorder, light sources, a blower for dust
removal, and an ultrasonic wall thickness measurement device. (See
Figure 6.)
21
Figure 5: Replicas used for grading of sand castings using visual

testing (SCRATA).
(a) (b)
Figure 6: Remote visual inspection of nuclear facility: (a) subsea

camera; (b) inspection area.
Remote visual testing should only be used when it can be

demonstrated that sensitivity comparable to direct visual testing can be
obtained. Images from the same area can look very different on a digital
presentation screen than by direct view with the naked eye. It is therefore
always necessary to ensure and to demonstrate that critical details are
clearly discernable. This demonstration is normally done by a verification
procedure that includes the whole test system and a reference test piece.
Reference test pieces should simulate the surface to be tested and the
critical discontinuities as closely as possible.
22
4
Basic Visual Testing Equipment
Mirrors
Mirrors are especially employed when the angle of view is not suitable
for unaided visual testing. Looking directly into a small borehole for
cracks and laminations in the surface is not possible because of the small
viewing angle to the surface to be tested. The mirror improves the angle
so that details can be observed.
Mirrors are also used for viewing interior surfaces, which are
inaccessible by direct viewing, behind corners, or even for looking
backward. An inspection mirror consists of a reflecting head fixed at the
tip of a stem. The head may be round or rectangular and can be tilted as
appropriate for the right viewing angle. The length of a telescopic handle
is adjustable as needed for a specific visual task. (See Figure 1.)
It is important not to scratch the reflecting head during inspection.
Since this can obscure sight, the reflecting part of the scratched mirror
should be replaced. Mirrors can be flat, convex, or concave. Curved
mirrors provide an enlargement of the field of view but distort the image
and can cause misinterpretation of distances.
(a) (b)
Figure 1: Mirrors for visual testing: (a) variety of shapes and sizes used in visual
testing; (b) mirror tilted at end of telescopic handle.
Magnifiers
Magnifiers are lenses that can be used to enlarge the image of an object.
As diagrammed in Figure 2(a), the tangent of visual angle α is defined
by the ratio object height G and distance d. To discern a small object,
the eye must be close to it. Eventually, the eye muscle can no longer
23
accommodate the image refracted through the eye lens. In this case,
help is needed from an external lens, a loupe, or magnifying glass. With
reference to Figure 2(b), the magnifier improves the angle of vision α2 by
virtually making the object larger, magnifying the image. The ratio of the
virtual image to the real size x2/x1 is called magnification.
Magnifiers are available in a variety of types and sizes and differ in
l magnifying power,
l field of view, and
l focal length.
G α
(a) d
X2
X1 α2
Virtual Real
(b) image image
Figure 2: Principle of magnification: (a) perception of height based on

distance and visual angle; (b) ratio of virtual to real image size using a
magnifier.
The focal length is the lens-object distance where the image is

sharp or in focus. The focus is not a point, but rather a range in which
the image stays sharp enough. This range is called the depth of field.
Magnifying power and focal length are interrelated. The minimum
distance at which objects can be distinctly seen by the unaided eye is
assumed to be 10 in. (25.4 cm). This standard vision distance divided
by the focal length is the magnification. For example: A magnifying lens
has a focal length of 2.5 in. (6.35 cm); its magnification is 4×. The field
of view is the area that can be seen through the magnifier. This area
becomes larger the closer the lens is placed to the eye.
Magnifiers up to 10× can consist of a single lens; above that, more
lenses are necessary. A loupe is a magnifier with a single lens or double
lenses, which are held in the appropriate working distance by transparent
cylinders. Loupes may be equipped with a built-in light source. (See
Figure 3.)
24
Figure 3: Magnifying glasses and loupes for visual testing.
There are special magnifiers for certain tasks:

l Comparators: to compare actual surfaces with standards normally
providing a side-by-side view.
l Measuring magnifiers: with a graduated scale in a transparent layer
held against the object.
l Portable microscopes: for magnifications over 10× (up to 50×) to
make details visible that are too small to be seen by the unaided eye.
Borescopes
Borescopy involves a technique where the light from the surface to be
tested is guided through a tube to the operator’s eye by either a chain of
lenses or a bundle of optic fibers. Even though the light comes directly
from the surface to be tested, its image is viewed indirectly through
the tube and may look very different compared to a direct view of this
surface.
Rigid Borescopes
The functional steps of rigid borescope operation are:
1. Lighting is transported to the surface to be tested.
2. Light reflected from the surface is gathered by the objective lens
(Figure 4).
3. The reflected light is transported by lenses through the borescope
tube.
4. The image is viewed through an ocular lens or from the video unit
(Figure 5).
There are a number of ways to transport light to the surface to be
tested. The light might come from
l a separate source fixed on a rod and inserted into the confined space,
l a bulb at the tip of the borescope, or
l an outside source transported by glass fibers to the tip of the
borescope.
25
The tip of the rigid borescope contains exit and entrance portals so
that an image can be illuminated and directed back through the tube, as
shown in Figure 6:
l straight view (a) with two slots
l side view (b) provided by a prism turning the light rays by 90°, also
with two slots
The tips of advanced borescopes provide two distinct slots for the
light
l leaving the tube to illuminate the surface and
l reflecting from the surface to be guided back to the observer’s eye.
The term field of view describes the area visible without moving
the borescope. A 90° tip would be well suited for viewing large areas,
whereas a 35° tip would be best for small details. As shown in Figure 7,
different borescope tips provide different angles of view:
l 0° forward view
l 90° side view
l 45° forward oblique view
l 110° retrospective view
The angles of view are provided by a prism built into the tip at
different angles relative to the incoming light rays. The fields of view are
determined by the objective lens located in the tip right after the prism.
Figure 4: Lens system in representative rigid borescope.
Image window
(a)
Light exit opening
Image window with Light exit opening

(b) movable prism
Figure 5: Visual testing with a Figure 6: Borescope tips: (a) straight view;
rigid borescope. (b) side view.
26
View
Light
View
(a) (b)
View
View
Light Light
(c) (d)
Figure 7: Borescope direction of view: (a) forward; (b) side; (c) forward oblique;
(d) retrospective. View angles range from 35° to 60° to 90°.
Fiber Borescopes
Borescopes mostly work with external light sources. These light sources
produce “cold” light, that is, light that contains no infrared (IR) radiation
and, therefore, does not heat the surface to be tested. Cold light must be
used when explosive material (for example, motor blocks with remnants
of gasoline) is present.
This light source may be attached to the borescope by a bundle of
glass fibers, which guide the light to the borescope tube where it is
attached by a coupling. From here to the distal end, there is another
bundle of glass fibers in the tube, which guide the light to the area to be
illuminated.
Flexible borescopes/endoscopes that work with a bundle of glass
fibers instead of lenses in order to transport an image are called fiber
borescopes (Figure 8). This type of borescope contains the same basic
elements as the rigid borescope, such as objective lenses. Attached to the
tip are two bowden cables to move the tip in the desired direction.
Fiber borescopes are usually equipped with a cold light source and
another fiber bundle dedicated to transporting the light to the area to
be tested. However, fiber bundles that transmit an image are different
from those that just transport light in that the individual fibers must
have exactly the same location in the entrance and exit surfaces. This is
referred to as a coherent bundle.
An individual fiber can transport only a certain light level. Let us
assume we want to transport the image of the letter “A,” which casts
a shadow on the entrance surface, as depicted in Figure 9. The cutting
surfaces of the individual fibers will be hit by different light intensities
depending on their location. Any individual fiber hit by the full light
intensity will transport the full intensity and appear white. A fiber totally
shadowed will transport no light and appear black. Any fiber partially
shadowed will appear in some shade of gray. So the image will be
27
Eyepiece Focusing ring

lens Image
guide Objective lens
Light guide
Diopter ring Protective sheath
Light guide exit
Light source
(a) Projection lamp
(b)
Figure 8: Fiber optic borescope: (a) diagram; (b) instrument in use.
composed of small dots the same size as the fiber diameter. The image
resolution, therefore, depends on the fiber diameter.
Video Borescope
When a carrier such as a fiber borescope puts a sensor where the entry
surface is located and uses electric cables instead of glass fibers for
the transport of the image, then this is called a video borescope. (See
Figure 10.) A video borescope is essentially a digital camera even though
it might look like a fiber borescope from the outside. The individual
28
Fiber bundle
Eyepiece Objective
Figure 9: Optical fiber bundle used as image relay.
fibers split the image into small dots, or pixels, corresponding to their
diameter. Every pixel submits a certain shade of gray or light level.
When the fibers have the same location in the exit surface as in the entry
surface, the individual pixels form an image of a similar distribution of
shades of gray in the exit surface as in the entry surface. The splitting
of the image into individual pixels is called digitization or pixelization.
Thus, the transference of the letter “A” through a well-ordered bundle
of glass fibers follows the same principles as a solid-state camera chip or
charge-coupled device (CCD).
The CCD chip is a semiconductor material, the surface of which
consists of separate tiny elements that are optoelectronically active;
this means they convert radiation that hits them into electric signals
(mostly a voltage proportional to the light level). The signal and the
location of the element in the chip are transferred jointly as information
Figure 10: Video borescope with cold light source and glass fiber guide.
29
Electron Silicon
collection substrate
region
Photons from
image scene
Color filter Doped electrode Insulator
Figure 11: Activation of one pixel from charge-coupled device.
through an electric cable. At some point, the information is gathered and

reconverted into an image using optoelectronic devices—just like the exit
surface of a coherent fiber bundle. Any digital camera system works in
accordance with these principles. (See Figure 11.)
Remote Visual Inspection Systems

Cameras instead of direct vision must be used when testing is done
l under water,
l in radiation areas,
l in toxic environments,
l at extremely high temperatures, or
l in the presence of explosive gases.
A camera—either based on a vidicon tube or a CCD chip—should
have the following features/properties:
l be mechanically stable
l be sustainable to corrosion and radiation
l be equipped with controlled illumination
l have autofocus
l have remote-controlled zoom and macro function
A remote visual test system should consist of several elements as
shown in Figure 12.
The manipulator brings the camera to the locations where the test
is conducted. The camera needs adequate illumination and the correct
objective lens to resolve the details to be detected. These are watched at
a monitor by the inspector. The inspector uses a microphone and/or a
test generator to document the inspection and the intentional findings.
A video printer for a written report, subsequent discussions, or further
evaluations may also display special details.
30
Manipulator
Illumination Camera Objective lens
Monitor
Microphone Recorder Text generator
Digital printer
Figure 12: Components of remotely manipulated visual test system.
Light Sources and Special Lighting

Generally, as graphed in Figure 13, at a given illumination (red curve),
the smaller the details, the more important is the contrast for discerning
them. However, if the contrast is low and the size of the detail is small,
increasing the illumination (going from the red to the green curve) is
necessary to resolve the detail to be evaluated. This rule applies for all
kinds of visual testing.
Illuminators for task lighting include those shown in Figure 14:
l condenser reflectors
l spot projectors
l diffuse sources
l collimators
Amount of illumination
Contrast
Size of detail
Figure 13: Relationship between contrast and size in terms of the

amount of illumination.
31
Reflector Translucent Hole

lens material
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 14: Light source types: (a) condenser reflector; (b) spot
projector; (c) diffuse light source; (d) collimated light source.
Condensers and spot projectors have the light source built into a
reflecting cone that causes a limited, gradually expanding field of light.
The condenser concentrates the light in a spot with a front lens. Diffuse
surface light is produced by sending light rays through translucent
material that scatters them in all directions. Collimators limit the field
of light with a small hole. Focused or condensed light is used to inspect
specular (reflective) surfaces in dark or white field illumination. Diffuse
light is used on rough or faceted surfaces to suppress the surface
structure while looking for details such as cracks.
Measurement Tools
Measurement tools are extremely useful in VT for the following reasons:
1. When manufacturing machines or industrial components, all
measurements have to be very precise. The necessary quality control
is dimensional control plus visual control. Dimensional control
mostly goes with the visual inspection and is done by the same
inspectors.
2. In many visual tests, final acceptance is determined by maximum
or minimum sizes or extensions. For example, when testing welds
in steel constructions, not all welds and not all areas of a weld are
measured for their dimensions. Visual control identifies the critical
areas where measurements are necessary in order to determine if the
requirements are met. Note: Weld gages are explained in Chapter 5
under “Direct Visual Testing of Welds.”
3. Just as in any other NDT method, the inspector has to locate
discontinuities and document their location so that they can be
retraced. To achieve this, a reference system has to be established,
such as a point from where all measurements are taken.
Rulers
Many measurements are made with rulers. Linear rulers are a sequence
of lines with the same distance between them. The ruler is placed on or
over the object. The number of lines along the distance to be determined
32
is counted, and this is what provides a measurement value. To facilitate

counting, rulers are labeled with numbers. The accuracy of ruler
measurements is highly dependent on the exact and consistent distance
between the lines. A simple steel ruler is shown in Figure 15.
Figure 15: Steel ruler.
Calipers
To achieve accurate measurements when reading with a ruler is not
possible, indirect transfer calipers (Figure 16) with a steel rule are used.
In addition, direct reading calipers such as a vernier scale (sliding scale)
may be used (Figure 17). A vernier scale is a scale that indicates where a
measurement lies in between two of the marks on a main scale. Both the
vernier and main scales are attached to jaws between which the object to
be measured is placed. The jaw attached to the vernier scale is movable
so that contact can be made with the object. Because measurements are
made in comparison with a main scale, the vernier scale provides greater
accuracy than could be achieved with a ruler alone. However, reading a
vernier scale is at times a bit challenging. This is why inspectors prefer
calipers equipped with a dial or a digital indicator. A digital caliper is
diagrammed in Figure 18.
Figure 16: Indirect transfer calipers.
33
Figure 17: Vernier scale.
Figure 18: Digital caliper.
Clamp ring Ratchet

Anvil Spindle
Barrel Thimble
Frame
Figure 19: Micrometer.
Micrometers
The micrometer (Figure 19) uses the same technique as the caliper but
combines linear readings from the barrel with those from a revolving
thimble. Taking those readings can be complicated if this type of caliper
is not used routinely. Micrometers usually have a linear scale subdivided
into 40 graduations corresponding to 40 revolutions of the thimble. The
rotations of the thimble move a spindle towards the anvil until it touches
the object to be measured.
34
Figure 20: Feeler gage set.
Feeler and Wire Gages

Instead of reading measurements from a scale, the inspector can use a
series of patterns with continuously changing measures. The inspector
takes the reading from the pattern that fits best into a radius, an angle, or
a gap, the dimensions of which are in question. These patterns are widely
used in manufacturing and come in various types and forms.
Good examples are feeler gages, a series of small lengthy blades
of calibrated thickness used to measure narrow gaps. An imprinted
measurement indicates the thickness of the thickest blade that can still fit
into a gap. (See Figure 20.)
Wire gages are plates with a series of boreholes of stepwise changing
diameters. Normally, the diameter of each hole is provided, so the
smallest of the holes where a wire still fits gives the diameter of that wire.
Go/No-Go Gages
Go/no-go gages are made just for the purpose of verification of
one dimension and to ensure that certain parts for a machine or a
component have been manufactured with that acceptable dimension.
These measuring tools are normally produced for a specific product
series and are equipped with some identification with that kind of
product. One type of go/no-go gage is shown in Figure 21.
35
Calibration of Gages
All measuring tools have to be handled with care; nevertheless, their
accuracy degrades when used. Therefore, standards require a periodic
check against a master. The master should be sent regularly to an
accredited agency to verify that it is still accurate enough to fulfill its
purpose. Calibration results must be documented in a logbook (paper or
electronic) to show evidence during audits. (See Figure 22.)
Automated Systems
Automated systems are used in production lines in the steel and
automotive industries to check for a number of quality issues, such as
discontinuities in hot steel slabs or paint finish. Machine vision systems
may take the place of human inspectors in quality control (QC). A CCD
camera or vidicon tube takes images of the objects to be evaluated and
extracts relevant features, which are compared with patterns stored
in memory. When making this comparison, software decides which
parts are to be selected for a detailed evaluation, normally still done by
humans.
4 in. (100 mm)
Figure 21: Hardened and ground plug go/no-go gage.
Figure 22: Logbook of calibration results.
36
5
Visual Testing of Welds
Welds and Welding Processes

A fusion weld consists of the base metal including a heat-affected zone
(HAZ), a fusion line, and the welding material, which is filled into the
weld preparation in liquid condition. A cross section through a typical
fusion weld is shown in Figure 1.
Weld Crown
Base metal HAZ metal (reinforcement)
HAZ
Fusion line Root
Figure 1: Cross section through a typical fusion weld including heat-

affected zone (HAZ).
With weld inspection, the first step is to verify that the required
type of weld has been used. The requirements are normally taken from
drawings where the types of welds are indicated by symbols, which can
be hard to read for a beginner. (See Figure 2.) To better understand the
relation between the symbol and the desired weld, please use training
material from the American Welding Society (AWS).
The members to be joined can be positioned in different ways relative
to each other as shown in Figure 3. The results are butt joints, lap joints,
and T joints. (Note: AWS also includes corner and edge joints.)
1/4
SMAW
1/4 G
Completed weld joint
Figure 2: Welding symbols.
37
Arrow of
Arrow of Arrow side welding
welding symbol of joint symbol Arrow side Other side
of joint member of joint
Arrow of
welding
symbol
Other side Other side

of joint Arrow side
(a) of joint (b) (c) member
of joint
Figure 3: Welding joints: (a) butt joint; (b) T joint; (c) lap joint.
The welded joint can be produced in different ways depending on the

shape of groove and the angle of bevel prepared for welding, as shown in
Figure 4.
Fillet Square groove
Square groove Bevel groove Vee groove
J-groove U-groove
Figure 4: Weld grooves.
Arc welding per AWS is “a group of processes where fusion of

the members to be joined is produced by heating above the melting
temperature of the base material with an electric arc or combination of
arcs with or without the application of pressure and with or without the
use of filler metal.”
Shielded metal (or electrode) arc welding (SMAW) is used mostly
for manually welded joints. The electrode is fixed in a holder. The arc
burns between the metal electrode and the weld puddle. The electrode
38
is covered by a flux coating material, which partly evaporates in the arc

and later creates slag on the weld bead. The evaporated coating material
shields the liquid droplets and supports the arc. The droplets are guided
to the bath by electric attraction forces. When the electrode is consumed,
the welding process is interrupted and a new electrode must be fixed in
the holder and ignited. (See Figure 5.)
Core wire Gaseous

Coating shield
(a) (b)
Figure 5: Shielded metal arc welding: (a) side view of equipment; (b) cross section
of weld.
With submerged arc welding (SAW), a solid welding wire is fed

from a spool down through feed rollers and through a welding nozzle.
Granular flux is fed in powder form from a flux hopper into the weld
groove just ahead of the weld nozzle so that the welding wire makes
contact with the base metal beneath a mound of flux. The arc is
established under the flux mound, melting the flux immediately around
the arc and creating the shielding gases required to protect the molten
weld metal. The evaporated powder prevents oxidation and supports the
arc. (See Figure 6.)
Filler wire
Granular flux
(a) (b) Electric arc
Figure 6: Submerged arc welding: (a) side view of equipment; (b) cross section of
weld.
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) provides the shielding of the

liquid material by a flow of inert gas, namely argon or carbon dioxide,
around the arc. The wire is continuously supplied from a coil by a drive.
39
Therefore, the distance between the wire tip in the arc and the molten
pool should stay constant. The process can be readily automated.
(See Figure 7.)
Filler
wire
Electric arc
(a) (b)
Figure 7: Gas metal arc welding: (a) side view of equipment; (b) cross section of
weld.
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is similar to GMAW, but the arc
burns between a nonconsumable tungsten electrode and the molten
pool. A wire, which melts droplet by droplet when taken into the arc, is
manually or semi-automatically driven.
Welding Discontinuities
Cracks
l Crack: a discontinuity caused by a local rupture in the solid state that
may arise from the effect of cooling or stresses.
l Longitudinal crack: a crack with a main extension essentially parallel
to the axis of the weld.
As with other cracks, longitudinal cracks may be situated
l in the weld metal,
l at the weld junction,
l in the heat-affected zone, or
l in the parent metal.
Cracks are caused in locations of stress concentrations and can be
classified by their extensions relative to the weld axis and by their shape.
Craters are unavoidable when electrode arc welding is applied.
Different types of cracks may be located in a crater. Craters mostly
develop in locations of the weld where the welding process is
interrupted.
Types of cracks are shown in Figures 8 and 9.
Pores
l Gas pore: a gas cavity of essentially spherical form. Gas inclusions
in welds are caused by wet electrodes, too high voltage, and other
mistakes during welding.
l Surface pore: a gas pore that breaks the surface of the weld.
Types of porosity occurring in welds are shown in Figure 10.
40
Transverse crack in weld

and heat-affected zone
Star-shaped
crater crack
Centerline crack
Toe crack
Root crack
Figure 8: Typical weld cracks.
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 9: Visual appearance of cracks: (a) crater crack; (b) centerline

crack; (c) heat-affected zone (HAZ) crack.
41
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 10: Three types of weld porosity: (a) single pore; (b) clustered;
(c) aligned.
Inclusions
l Slag inclusions: solid inclusions of foreign substances, such as slag or
oxides entrapped in the weld metal.
Slag inclusions in SMAW welds are mostly caused by incomplete
removal of the slag layer between different passes of the electrode
(Figure 11). They may be located at the root or at the sidewalls, single or
aligned, rounded or elongated. Slag inclusions will be detected visually
when checking for the removal of slag between passes. Sometimes slag is
entrapped at the face of the weld and leaves a hole upon removal.
l Tungsten inclusions: similar to slag inclusions but the result of the
GTAW process. Tungsten inclusions are typically rounded metallic
inclusions that occur when the tip of the tungsten electrode chips or
breaks off and drops into the weld puddle.
Root Discontinuities
Depending on the weld preparation and the welding process, different
types of discontinuities may be produced in the root, as illustrated in
Figures 12 and 13.
l Incomplete root penetration: one or both fusion faces of the root are
not melted (root slit is not fused). Incomplete penetration may be
evaluated as lack of fusion.
l Root retraction: also referred to as concave root surface or suck-back.
Root retraction is caused by excessive shrinkage of the weld-deposited
root bead due to insufficient filler or weld metal when the molten
weld solidifies.
l Root convexity or excessive root: also referred to as drop-through, may
rather be evaluated as shape deviations. This type of discontinuity
typically exhibits no sharp edges, whereas the incomplete root or
underfill typically has sharp edges.
42
(a)
(b)
Figure 11: Two locations of slag inclusions: (a) in toe along fusion line;
(b) centerline in weld face.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 12: Root discontinuities in weld: (a) incomplete penetration = root slit is not
fused; (b) root retraction = incomplete wetting or suck-back; (c) excessive root,
too large root slit = drops of weld metal at root.
VT can detect all of the above discontinuities. What they have in

common is that they are typically found in small tubing when using a
borescope. The root is normally regarded as the most critical part of the
weld.
Undercut
l Undercut: an irregular groove at a toe of a run in the parent metal
or in previously deposited weld metal due to welding errors.
(See Figure 14.)
43
(a)
(b) (c)
Figure 13: Visual appearance of root discontinuities: (a) root retraction or suck-
back; (b) root convexity or drop-through; (c) incomplete penetration.
(a)
(b)
Figure 14: Two types of weld undercut: (a) crown; Figure 15: Visual appearance
(b) root. of undercut.
Undercut may occur when the molten welding material softens

the base metal. Undercuts appear at the crown or in the root. This
is a notchlike type of discontinuity where stresses applied tend to
concentrate and may therefore be the origin for cracking when under
load. (See Figure 15.) Undercut may be confused with or come combined
with lack of bond extending to the surface.
Other Welding Discontinuities

Other discontinuities produced during welding include problems with
weld reinforcement, misalignment, spatter, arc strike, and grinding
cracks.
l Underfill: Not enough filler material is deposited in the weld groove
during the welding process.
44
l Overfill: Too much filler material is deposited in the weld groove

(Figure 16). This discontinuity is also referred to as excessive crown or
excessive reinforcement.
(a) (b)
Figure 16: Overfill of the weld groove: (a) schematic; (b) actual weld.
Both underfill and excessive reinforcement may cause abrupt changes

in the wall thickness and may therefore be origins of stress concentration
when a structure is under load. They are typically found by unaided
visual testing and require the use of a gage for final evaluation.
l Misalignment: mismatch between two welded members such that
their surface planes are not the same or not parallel. (See Figures 17
and 18.)
(a) (b)
Figure 17: Two types of weld misalignment: (a) linear misalignment; (b) angular
misalignment.
Before welding, the parts to be joined must be fixed so that no

distortion occurs when the liquid filler metal solidifies. Misalignment
is a deviation from the desired shape of a weld and is limited in extent
according to the requirements of the applicable standard.
l Spatter: globules of weld metal or filler metal expelled during welding
and adhering to the surface of the parent metal or the solidified weld
metal (Figure 19).
l Arc strike: local damage to the surface of the parent metal adjacent
to the weld, resulting from arcing or striking the arc outside the weld
groove (Figure 20).
l Grinding cracks: a network of cracks mostly extending over the whole
grinding area.
45
(a)
(b)
Figure 18: Weld misalignment: (a) linear; (b) angular.
Figure 19: Weld spatter.
Excessive grinding heats up the surface layer in the grinding area. The
material cannot extend because it adheres to a lower, much colder layer
of material, and the resultant stresses cause cracking as the metal cools
down. (See Figure 21.) Hammer marks are shown for comparison in
Figure 22.
46
Figure 20: Arc strike.
(a) (b) Grinding cracks
Grinding cracks occur

at right angles (crosswise)
to wheel rotation
Direction of grinding
(c) wheel rotation
Figure 21: Grinding cracks: (a) photograph of grinding cracks in a weld

whose crown has been removed; (b) illustration showing the grinding
process; (c) illustration showing the effect of excessive grinding.
47
Figure 22: Hammer marks.
Direct Visual Testing of Welds

Direct visual testing of welds covers the following types of anomalies:
l discontinuities such as cracks and voids
l shape deviations such as excessive reinforcement
l surface roughness or surface patterns from machining
Mostly, the acceptance of these kinds of anomalies is based on
their size, so visual testing requires some type of measurement. For
example, the acceptance of undercut depends on its size (depth and/
or length). Also, the acceptance of shape deviations is mostly based on
size, such as height or depth, and is therefore based on measurement.
These measurements are done with specific weld gages (see below). On
the other hand, some welding discontinuities do not usually require
measurement; once they are identified as such, they are evaluated as not
acceptable by default. Surface roughness may have to be determined
prior to welding or thereafter. Average roughness can be measured with
a gage or by comparison with a set of reference standards.
High-Low Gage
The high-low gage measures internal alignment of pipe after fit-up/
alignment. It measures internal misalignment of pipe before and after
tacking. The gage can be used to measure internal mismatch of the pipe
wall and root weld space, as shown in Figure 23. It can also measure the
crown height of a weld.
General Purpose Gage (Cambridge)

The cambridge gage is a unique, versatile instrument for the inspection
of welded surfaces and joints. It measures the angle of preparation,
0° to 60° excess weld metal (capping size), depth of undercut, depth of
pitting, fillet weld throat size, fillet leg length, misalignment, and linear
measurements up to 2.0 in. (51 mm). It measures in both inches and
millimeters, and comprises one rotating dial and one sliding pointer.
48
(a) (b)
Figure 23: High-low gage for measuring: (a) internal misalignment;

(b) root weld space.
Move the dial or pointer until it makes the appropriate contact and then
read the result. It is important to null the gage before the measurement
and to read the value from the correct scale. The sliding pointer is used
for the fillet weld throat measurement. (See Figures 24 and 25.)
Standard-Related Gages (VWAC and Palmgren)

Personnel that have to work to a variety of different standards should
preferably be equipped with the cambridge gage. Two other similar
gages, the VWAC gage and the palmgren gage, have been specifically
designed to meet certain standards (NRC and AWS). Therefore, on some
of their scales, you will not find numbers but a mark for the maximum
acceptable value in that specific standard. Therefore, these gages can
exclusively be used for applications to these standards.
VWAC gages are used to determine whether fillet welds meet Nuclear
Regulatory Commission (NRC) visual weld acceptance criteria (note the
acronym) for structural weldments. It checks four essential criteria for
compliance with NRC rules:
l undercut depth
l porosity comparison
l amount of porosity per linear inch (millimeter)
l crown height
49
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e)
Figure 24: Cambridge gage: (a) 0° to 60° angle of preparation;

(b) excess weld metal in reinforcement; (c) pitting or depth of undercut;
(d) fillet weld throat size; (e) high/low misalignment.
The undercut depth or crown height scale can be read to 1/32 in.
(0.8 mm). The plate contains porosity comparison standards, just two
holes of 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) and 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) diameter. The linear gage
is divided in 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) increments. The gage is easy to set, and
a locking screw holds it in position for later reference. All four required
measurements can be made with a single gage, as shown in Figure 26.
Specifications of butt and fillet type welds can be met using the
palmgren gage, shown in Figure 27. Furthermore, Figure 28 illustrates
how welders and inspectors may accurately check sizes of convex
or concave fillets as well as butt weld crown or reinforcement. The
convexity and concavity sizes have automatically been determined in
accordance with AWS D1.1, Paragraph 3.6. These acceptance limits have
been built into the readings. The gage is made from stainless steel with
the dimensional reading scale chemically etched.
50
Testing of Fillet Welds

For fillet welds, it is sometimes much better to use a set of patterns. As
with the feeler gage in Chapter 4, read the measurement from the largest
pattern that fits (Figure 29). The fillet weld gage has to be turned to read
concave (measure of theoretical throat) as shown in Figure 30(a), or
convex (measure of leg size) fillet weld measures, as shown in
Figure 30(b).
(a)
(b)
Figure 25: Cambridge gage: (a) being used to measure weld

reinforcement; (b) setting for fillet weld measurement.
Figure 26: VWAC gage.
51
Figure 27: Palmgren displacement weld gage.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 28: Uses of palmgren gage for measuring: (a) leg length of fillet weld;
(b) convexity of fillet weld; (c) concavity of fillet weld; (d) crown reinforcement
of butt weld.
52
Figure 29: Set of fillet weld gages.
53
Theoretical throat
Size
(a)
Theoretical throat
Leg length
Leg length
(b) Leg length
Figure 30: Gaging and sizing of fillet welds: (a) concave; (b) convex.
Figure 31: Determining weld acceptability with wire and disk.
Wire Gage
Structures under cyclic load are sensitive to notches where the three axial
stresses at a fillet weld lead to cracking. The welding industry developed a
simple technique to determine whether those wall thickness changes are
too sharp or can be accepted.
A 0.04 in. (1 mm) thick wire serves as a standard for this
determination. If the wire fits between the beads or between the
filler metal and the base metal with the disk in touch with both the
beads or the filler and the base metal, then the contour of the weld is
unacceptable. The disk should have a radius in the order of one-half the
member thickness. The test is designed for fillet welds. (See Figure 31.)
54
Inspecting for Surface Quality

Visual inspection may include surface quality. In drawings, specifications
on the height and the width of surface irregularities may be given.
When evaluating the quality of surface finishes after mechanical
operations such as drilling, grinding, or polishing, the inspector may
also measure surface roughness. Often, there is no time for precise
measurements and an approximation of the roughness is sufficient.
Therefore, a simple visual comparison with a reference block is much
easier. These blocks are called surface comparators (Figure 32) and
consist of several stepwise areas of smoother surface conditions. For each
of these areas, a certain roughness may be attributed. The estimation is
done by a visual and tactile comparison with the actual surface.
Figure 32: Surface comparators.
55
6
Visual Testing of Castings and
Wrought Products
Casting Process
Casting can be used as a forming process; this means that the material
must be in fluid condition and assume the shape of the container,
called the mold, when it solidifies. (See Figure 1.) When the melt is
under a constantly applied force toward the mold, this is called dynamic
casting. Dynamic casting is done under pressure or centrifugal forces,
as shown in Figure 2. Therefore, dynamic casting provides a finer
grained microstructure compared to static casting where such forces
are not applied. Static casting processes mostly use sand molds, whereas
dynamic casting mostly applies to metallic molds.
Figure 1: Visual testing of a casting.
57
Sand or other refractory lining

Cast tubing
Flask
Measured charge
(a) Machine drive rollers
(b) (c)
Figure 2: Types of centrifugal casting: (a) true centrifugal casting

(hollow product); (b) semicentrifugal casting (solid product);
(c) centrifuge casting (multiple product).
The sand casting process (Figure 3) starts with two flasks

(containers)—the cope (above) and the drag (below)—and the parting
line where they match. The flasks are filled with sand/binder and a
pattern (that is, a slightly larger model of the product) indented half in
cope and half in drag.
Further indentations are made for patterns of the gating system
(comprising pouring basin, sprue, and runner) and a riser. After the sand
mold has compacted and fused, patterns are taken out and, in the case of
a hollow product, a core is inserted. The molten metal is poured into the
sprue and solidifies in the mold. The flask is opened at the parting line,
the sand removed, the core destroyed, and the gating system and the
riser cut from the casting.
During the solidification, two different features of the material drop
significantly:
l solubility for gases
l density and volume
58
Visual Testing of Castings and Wrought Products
Flask (drag) Bottom board

Pattern
Follower Sand
Step 1 Step 2
Flask Sprue
(cope)
Parting compound
Guide pin
Step 3 Step 4
Runner
Step 5 Step 6
Figure 3: Principal steps in making a sand mold.
Therefore, gas bubbles become entrapped or frozen in the solid

matter, and shrinkage cavities caused by the volume loss can develop in
the interior of the solidified matter. Both discontinuity types are rather
entrapped in the interior volume of the casting and visible from the
outside only on cutting surfaces or machined surfaces.
Casting Discontinuities
Hot Tears
Changes in cross section are critical because of the occurrence of hot
tears (Figure 4). A hot tear occurs when the metal is hot or has yet to
solidify to its complete solid state. When different section thicknesses of
the casting solidify, the thinner section solidifies first and introduces a
tensile force. This force is responsible for hot tears where the metal has
yet to solidify, because of its greater thickness. Therefore, the designer
tries to avoid thickness changes or sets chills at these spots. Hot tears
propagate in a single direction and do not cross other hot tears in any
section in which they are found.
59
Light (small) sections solidify and shrink

faster than the heavy sections
Mold
(a) (b)
Hot tears
Figure 4: Hot tears in a casting: (a) schematic; (b) visual appearance

(MSS SP-55).
Cold Shuts
Cold shuts (Figure 5) are a very common surface discontinuity in
castings that are barely tolerable in most standards. Their abrupt nature
makes them origins of cracks, especially during cyclic loading. When
filling the mold, a skin from oxides and/or already partly solidified metal
covers the flowing liquid metal. When turbulence occurs, for example,
splashing or convergence of two streams of flowing metal, the skin might
prevent full fusion of the liquid before it solidifies. Therefore, a lack of
fusion remains, the cross section of which resembles “neighbors” of
frozen water droplets. Colds shuts may appear as sharp straight lines
at the surface of the casting. They may also appear as smooth-edged,
rounded indications.
(a) (b)
Splashed metal
Figure 5: Cold shuts: (a) schematic of development of cold shuts in a

casting due to splashed metal; (b) visual appearance (MSS SP-55).
Unfused Chills and Chaplets

Core supports hold the core in position when the liquid metal is poured
into the mold. Chaplets (Figure 6) are core supports that are used to
prevent core shifts. Chills are used to increase the rate of cooling, thereby
60
Sprue
Core
Core print
(a) Casting cavity Chaplets
(b) (c)
Figure 6: Unfused chaplets: (a) location of chaplets in relation to core; (b) close-
up of chaplet in mold; (c) visual appearance of an unacceptable unfused
chaplet (MSS SP-55).
equalizing the solidification of thick and the thin cross sections. Chills
are also used to eliminate hot tears and to achieve selective solidification.
In the end, the material of the chaplet or chill and the solidified material
should be joined and fully fused together. A lack of fusion occurs when
the chaplet is wet, oily, or oxidized, or when the molten metal is too cold.
Scabs
When the sand compaction is inadequate and/or the melted metal
flows too heavily into the mold, sand particles or clots break from the
mold and are driven with the metal flow. Sand inclusions “swim” in
the heavier metal and become entrapped when it solidifies. The metal
fills the voids in the mold, which can look like warts on the skin after
solidification. These are called scabs. (See Figure 7.)
Other Casting Discontinuities

Other discontinuities associated with the casting process include surface
irregularities and shape deviations.
l Surface irregularities: If the sand is not as compacted as it should be,
the molten metal and the sand mix and form an ore-like structure,
as shown in Figure 8. Lack of compaction may also result in line
structures on the surface of the casting called veining.
l Shape deviations: The parting line between the upper and lower
portions of the flask may become visible when they are not tightly
fitted, as shown in Figure 9. When filling the mold, the core is pressed
upward and may result in shifting between the flasks.
l Shrinkage: Shrinkage occurs while the metal is in a semi-molten state.
If sufficient molten metal cannot flow into different areas, as it cools
the shrinkage will leave a void. The void is exposed when risers and
gates are cut off or removed. (See Figure 10.)
61
(a)
(b) (c)
Figure 7: Scabs: (a) schematic; (b) visual appearance of part; (c) close-up view
(MSS SP-55).
l Porosity: Gas porosity takes the form of more or less spherical voids
or bubbles that form within the cast metal. As the casting solidifies,
the gases rise through the molten metal and may migrate to the
surface. (See Figure 11.)
Testing Sequence
Visual control of the quality of a casting starts immediately after the
solidified and cooled raw casting is out of the flask (mold and core
removal). Coarse discontinuities, such as core shifts, veining, and shape
deviations, become immediately visible. Other discontinuities become
visible on the cutting surfaces of the sprue/runner and/or riser when
cleaning and finishing the surface. Excess material at the parting line
may also be removed. After an additional surface treatment, such as
shot peening, the surface is inspected visually for roughness and smaller
discontinuities (Figure 12).
62
Figure 8: Sand adhering to the surface of a casting.
Figure 9: Visible parting line in a casting.
63
Figure 10: Surface shrinkage in a Figure 11: Surface porosity in a casting

casting (MSS SP-55). (MSS SP-55).
(a) (b)
Figure 12: Endoscopic images of a casting for quality assurance: (a) rough
discontinuities; (b) fine discontinuities.
Standards require that the quality of the part is determined in terms

of discontinuity type and size/extension. To achieve this, a comparison
of the actual condition/detail with a replica or sets of photographs is
normally required by the applicable standards or specifications. To
enable a good, direct comparison, a light level of 35 fc (350 lx) is mostly
recommended or required. The designation of the photograph or replica
that is most similar to the actual surface condition is decisive for grading.
As a first step, the surface roughness of the completed casting is
evaluated. Why first? The surface condition allows only a certain test
sensitivity. If a maximum roughness is exceeded, the small details that
are sought will be obscured. This might be in conflict with the intended
application, which allows only a certain degree of roughness. For
example, you may be working to a specification requiring a maximum
roughness of 2S1 in accordance with the Bureau de Normalisation des
Industries de la Fonderie (BNIF) or A2 in accordance with the Steel
Castings Research and Trade Association (SCRATA). (A SCRATA
replica is shown in Figure 13.)
American standards mostly reference MSS SP-55, Quality Standard
for Steel Castings for Valves, Flanges, Fittings, and other Piping
Components: Visual Method for Evaluation of Surface Irregularities,
64
for visual acceptance criteria for castings.

Some directly reference the British SCRATA
replica catalog. MSS SP-55 is based on a series
of photographs to determine acceptability
of discontinuities. As replicas tell more than
photographs, MSS SP-55 contains a table
that shows how the acceptance of its sets of
photographs can be transferred into the terms
of SCRATA. (See Table 1.) However, MSS
SP-55 refers to more discontinuity types than
SCRATA, including shrinkage and veining. In
case such a discontinuity is present in a test
object, it is stipulated that the acceptance has to
be tied directly to MSS SP-55, meaning to the
applicable set of photographs. Figure 13: SCRATA replica for
identification of cold shuts.
Table 1: Comparison table from MSS SP-55. (Only types with SCRATA equivalents
are presented.)
MSS SP-55 SCRATA Comparators Equivalent
Type 1 None acceptable
Hot tears and cracks
(None acceptable)
Type III Comparator B2
Sand inclusions or better
Type IV Comparator C2
Gas porosity or better
Type VII Comparator D2
Wrinkles, laps, folds, and cold shuts or better
Type VIII Comparator G2 or better
Cutting marks Comparator H4 or better
Type IX Comparator E1
Scabs or better
Type X Comparator F2
Chaplets or better
Type XI Comparator J3
Weld repair areas or better
Type XII Comparator A3
Surface roughness or better
Direct Visual Testing of Rolled Products
Rolling as Manufacturing Process

Several manufacturing processes use rolling to change a raw product
into a semi-finished or finished product. Slabs are rolled into plates,
skelp, pipe and tubing, large-diameter pipe, strip, and tin plate; blooms
are rolled into structural shapes, rails, tube rounds, and seamless pipe;
65
and billets are rolled into bars for later extrusion as cold-drawn bars,
wire rods for later extrusion as wire, as well as tube rounds for the
manufacture of seamless pipe.
The rolling process lengthens the raw material including its
microstructure and inherent discontinuities by applying pressure
between the rolls. (See Figure 14.) Metals such as steel are usually in a
heated condition so that oxides and scale develop at the surface of the
deformed material.
Visible Discontinuities in Rolled Products

Visible discontinuities in rolled products include overlap and laps,
rolled-in scale, scratches, cracks, roll marks, shells, slivers and spills, and
seams.
1 2
(a)
1 2
(b)
1 2
(c)
4
3
Figure 14: Discontinuities in the rolling process: (a) rolling lap (1→2);
(b) centerline delamination (1→2); (c) segregation (1→2) and inclusion
laminations (3→4).
66
l Overlap and laps: wrinkles in the material’s surface pressed flat and
drawn lengthwise in the direction of rolling. (See Figure 15.)
These wrinkles run at inclined angles essentially parallel to the surface
within the material. Overfilled calibers are rolled over causing laps called
fins. Laps may sometimes look like cracks, but they do not run deep
into the material. (Note: The term “caliber” refers to the geometry of the
rolls.)
(a) (b)
Figure 15: Discontinuities in rolled products: (a) laps on a wire after rolling;
(b) cross section of a rod with an overlap.
l Rolled-in scale: marks on the rolled surface varying in shape,

thickness, and frequency. (See Figure 16.) The rolled-in scale
originates from the inherent surface scaling of the stock before or
during hot rolling or heat treatment.
(a) (b)
Figure 16: Scale: (a) macrophotograph (plate); (b) visual appearance (wire).
l Scratches: scores or furrows in the surface. (See Figure 17.) Scratches

are mostly parallel to the rolling direction and of constant size and
location parallel to the direction of rolling. The width of scratches
may vary. Scoring is caused by friction between the stock and parts
of the equipment due to wear and foreign particles. Scratches may
resemble cracks but have no sharp ground.
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(a) (b)
Figure 17: Scratches: (a) surface; (b) cross section.
l Cracks: narrow lines of fracture on the surface running straight,

branched, or jagged. (See Figure 18.) Cracks are mainly caused by
material stresses, which often develop during heating or cooling
of the feedstock due to uneven flow of heat. Cracks run parallel,
inclined, or at right angles to the direction of rolling. They may also
be caused by scratches and/or narrow spacing of the rollers.
(a) (b)
Figure 18: Cracks: (a) linear; (b) branching.
l Roll marks: indentations or elevations of different sizes and

distinctness but repeating at definite distances apart throughout
the length and width of the stock. (See Figure 19.) These marks are
attributed to the wear of rollers or pinch rolls resulting in areas of
shells or outbursts.
l Shells: overlapping material over a large area; lamination-like disbond
but partially connected with the base material.
(See Figure 20.)
There is a preponderance of nonmetallic inclusions and/or scale
among the shells mostly caused by oxide inclusions entrapped
immediately under the surface during the casting process. Shells are part
of the metallic structure and are linked to it.
The material under the shell is mostly oxide (scale) surrounded by
highly deformed metal. Some of these oxide layers show a cracklike end
or cracks at their ends.
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l Slivers and spills: minute surface discontinuities of an irregular,

flakelike nature. (See Figure 21.) Slivers and spills are elongated in
the direction of rolling. Their extension depends on the degree of
reduction. As with shells, they are still connected to the base metal at
certain points.
(a) (b)
Figure 19: Roll marks: (a) surface; (b) cross section.
(a) (b)
Figure 20: Shells: (a) surface; (b) macrophotograph (metallographic).
(a) (b)
Figure 21: Slivers and spills: (a) surface; (b) cross section.
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l Seams: elongated marks extended during rolling. (See Figure 22.)

Seams are formed mainly when imperfections in the semi-product
are elongated during rolling.
Figure 22: Seams (two examples).
Evaluation of Plates (Wrought Products)

The steel industry uses rolling mostly to produce plates, rods, and
structural steels. The quality of these products is controlled visually
unless the application standard demands more testing, such as
ultrasonic. Production of plates is largely automated with cameras and
computers performing initial VT. However, technicians, for the most
part, still do the final evaluation and repair. The main problem, when
only VT is performed, is that the technician takes into account only
those discontinuities that are visible to the naked eye. Rolling may close
linear discontinuities, and adhering scale from heat treatment may
conceal discontinuities. Very important for the understanding of the
standards are the following definitions:
l Imperfections: Surface discontinuities other than cracks, shells, and
seams with a depth and/or area equal to or less than the specified
limiting value.
l Defects: Surface discontinuities including all cracks, shells, and seams
with a depth and/or area greater than a specified limiting value.
Defects must be removed and the plate repaired.
To differentiate surface discontinuities in terms of imperfections
or defects, the depth of representative discontinuities is measured.
This measurement can only be made when the discontinuity has been
removed by grinding. Thus, grinding and the final visual evaluation
have to be performed jointly. Typical maximum acceptable depths are as
follows:
l 1/64 in. (0.4 mm) for wall thicknesses up to 0.5 in. (12.7 mm)
l 1/32 in. (0.8 mm) for wall thicknesses 0.5 in. (12.7 mm) up to 1 in.
(25.4 mm)
l 3/64 in. (1.2 mm) for wall thicknesses above 1 in. (25.4 mm) up to
2 in. (50.8 mm)
l 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) for wall thicknesses above 2 in. (50.8 mm)
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In principle, there are three different ways discontinuities appear:

l isolated
l clustered
l linear
For a discontinuity to be graded as isolated, the next neighboring
discontinuity must be a certain distance away; typically 2 in. (50 mm) is
specified. When necessary, the inspector determines the area affected by
the discontinuity. For isolated discontinuities, a continuous line around
the discontinuity is drawn, typically encompassing an area of interest of
2 in. (50 mm) on each side. (See Figure 23.)
2 in. (50 mm)
2 in. (50 mm)
2 in. (50 mm)
2 in. (50 mm)
Figure 23: Line drawn around discontinuity to determine the area to be

excavated (B5 EN 10163-1:2004).
If small discontinuities are closer than 2 in. (50 mm), they

form a cluster. The outlines of the cluster are determined by those
discontinuities in the cluster that form the margins. These marginal
discontinuities must be spaced by at least 2 in. (50 mm) in one direction
from the next discontinuity. In order to determine the affected area, a
cluster is treated as a single, isolated discontinuity.
A discontinuity is considered linear if it is longer than some multiple
of its largest width. For example, in the U.S., the typical requirement for
a rejectable linear indication is if its length is greater than 3× its width
(other standards specify 10×). For the purposes of evaluation, standards
stipulate typically that aligned linear discontinuities with their edges
closer together than 4 in. (100 mm) are considered one discontinuity.
Linear discontinuities with their main extensions parallel to each other
are considered one discontinuity if their edges are 1.5 in. (38 mm) or less
apart. The affected zone of linear discontinuities is considered a rectangle
encompassing the discontinuities, the sides of which are drawn 1.5 in.
(38 mm) from its edge along the length and 4 in. (100 mm) from the
edge along the width. (See Figure 24.)
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4 in. (100 mm) 1.5 in. (38 mm)

4 in. (100 mm)
1.5 in. (38 mm)
Figure 24: Affected zone of multiple linear discontinuities

(B5 EN 10163-1:2004).
For the repair, the whole affected area has to be ground as deeply as
necessary to fully remove the discontinuity. The ground area shall have a
smooth transition into the surrounding, sound material. When grinding
below the nominal thickness is necessary, the excavation must be filled
with welding material of the same chemical composition as the plate. The
repair weld must be free from lack of fusion, undercutting, cracks, and
other discontinuities that could impair the workability of the plates.
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7
Visual Testing Procedures
Sample Instruction
Written instructions may look very different for various industries
and applications. For the purpose of this book, we will consider a full-
sentence version that is readable for everybody concerned. A welding job
is the industry scenario.
Instruction for Direct VT of Welds

1. Purpose and Scope
Visual testing of welds in production and maintenance in various industries.
2. Referenced Codes and Standards

l ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code (2015) Sections I, III, V (Article 9), VIII,
and XI
l ASME B31.1 (2016), Power Piping
3. Personnel Certification
Personnel shall be qualified and certified to a Written Practice based on
SNT-TC-1A or ANSI/ASNT CP-189, as required by contract. The inspection
personnel shall be trained for all VT techniques. The Level I shall be able to
perform accept-reject determinations when objects are accessible to direct
view. For evaluation of anomalies in indirect or remote VT, an NDT Level II
certification is mandatory.
4. Time of Testing
The state of manufacture or service life when VT shall be performed is
stated in the job specification. Usually for new products, VT is the last step in
production. Maintenance VT is part of the inspection plans for outages.
5. Extent of Testing
A checklist containing all details to be evaluated shall be used to ensure full
coverage. The weld surface from both sides plus areas of at least 0.5 in.
(12.7 mm) HAZ shall be visually inspected.
6. VT Techniques
6.1 General Visual Testing (GVT)
This technique is used to achieve an overview of the integrity of a
component and is typically applied during inservice inspections to
look for loose, distorted, or missing parts, or obvious leakage. GVT is
performed from a larger distance and needs less light:
73
l maximum distance: 12 ft (3.7 m)

l minimum light level: 15 fc (161.4 lx)
6.2 Direct Visual Testing (DVT)
No visual aids are necessary when the test surface is within the arm’s
reach and can be tactilely investigated. This is defined by:
l maximum distance: 24 in. (61 cm)
l minimum angle of view: 30° (measured to the surface)
Magnifiers may be used to improve the detail resolution. Mirrors may be
used to improve the angle of vision. Measuring tools may be applied to
determine sizes of details. The illumination at the surface to be tested is
dependent upon the job task:
l inservice inspection: 50 fc (538 lx)
l production of welds in pressure vessels: 100 fc (1076 lx)
If the light level is not adequate, additional lighting shall be applied.
6.3 Aided Visual Testing
Borescopes, both rigid and fiber, are used to access those surfaces that
cannot be viewed directly, such as weld roots in the interior of tubing.
All anomalies and their locations shall be reported. As vision through
these instruments is different from direct vision, a verification of the
resolution capabilities is necessary. The resolution shall be deemed
adequate when a line of 1/32 in. (0.8 mm) width on an 18% gray
background can be discerned under the approximate same light level as
in the most unfavorable area during the test.
6.4 Remote Visual Testing (RVT)
Remote visual testing typically uses cameras such as a CCD chip in
video borescopes to access no-go areas. When applied, it shall be
demonstrated that the resolution capabilities are at least the same
as those for direct testing. The demonstration shall be done using a
mockup, which simulates the real test condition as closely as possible.
The results of the demonstration procedure shall be documented.
7. Test Equipment and Aids

Measuring devices such as light meters shall be in a calibrated condition at
the time of use and recalibrated once a year. All other equipment shall be
registered and accompanied by documentation clearly showing its features
and capabilities.
8. Performance Checks
A check of the test conditions during a test shall be performed at least every
2 hours.
l GVT and DVT: Check light level.
l Aided VT: Perform resolution test.
l RVT: Follow demonstration procedure.
In case a check does not show adequate conditions, the test shall be adjusted
to conform to the requirement set forth in Clause 6 and all surfaces since the
last successful check shall be retested.
9. Acceptance Criteria
The following discontinuities are unacceptable regardless of size:
l all cracks
l all lack of fusion visible on the surface
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l all incomplete root penetration

l any hammer marks or weld spatter
l surface slag inclusions
l arc strikes (very important: look for cracks after grinding)
l black discoloration (stainless steels)
l “whiskers” and unconsumed wire
l sharp surface irregularities or coarse ripples (blending into base
metal)
The following discontinuities are unacceptable if their size exceeds the
specified dimensions:
l any linear discontinuity other than cracks longer than 3⁄16 in.
(4.8 mm)
l surface porosity having dimensions greater than 3⁄16 in. (4.8 mm)
l craters, undercut, or underfill in butt welds with depths exceeding
1⁄32 in. (0.8 mm)
l crown or root reinforcement is unacceptable when it surmounts the
heights listed in Table 1
Linear misalignment shall be no more than 10% of the wall thickness or
1/8 in. (3.2 mm), whichever is smaller.
Table 1: Maximum crown or root reinforcement.

Wall Thickness Range Maximum Height
Up to 1⁄2 in. (12.7 mm) incl. 1⁄16 in. (1.6 mm)
Over 1⁄2 in. (12.7 mm)
3⁄32 in. (2.4 mm)
to 1 in. (25.4 mm) incl.
Over 1 in. (25.4 mm)
1⁄8 in. (3.2 mm)
Over 2 in. (50.8 mm) 5⁄32 in. (4.0 mm)
Fillet welds may vary from convex to concave. A fillet weld in any single
continuous weld may be less than the specified fillet weld dimension by not
more than 1⁄16 in. (1.6 mm) provided that the total undersize portion of the
weld does not exceed 10% of the length of the weld. Individual undersize
weld portions shall not exceed 2 in. (50.8 mm) length.
10. Test Reports

The VT shall be reported on forms as shown on the next page (Figure 1).
Reporting shall be done such that the test is reproducible at any time when
needed.
Inspection Objectives
Direct visual inspection can be a very simple and inexpensive but
effective method to monitor the characteristics of industrial products.
There are, however, limits concerning the resolution for very fine details
such as cracks. Therefore, many components or machines are tested
100% with VT plus a lower percentage of other NDT to enhance the
ability to find very small cracks and other discontinuities.
75
Figure 1: VT report form.
Basically, there are two main objectives of visual inspections:

l Ensure the quality of a product during/after manufacturing.
l Ensure the functionality of machines or components during their
service life.
As part of quality control during production, the incoming material
must be checked. This might be only an identification of the goods, a
brief survey of accompanying paperwork, and a verification of the main
dimensions. This alone might already be regarded as a general visual
control. Further visual and dimensional checks of the quality will be
made during manufacturing, mostly by the production staff. However,
components intended for high service loads might be subjected to
intermediate tests in the presence of external inspectors. Specially
76
trained technicians from the quality control department normally make

a final inspection. Final inspections of items intended for military use
or for the nuclear industry are frequently conducted in the presence
of representatives of the client or even a third party. When repairs are
necessary, their success has to be verified. All parties involved perform a
significant number of visual tests during these inspection meetings.
Inservice inspections of industry plants, military goods, or aircraft
are required on a regular basis by governmental regulations, codes, and
standards. These documents provide
l inspection intervals,
l minimum coverage or percentage to be tested, and
l technical documents with test methods to be applied and the
maximum tolerable deviation from the standard (for example,
discontinuity size).
Typically, the plant, machine, or aircraft will be taken out of service
for a limited time. There are always critical areas that require instant
DVT, such as parts with growing discontinuities that were detected
during the last inspection or components that are under high service
loads. Normally, however, the whole area or item to be inspected will be
screened using general VT first. A follow-up, detailed, local visual test,
directly or remotely, uses the results of the general VT. Some very critical
components even require permanent monitoring with a camera (jointly
with geiger-müller counters or chemical sniffers); these items may
additionally be watched for safety concerns.
Timing or Sampling Plans

A visual test can be initiated on occasion because of an incident or at
the discretion of responsible personnel. It may be instituted regularly,
at intervals, or permanently, following an inspection plan. Furthermore,
it may take the form of onsite service maintenance or monitoring by a
camera. This subsection casts more light on a typical example or case.
VT Personnel
Visual inspections are performed by a number of personnel with
different functions in the production of a component or of a machine:
l The engineering organization: This organization is responsible for
design and manufacturing/maintenance. It normally has the last word
concerning the acceptability of any deviation from quality. If the size
of an indication is at the borderline of the set criteria and a repair
is complicated, it might be wise to accept the indication but keep it
under frequent observation.
l Quality assurance including NDT: These technicians are experts
in quality control and should have at least a Level II in VT. They
should, at minimum, carry out the final test for the acceptance of a
component independently from the production. In many cases, these
technicians perform a 100% inspection and all other parties involved
perform a second inspection based on their results, which should be
available to everybody else in a convenient report.
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l Production staff inspection: It is common for welders to do a

first visual inspection of the welds that they perform. This helps to
improve welding skills and to avoid problems in the final inspection.
Sometimes it is required that welders be appropriately trained and sit
for a VT Level I certification.
l Representative of the buyer: The buyer of the machine or
component may reserve the right to check the progress at defined
stages of manufacturing. These stages are called hold points because
the fabrication process must stop and cannot continue before the
inspection has been performed successfully.
l Third party: In cases of military or nuclear power applications,
a third party might have to be included in the inspection; these
personnel are government employees or authorized by government.
They ensure that the laws and regulations are followed to help
guarantee public safety.
These different personnel must be included in a timetable detailing
the production progress in single steps, sometimes called the activity
plan. The activity plan details the steps of production and contains hold
points when the production cannot proceed before certain inspections
are completed. For instance, when dimensions, surface quality, and
the joint preparations have to be checked before welding, production
must not proceed before these steps are completed. This inspection can
obviously not be performed after welding.
(a) (b)
Figure 2: Steps of a welding job: (a) plates; (b) rounded plate tack-welded.
Stages of Weld Inspection

Visual testing of a weld may be required by contract specifications or
standards at four different times or stages of manufacture:
1. Prior to welding (Figure 2[a]).
2. During welding (Figure 2[b]).
3. After completion of the weld.
4. When weld repairs are necessary.
There should be a Welding Procedure Specification (WPS) available,
which contains information pertaining to how the welding and
inspection shall be performed. To successfully accomplish their tasks,
VT personnel should have access to the WPS. Also the drawings with
information on dimensions and surface quality requirements should be
available.
78
When visual testing is required prior to welding, the members to be

joined shall be checked for:
l completion of adequate surface treatment in accordance with the
application or product standard,
l cleanliness of the fusion faces and adjacent surfaces,
l the shape and dimensions of the weld preparation (requirements are
usually available in the WPS), and
l correct repair of the parts to be welded in relation to each other
according to drawings.
When required by the applicable job documents, the weld must be
tested during the welding process (Figure 3). The following must be
checked:
l Presence of visible discontinuities, for example, cracks or cavities.
If those discontinuities are observed, they must be reported so that
corrective measures can be performed before the deposition of
further weld metal.
l The cleanliness of each run or layer of weld metal before it is covered
by a further run; particular attention should be paid to the junctions
between the weld metal and the fusion face.
l The shape of the transition between the beads and between the weld
and the parent metal so that the next run can accomplish adequate
melting and fusion.
l Adequate cooling so that the temperature is right for the deposition
of the next bead (for certain materials such as nickel base only).
(a) (b)
Figure 3: Stages of a welding job: (a) multi-wire SAW machine; (b) completed weld.
Final Weld Evaluation

The completed weld must be checked for the following:
1. Cleaning and dressing:

l removal of all slag manually so that no imperfections are obscured
l removal of tool impressions or blow marks, when weld dressing is
required
l removal of grinding marks and an uneven finish due to overheating
by improper grinding when required
l smooth merging of the joint with the parent metal without
overgrinding when the weld surface has to be ground flush
79
2. Profile and dimensions:

l excessive heights of any excess weld metal throughout the profile of
the weld face meet the acceptance criteria
l excess irregularity of the surface of the weld; the pattern and the
pitch of weave marks have a satisfactorily even visual appearance; the
distance between the last layer and the parent metal or between the
beads must be measured
l inconsistent weld width everywhere along the joint in cases where
tolerances are specified in the drawing or WPS
l incompletely filled weld preparation, especially in the case of butt
welds
3. Root and surfaces:

l excessive incomplete penetration, root concavity, burn-through, or
shrinkage grooves are within the limits specified over the whole of the
joint in the case of single-side butt welds
l undercut, the depth and the length of which must be within the
acceptance limits on both sides of the weld
l the presence of discontinuities such as cracks or porosity in the
crown surface or heat-affected zones, detected using optical aids or
special lighting when necessary
l any arc strikes or hammer marks
When welds fail to comply in full length or in part thereof with the
acceptance criteria, a repair is necessary (Figure 4). Every completed
repair weld shall be re-examined using the same requirements as for the
original weld.
(a) (b)
Figure 4: Weld repair: (a) excavation area with hammers and welding electrodes;
(b) welder doing repair welding.
When a defective weld has been completely removed, the shape and
dimensions of the repair weld preparation must meet the requirements
specified for the original weld. In the case of a partly removed weld,
the excavation must be sufficiently deep and long to remove all
imperfections. This removal must be confirmed by visual testing or,
when specified, by magnetic particle testing or liquid penetrant testing.
The width and profile of the excavation must be such that there is
80
adequate access for rewelding. The cavity must be tapered from the base
of the cut to the surface of the weld metal at both the ends and sides of
the cut.
Inspection Checklists/Checkpoints
The ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code states in Section V, Article 9:
“An examination checklist shall be used to plan visual examination and to
verify that the required visual observations were performed. This checklist
establishes minimum examination requirements.” In order to give an
example of what is meant, let us assume an inspector would test a 1.5 in.
(38 mm) single-side butt weld according to the sample instruction above.
Such a checklist could resemble the one in Table 2.
Table 2: Sample checklist.

No. Wall Thickness Range Maximum Height
1 Cracks Unacceptable
2 Lack of fusion Unacceptable
3 Incomplete root penetration Unacceptable
4 Surface slag inclusions Unacceptable
5 Weld spatter Unacceptable
6 Hammer marks Unacceptable
7 Arc strikes Unacceptable
8 Black discoloration Unacceptable
9 Unconsumed wire Unacceptable
10 Sharp surface irregularities Unacceptable
11 Coarse ripples Unacceptable
12 Linear discontinuities Length >3/16 in. (4.8 mm)
13 Surface porosity Diameter >3/16 in. (4.8 mm)
14 Craters, undercut, underfill Depth >1/32 in. (0.8 mm)
15 Weld reinforcement Height >1/8 in. (3.2 mm)
16 Linear misalignment Shift >1/8 in. (3.2 mm)
The inspector can take the checklist on site and use it when he or
she performs VT. Such a checklist can of course contain other details
than discontinuities, for instance, dimensions, if certain parts have been
assembled. Also, the checklist above could be completed with a fourth
column where the inspector may note his or her observations. Another
possibility would be integrating the checklist into the report form (see
the sample instruction above).
Working Conditions during Inspection

The outcome of a visual test can be influenced by the conditions under
which the inspector has to perform his or her work. Poor conditions,
such as dirty or noisy surroundings, extreme temperatures (cold or hot),
81
insufficient scaffolding, interruptions by overhead crane movements, and

other safety-related issues, may lead to distraction, fatigue, and perils to
health. Of course, industrial work cannot eliminate such interferences
totally. However, when the health of the inspector is endangered or the
quality of the test is impeded, the inspector must insist on minimizing
these issues. Even external inspectors should have a clean, quiet, and
safe place where they prepare for the test and perform reporting and
documentation thereafter.
Inspection Techniques
Chapter 3 covered the basic working techniques of VT. These techniques
are modified in industry so that they meet the needs of specific
applications. A good example is the nuclear power industry and ASME
Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code, Section XI. Below is an excerpt if the
code referring to visual testing. The code calls for direct and remote
VT-1, VT-2, and VT-3 examinations classified by type of discontinuity
inspected. The direct VT-1 technique corresponds with DVT for details,
whereas VT-3 is a more stringent version of general VT.
VT-1 examinations are conducted to detect discontinuities and
imperfections on the surfaces of components, including such conditions as
l cracks,
l corrosion,
l wear, or
l erosion.
Direct VT-1 examination may be conducted when the eye can be placed
within 24 in. (610 mm) of the part, and at an angle not less than 30° to the
surface. Mirrors may be used to improve the angle. There are two types of
VT-1:
l direct
l remote
Remote visual: Resolution capability shall be at least equal to or greater
than that of direct.
VT-2 examinations are conducted to detect evidence of leakage from
pressure-retaining components, with or without leakage collection systems,
as required during the conduct of a system pressure test. VT-2 is conducted
in accordance with the requirements for a system pressure test.
VT-3 examinations are conducted to determine the general mechanical
and structural conditions of components and their supports by verifying
parameters such as
l clearances,
l settings, or
l physical displacements.
Also, VT-3 examinations are conducted to detect imperfections, such as
l debris;
l larger areas of corrosion, erosion, and wear;
l loose or missing parts; or
l loss of integrity at bolted or welded connections.
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VT-3 includes examination for conditions that could affect operability or

functional adequacy of
l snubbers,
l spring-type supports, and
l constant load supports.
A resolution test is required for each of the techniques where a specific
character height has to be discerned through the test systems. The smaller
these heights, the more resolution is necessary for the technique.
Classification of Discontinuities
Let us suppose, during a direct VT inspection of completed welds with
wall thickness of 1.5 in. (38 mm), the inspector found several pores and
occasional undercut. Also, at some of the locations, the reinforcement
looks excessive. What would he or she have to do in order be able to
decide which of the discontinuities is acceptable or not?
Step 1: Consult the Standard

Accept/reject determinations always start by consulting the procedure or
instruction for the criteria. What does the inspector read?
Unacceptable is “surface porosity having dimensions greater than
3⁄16 in. (4.8 mm)” and “undercut or underfill in butt welds with
depths exceeding 1⁄32 in. (0.8 mm).” This is found in Table 3 for the
reinforcement:
Which of the four is the applicable limit for this job? A wall thickness
of 1.5 in. (38 mm) falls between 1 in. (25.4 mm) and 2 in. (50.8 mm).
Therefore, the limit is 1/8 in. (3.2 mm).
Table 3: Maximum weld reinforcement height.

Wall Thickness Range Maximum Height
Up to 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) incl. 1/16 in. (1.6 mm)
Over 1/2 in. (12.7 mm)
3/32 in. (2.4 mm)
Over 1 in. (25.4 mm)
1/8 in. (3.2 mm)
Over 2 in. (50.8 mm) 5/32 in. (4.0 mm)
Step 2: Measure
In order to compare the limits with the actual findings, the inspector
has to take measurements. The kinds of measurements to be taken vary
by discontinuity. Therefore, the right measuring tool has to be selected.
Several examples follow.
l Pores: The diameter has to be measured.
A steel rule can be used, but it only partly covers what has to be
measured. A transparency with circles of stepwise changing diameters is
best. Also, a tool or gage with boreholes of a critical size would be a good
choice. However, this tool has only two holes of different diameters and
has been designed for a specific standard. Thus, the transparency is the
best choice. (See Figure 5.)
83
l Weld Crown: The height has to be measured.

The simplest tool to use is the palmgren, a weld displacement gage,
shown in Figure 6(a). However, this tool also has been designed for
specific standards, and the scale tells us about some maximum value. The
cambridge, or bridge cam, gage, shown in Figure 6(b), is an alternative
device, as is the VWAC (visual weld acceptance criteria) gage (Figure 7).
l Undercut: The depth has to be measured.
(a) (b)
Figure 5: Tools for measuring pore diameter: (a) gage with boreholes;
(b) transparency with stepwise circles.
(a) (b)
Figure 6: Tools for measuring crown height: (a) palmgren gage; (b) cambridge
gage.
Figure 7: VWAC gage.
84
Again, the VWAC and cambridge gages are useful as they both
have a scale for positive and negative readings. Put the acute tip into
the undercut, find the deepest location, and read the depth. Both gages
require some space for taking measurements. Thus, specialized tools
have been developed to determine the acceptability of undercut that
require less space.
Step 3: Compare
For all three discontinuities, the following applies:
l When the measured value < maximum value, the discontinuity is
acceptable.
l When the measured value > maximum value, the discontinuity is not
acceptable.
Reporting
All VT evaluations must be repeatable and traceable to a standard
(Figure 8). It is not only that the repair team has to find the unacceptable
indication the inspector reported. The inspector’s decisions might
cost a lot of money and will be questioned. Following a set procedure,
other technicians should be able to find the same anomalies and come
to the same conclusions. Decisions must be reasonable and justifiable.
Therefore, a test report should contain the following information:
l identification of the test object
l test equipment used
l parameters of the test
l discontinuities found
l final results
l date, location, certification, and status
Reports mostly have to be written on forms. Report forms look very
different depending on the industry and the specific task. Information
needed for the direct visual testing (DVT) report of a weld would include
l name of the component manufacturer;
l name of the testing body, if different from the above;
l identity of the object tested;
l material;
l type of joint;
l material thickness;
l welding process;
l acceptance criteria;
l discontinuities exceeding the acceptance criteria and their locations;
l the extent of testing with reference to drawings as appropriate;
l test devices used;
l result of testing with reference to acceptance criteria; and
l name of tester and date of test.
VT report forms mostly consist of tables on paper or on a computer
screen that are filled in along with the option of a sketch. Other reporting
methods may be in the form of photography or digital recording. A digital
recording is preferred for reporting the results of remote testing. The
main advantage is the possibility that another individual or a third party
85
Figure 8: VT report traceable to a standard.
can follow the test step by step and verify the decisions. Direct VT often
comes with a sketch attached to the report. Such a sketch should be as
simple or basic as possible, nevertheless show unmistakably the locations
of the indications. The table must be completed fully with all measures
taken with regard to the anomalies. It must also show all the accept-reject
decisions. Finally, the inspector must sign the report. Welds that have been
tested and approved should be suitably marked or identified.
86
LEVEL II
8
Elements of Vision
Anatomy of the Eye and Mechanics of Vision

The human eye can be roughly described as an optical instrument or
a camera. The light passes through the cornea and the crystalline eye
lens where the paths of the rays are changed by focusing and refraction.
The eye lens is flexible and can be shaped by the eye muscle (through
a process referred to as accommodation) to focus light rays at the
macula after passing through the vitreous humor of the eye, a gel. The
macula is like a small cave and represents the active part of the retina,
a thin kind of skin at the backside of the eye that contains the neural
receptor elements. If the eye were a film, camera, the retina would
represent the film. Other than the film, however, the neural elements are
concentrated in the macula. These elements convert light intensity into
neuro-electrical signals of different strengths and shapes. The signals are
directed through neural pathways to the human brain, which composes
an image from the received signals. (See Figure 1.)
Retina Iris
Macula Aqueous
Vitreous humor Lens
Cornea
Retina
Ciliary
Optic muscle
nerve
Figure 1: Cross section of the human eye.
89
For clear vision, it is essential that the light rays meet exactly at
the macula/retina (Figure 2). If the maximum refractive power of the
eye is such that they can only be focused in front of the retina, it is
called nearsightedness. If the light rays meet behind it, this is termed
farsightedness. Additional lenses of suitable refractive power in front
of the eye—eyeglasses or contact lenses—may correct for near- and
farsightedness. The refractive power of the eye is measured in diopters,
which is the reciprocal of the eye’s focal length in meters.
Far object Cornea
(a)
Retinal focus plane
Near object
(b)
Figure 2: Focusing (refracting) light rays by the eye: (a) relaxed

crystalline lens; (b) accommodated crystalline lens.
Adaptation and Accommodation

The retina contains two types of neural cells, rods and cones. Rods are for
viewing under low levels of illumination (dark viewing) and cones are
for viewing under high levels of illumination, especially for color vision.
The eye must adapt to the different illumination levels in order to get
one of the neural cell types to function, which requires some time for
adaptation (typically, 1 to 5 min). Adaptation should not be confused
with accommodation, the shaping of the eye lens for clear vision at a
certain distance.
Vision Limitations, Perception, Orientation, and Disorders

When the brain receives signals from the rods and cones, it collects and
processes these signals to form an image. In the first step, pre-attentive
processing, the brain screens the entire field of vision. As a second step,
it segregates localized patterns (lines, spots, edges, shadows, and colors)
from the general field and tries to identify them. Identification is mostly
accomplished by comparison of the actual impressions with memorized
visual impressions. This pattern recognition is a fast process; however,
false interpretations of new, unknown patterns or confusion with similar
90
Elements of Vision
kinds of patterns may occur. Therefore, this process may take several
seconds, especially in the case of new, unknown patterns. The detection
of boundaries and edges is illustrated by Figure 3, which shows three
characters:
1. inverted Ls
2. Ts parallel to the Ls
3. tilted Ts
The first boundary between the inverted Ls and the Ts is harder to
discern than the second boundary between the upright Ts and the tilted
Ts. The reason for this difference in visibility is the parallelism of the
lines that form the Ls and the Ts in patterns 1 and 2. Parallelism is a
similarity that causes the brain to assume the patterns are equal, at least
as a first attempt.
Figure 3: Pattern changes and boundary detection.
Visual Angle
An observer sees an object at a certain distance within a visual angle. The
light rays emitted from the outlines of the object in the viewing distance
define this visual angle. Suppose the object is the letter “F” of a given
size, which the observer sees from a distance of 20 ft (6 m). When this
letter “F” is moved one-third of the distance to 6.56 ft (2 m), the visual
angle becomes 3× larger and the object covers a larger area of the field
of view. A letter “F” one-third the size would be viewed within the same
angle as the large letter “F” at 3× the distance. (See Figure 4.)
6.56 ft (2 m)
(a) 20 ft (6 m)
(b)
Figure 4: Vision acuity letter and distance: (a) letter of a given size
moved to one third of the original test distance; (b) small, near object
and large, distant object subtending, or spanning, the same angle of
vision.
91
Vision Acuity Examination, Characters, and Tables

Vision acuity is the ability of the eye to resolve a fine detail or character
such as a letter. In a vision examination, such characters need to be
presented in black/white contrast.
The smallest letter that can be correctly identified is indicative of
vision acuity. A character subtending, or spanning, an angle of 5 min
(1/12 degree) normally defines the desired minimum vision acuity.
Visual testing personnel must have adequate far and near vision
acuity, each of which has to be tested separately. NDT personnel
certification documents typically require a minimum of 20/20 snellen
acuity and/or the ability to read text composed of letters of defined sizes
J1or J2 (J stands for jaeger). These requirements refer to specific test
procedures and test charts.
Snellen Acuity Measure

The snellen acuity measure refers to a standard distance of 20 ft (6 m)
and compares the actual vision with this standard. The smallest character
recognized by the candidate is expressed in distance. For instance, when
the smallest character recognized is 2× the size of the standard for 20/20
vision, the vision acuity of that candidate would be designated 20/40. An
example for a snellen far vision chart is shown in Figure 5. Smaller letters
are provided for snellen near vision tests normally done at a distance of
16 in. (40 cm).
Landoldt Rings
Landoldt rings (Figure 6) are required in international standards and
used in a similar manner as snellen characters. The candidate has to
discern the location of the opening in the rings as they get progressively
smaller.
Jaeger Test
The jaeger test (Figure 7) is a vision performance test rather than
a measurement of vision acuity. The jaeger chart shows text in full
sentences of different letter sizes designated by J1 – J10. As the letter
sizes on the charts available on the market may vary, it is essential that
the candidates read the text from that distance indicated on the chart
actually used. However, SNT-TC-1A restricts the reading distance to a
minimum of 12 in. (30.5 cm).
Shades of Gray and Color Differentiation

Some personnel certification standards emphasize the need to
differentiate between shades of gray. However, for the most part, no
specific test chart or minimum contrast difference is mandated. Typical
charts in use contain equally sized letters displayed in declining shades of
gray or a step wedge of shades of gray viewed from distances of 3 ft
(1 m).
Color is an important factor that affects visual contrast and even
enhances or obscures other types of contrast. Color discrimination
ability is therefore essential for a visual inspector. Color vision
deficiencies may be inherited or acquired. For genetic reasons, men
92
Elements of Vision
Figure 5: Snellen chart for far vision. Figure 6: Landoldt rings.
Figure 7: Jaeger chart (not to size).
93
rather than women inherit deficiencies such as red/green defectiveness,

which is essentially a shift or lack of sensitivity for certain wavelengths.
Acquired deficiencies change with time or age, and typically progress
in severity. For instance, the eye lens yellows as it ages, increasing the
absorption in the blue region of the light spectrum. For this reason,
color differentiation ability must be tested regularly. Charts include
recognition of numbers composed of colored dots (ishihara, DMV), as
shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8: Color discrimination tests.
94
9
Elements of Lighting
Fundamentals of Light
Light is electromagnetic radiation of a very small range of wavelengths
(400 to 700 nm) that are visible to the human eye. (See Table 1.) The
neighboring ranges are the ultraviolet (UV) and the infrared (IR)
regions. Because these types of radiation can also be influenced by lenses
and are sometimes converted into light or vice versa, IR and UV and
light are called optical radiation. (See Figure 1.) As an equation, optical
radiation is the sum of ultraviolet radiation, visible light, and infrared
light:
(Eq. 1) Optical Radiation =

Ultraviolet Radiation + Light + Infrared Radiation
Table 1: Electromagnetic radiation values.

UV-C Far ultraviolet 10 – 280 nm
UV-B Middle ultraviolet 280 – 320 nm
UV-A Near ultraviolet 320 – 400 nm
Violet 400 – 424 nm
Blue 424 – 486 nm
Blue-green 486 – 517 nm
Green 517 – 527 nm
Visible
Yellow-green 527 – 575 nm
Yellow 575 – 585 nm
Orange 585 – 647 nm
Red 647 – 700 nm
IR-A Near infrared 700 – 1400 nm
IR-B/C Middle/far infrared > 1400 nm
Optical radiation is a transversal wave, which means its deflection is

at 90° to its direction of propagation, mostly in many different planes.
95
Radiation wavelength (nm)

106
105
104
103
102 101 10 10–1 10–2 10–3 10–4 10–5 10–6
X-rays
Visible
light
Radio Infrared Cosmic rays
Ultraviolet Gamma rays
10–9 10–8 10–7 10–6 10–5 10–4 10–3 10–2 10–1 1 10 102 103
Optical radiation
Photon energy (MeV)
Figure 1: The place of optical radiation within the electromagnetic spectrum.
Certain crystals can polarize light; their lattices act as filters and are
transparent in certain planes only. Lasers, for example, emit polarized
light.
Light Sources
Artificial light for VT is usually provided by incandescent or luminescent
radiators, as follows.
Incandescent Radiators
Temperature radiators use the phenomenon that materials emit
radiation when they are heated. The higher the temperature, the shorter
the wavelength emitted. Eventually, the wavelength becomes so short
that the radiation becomes visibly red, orange, and yellow—what we
call “glowing.” An electric current that transfers energy for heating is
the principle of an electric light source. In incandescent light bulbs, the
electric current flows through thin metallic wires of high resistance,
which are extremely heat resistant (Figure 2).
High
Filament temperature
Emission
Low
(a) (b) temperature
Frequency
Figure 2: Incandescent light: (a) sketch of a light bulb showing the filament;
(b) temperature of an incandescent radiator, in terms of emission versus frequency.
96
The emitted radiation is continuous (that is, it contains all

wavelengths) with a maximum shifting to a shorter wavelength with
increasing temperature, as shown in Figure 3. As light sources based
on luminescent radiators display certain wavelengths, light from these
sources appears always somewhat colored. This color is used to rate light
sources. (See Figure 4.)
Visible range
1.0
3200 K
0.8
3000 K
0.6
Wire temperature
2800 K
Relative intensity
0.4 2600 K
2400 K
0.2
2200 K
0
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 nm
Wavelength
Figure 3: Spectrum of an incandescent lamp.
Due to the high amount of invisible infrared radiation, the emission

of light is accompanied by heat. Because the amount of heat is a multiple
of the amount of light, the incandescent radiator may be rated as
inefficient. General service incandescent bulbs protect the filament from
oxidation and emit a warm, yellow-white light in all directions. Their
glass may be clear or have a frosted finish and be shaped as a globe or
flame. The amount of light output in one direction can be optimized
using incandescent bulbs with parabolic reflectors. When the bulbs
are filled with halogen gases, the evaporation and oxidation of the
filament are suppressed to improve product life. Also, tungsten-halogen
incandescent bulbs emit a greater amount of visible light, appearing
brighter and whiter. Bulbs filled with xenon also help prevent oxidation
of the filament and provide white light similar to that of a halogen
bulb. However, they have a longer life because they operate at lower
temperatures than traditional halogen bulbs.
97
Natural light sources Temperature (K) Artificial light

Blue sky 10 000
9000
Northern light blue sky 8000
7000
6000 Xenon bulb

High-intensity carbon arc
Photographic daylight
5000 Fluorescent lamps
4000 Tungsten halogen lamp

Moonlight Projector lamp
500 W photoflood
100 W lightbulb
3000
25 W lightbulb
2000 Candle flame
Figure 4: Color rating of light sources (273 K = 0 °C = 32 °F).
Luminescent Radiators
Luminescent radiators store the supplied energy as potential energy
in the atoms that release it as radiation of discrete wavelengths. Their
intensity-wavelength spectrum shows lines or peaks rather than a
continuous emission. Examples are fluorescent light bulbs, discharge
tubes, light-emitting diodes (LEDs), and lasers.
Fluorescent Light
Fluorescent bulbs produce light when an electric arc passes between
electrodes to excite evaporated mercury and other gases to produce
radiant energy, which is then converted to visible light by a phosphorous
coating of the glass bulb. They use 20% to 30% of the electric energy
of incandescent bulbs and are usually long tubes used as general room
lighting. More compact types are available in smaller, trimmer fixtures
for special lighting. Screw-in bulbs can be used in the same way as
incandescent bulbs in standard lamp sockets. They are available in a
wide spectrum of colors. Warm white tones best duplicate the color of
98
incandescent bulbs. Because fluorescent bulbs contain mercury, they

should be disposed of properly.
High-Intensity Discharge Light

High-intensity discharge (HID) bulbs produce light when an arc
passes between electrodes in a tube pressurized with gases containing
evaporative metals such as sodium or mercury. They have long lives and
are extremely energy efficient but do not emit pleasing light colors.
(See Figure 5.)
(a)
Visible range
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.3
Relative intensity
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
300 350 400 450 500 550 nm
(b)
Wavelength
Figure 5: HID tube: (a) schematics; (b) spectrum of an HID tube.
Light-Emitting Diodes
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) work as follows: An electric field (voltage)
applied to semiconductors causes a short-term separation of charged
particles, which recombine spontaneously and create a unit of light
(photon). Due to electric and optic losses, LEDs are small and not
very efficient. Because they are small, several LEDs are sometimes
combined for achieving light levels comparable to other light sources.
99
LEDs, however, are longer lasting than any other type of light source.
Gallium arsenide is typically used to produce IR radiation, while gallium
phosphate emits green-yellow light. (See Figure 6.)
Epoxy lens/case
Wire bond
Reflective cavity
Semiconductor die
Anvil
Post } Leadframe
Flat spot
Anode Cathode
(a) (b)
Figure 6: Light-emitting diodes: (a) examples; (b) schematic.
Lasers
The term laser is an acronym of “light amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation,” a phrase that describes its working principle.
Electrons are excited from their basic energy level to a higher level by the
addition of electric energy. When the electrons fall back to their original
level, radiation of a certain wavelength is emitted. When mirrors reflect
that light back into the laser material, it is reabsorbed and excites more
electrons while still more energy is pumped into the system. Eventually,
the number of excited electrons will be much larger than those in the
basic energy level. Now the reflected waves interact with the excited
electrons and stimulate the emission of light, which consists of two
coherent light waves. While this amplification effect takes place, one
of the mirrors is partly permeable so that a certain amount of light can
leave the laser system. In Figure 7(a), three different energy scenarios are
presented with E = energy, E1 = energy level 1, and E2 = energy level 2. In
Figure 7(b), a schematic of a laser is shown with S = solid mirror,
L = length, and T = semitransparent mirror.
100
E2
Light wave
Light wave Light wave

E1 Light waves
Spontaneous Absorption Stimulated

emission emission
(a)
Laser beam
Laser material
S T
(b)
Figure 7: Laser schematics: (a) energy level schemes for lasers;

(b) sketch of laser principle.
Adequate Light Levels

The visual task to be performed requires a specific contrast, which
determines what light level can be deemed adequate. Basically, the
inspector looks for differences in brightness mostly caused by differences
in reflectivity; sometimes the inspector looks for differences in color or
both brightness and color.
For determining the luminance contrast, a contrast ratio C can be
defined as follows:
Lb − Ld
(Eq. 2) C=
Lb
where
Ld = luminance of a detail
Lb = luminance of the background
101
The contrast ratio C allows a basic comparison of different testing

situations because it does not change with the light level. Changes of
C are caused by alterations in the reflectivity of the background, the
angle of vision relative to the surface, or the incident angle(s) of light.
As the probability of detection (POD) of a visual detail rises with the
contrast ratio, optimization of C is a key factor for a professional visual
test. Finding the right angle of view during an examination under a
specific lighting condition is often just a matter of moving or placing the
examiner’s eyes relative to the part in order to improve the luminance
contrast of the exam area(s).
The U.S. Illuminating Engineering Society recommends light levels
for visual inspection activities as listed in Table 2.
Chromatic (color) contrast also requires an adequate light
level because hue and saturation of the colors contribute to good
differentiation. Colors may enhance or detract from a detail illuminated
by a luminescent radiator for contrast. On the other hand, colored light
can be used to enhance or subdue colors in the field of view.
Table 2: Recommended light levels for specific tasks.

Activity Ranges of illuminance Lighting type
Lux (lx) Footcandles (fc)
Occasional visual tasks 100-200 10-20
Tasks with high contrast General lighting
200-500 20-50
or large size
Tasks with medium 500-1000 50-100
contrast or small size
Task lighting
Tasks with low contrast 1000-2000 100-200
or very small size
Glare and Fatigue

Glare is excessive exposure of the human eye to light. Glare can be
caused by inadequate directional lighting or by reflections from adjacent
walls, as well as from the test object or area to be inspected. Glare may
provoke missing of actual relevant details and lead to long-term fatigue.
Fatigue may then be another factor of poor or insensitive visual testing.
Dimming light sources, or changing the direction of light, the light
sources, or the lighting techniques, can assist in reducing or eliminating
unwanted glare.
In industrial environments, general area (room) lighting is combined
with specific local task lighting at the workstation. The general lighting
coming from a light source on the ceiling is mostly diffuse and evenly
distributed over the general area. General lighting causes no shadows
and minimal glare.
102
Task or dedicated lighting should be locally directed and additionally

applied when needed (with a spotlight or flashlight). This type of light
usually produces high illumination, casts shadows, and can cause glare.
To avoid glare from reflection, the illumination should be limited and
shiny paints on walls should be avoided.
Lighting Requirements
When deciding on a convenient light source and the best lighting
geometry for a visual inspection, the reflective, absorptive, and
translucent characteristics of the surfaces under test must be considered.
Metallic surfaces are opaque, essentially reflective, and may be more
l specular (mirror-like) when the surface is smooth and finished,
l diffuse when the surface is rough, faceted, or patterned
Inspection of specularly reflective surfaces can be performed in “dark
field” contrast or in “white field” contrast. A dark field requires that the
light source is directed in an oblique angle to the surface, and the sensor
(eye or camera) looks for reflections from irregularities at any other
angle. The result is that the surface relative to the irregularity will appear
subdued or dark, whereas the irregularity itself will appear light or white.
This illumination technique is typically used when searching for cracks.
When the light source and sensor are aligned under the same angle
relative to the surface, that surface appears light or white. Irregularities,
however, will not reflect in the direction of the sensor, so they are
imaged dark or black. This technique is called light field illumination and
is typically used on absorptive surfaces to assess color contrast or glossy
layers.
Diffusely reflective surfaces require high light levels from different
directions to suppress shadow formation, including diffuse front and
rear illumination. Irregularities such as cracks can then be found by
swiveling the sensor or the light in order to catch the right angle of
reflection. However when the surface quality or the roughness is under
examination, shadows are welcome and assist the evaluation. In this case,
directional illumination is preferable.
Nonmetallic test objects such as plastics or glasses may be translucent
or transparent. In most of these cases, diffuse light is directed on one
side of the material and the sensor on the other side. Opaque inclusions
or inherent particles appear dark under such lighting. Various setups
regarding placement of light source(s) and camera in relation to different
surfaces are shown in Figures 8 – 11.
These rules have to be applied in general; however, optimization for
a specific task is accomplished by trial and error. Rules from standards
requiring certain illumination levels are minimum requirements only;
optimization usually includes higher levels of illumination.
103
Camera
Light Light
source source
Figure 8: Diffuse front illumination.
Camera
Light
source
Figure 9: Dark field specular illumination.
Camera Light
source
Figure 10: Light field specular illumination.
104
Camera
Specimen
Diffuser
Light
source
Figure 11: Diffuse rear illumination.
105
10
Optics
Transmission of Light through Solid and Liquid Media

Light energy radiation that hits an opaque surface might be absorbed,
redirected, or reflected, as diagrammed in Figure 1. Transparent
materials, such as glass or certain clear plastics, allow transmittance of
light. Optics makes use of scatter-free transparent glass in order to direct
and focus light rays as needed for optical lenses, such as eyeglasses, and
visual instrumentation, such as microscopes or telescopes.
φ θ
Legend
φ = Angle of incidence
θ = Angle of reflection
Figure 1: Angles of incidence and reflection.
Refraction of Light
When a light ray strikes the surface of a transmissive medium
perpendicularly (which represents 0° when measured toward surface
normal), the velocity of travel changes but the direction stays the same.
When the light ray hits the surface under any other possible angle, the
direction of travel changes as well. This means that the angle of the
incident light ray in air is different from the angle of the light ray in
glass. This phenomenon, the change of the angle, is called refraction.
Refraction can be experienced when somebody uses a walking stick
or rod when hiking and crosses a small river. When he or she places
the rod at a certain angle in the water, the rod looks as if it is bending
upward at the water’s surface. The light from the tip of the rod changes
direction at the water’s surface, thereby seemingly shifting the location of
the tip under water.
107
The shift in angle can be calculated with an application of Snell’s law:
sin α1 n2
(Eq. 1) =
sin α 2 n1
where:
n1 = refractive index of air
n2 = refractive index of water
α1 = angle of light in air
α2 = angle of light in water
Thus:
velocity of light in vacuum

(Eq. 2) nx =
velocity of light in medium x
where
nx = refractive index of medium x
When light traverses from medium 1 into medium 2, the ratio of the
sine function of the incident angle to the sine function of the refracted
angle is equal to the ratio of the refractive index of medium 2 to the
refractive index of medium 1.
Thus, the light’s angle in glass α2 can be determined from the incident
angle α1 and the refractive indexes n1 and n2. (See Figure 2.)
Example: A light with an incident angle of α1 = 45° travels from air
into boron glass. Under what angle will it travel in the glass?
Incident light Reflected light
α1 αr
Medium 1, n1 Surface
Medium 2, n2
α2
Refracted light
Figure 2: Reflection and refraction of incident light.
108
Optics
The calculation can be made as follows:
n1
sin α 2 = sin α1 ×
n2
1
(Eq. 3) = sin 45° ×
1.565
= 0.7071 × 0.639
= 0.4518
Thus:
(Eq. 4)
α = arcsin 0.4518
= 26.9°
Note that the angle in glass is smaller than the incident angle in air.
This is always the case. Conversely, when light travels from glass back
into the air, the refractive angle is always larger. This is a very important
feature, as discussed later.
Refractive Indexes of Glasses

The refractive power of different types of glass varies widely and is
quantified by the refractive index n. The refractive index is simply the
ratio of the light velocity in a vacuum to its velocity in glass. Optical glass
has a high refractive index (1.5 or higher). Table 1 gives some typical
refractive indexes for a number of materials.
Compared to air, glass is always the denser medium and has the
larger refractive index. Therefore, the refractive angle in air is always
larger than the incident angle in glass.
Table 1: Typical refractive indexes of different substances.

Material Refractive Index n
Salt (sodium chloride) 1.544
Diamond (crystallized carbon) 2.417
Quartz (silicon dioxide) 1.544
Silicon glass 1.612
Boron glass 1.565
Ice (frozen water) 1.309
Water (liquid) 1.333
Cedar oil 1.505
109
How Prisms Change the Direction of Light

When light travels from glass into air at larger angles, a situation may
occur in which the light is unable to be transmitted through the glass.
At refraction angles >90°, all light is reflected back into the glass; this
is called total reflection. This phenomenon is used to alter the travel
direction of light in prisms. Note: The refractive indexes of the glass
types to be selected must be more than n2 = 1.414, as calculated below:
n2 sin α1
=
n1 sin α 2
sin 90°
n2 =
(Eq. 5) sin 45°
1
n2 =
0.7071
n2 = 1.414
Thus, most optical glasses totally reflect the light back into the glass
when the incident angle of the light rays is at least 45°. A prism is a glass
body with the cross section of an equilateral triangle that can provide
45° incident angles in the glass. (See Figure 3.) The total reflection effect
is used for a 90° change in the travel direction of light when the ray hits
one of the small faces of the prism perpendicularly. For a 180° change—a
complete reversal of the travel direction—it must enter the prism though
the long face and impinge there perpendicularly.
Prisms are used in borescopes to turn the travel of light to a surface
located at a 90° angle or more to the tube axis and to redirect the
reflected image to the tube and toward the eye of the observer.
Refracted beams
Thin medium
(e.g., air) 90° Total reflected
beam
Thick medium α
(e.g., glass)
Partially reflected beams
(a) (b)
Figure 3: Total reflection and its use in prisms.
110
Optics
How Lenses Focus Light

Lenses use the phenomenon of refraction in a way different from
prisms. Lenses influence light traveling through them in that they focus
the rays in a point or disperse the rays. An optical lens is a glass body
continuously curved over its entry and exit surfaces. For rays parallel to
the center plane (lens axis), this means that the refractive angles change
continuously over its faces. Whereas in the middle of the lens there is
little or no change in travel direction, the change of travel direction
becomes more pronounced in the upper and lower parts of the faces
because of the larger refractive angles. As a result, when the curvature of
the lens has been ground meticulously accurate, the light rays are bent to
the middle axis of the lens and gather in one point, the focal point (F´).
(See Figure 4.)
Focal point
Light source
Depth of field
Figure 4: Effect of a lens on light rays with focal point and depth of
field.
Lens Optics and Lens Trains

With reference to Figure 5, when the focal points on both sides of a
lens are known, the size of an image can be constructed from the size
of an object using two beams: middle and focus beams. The focus beam
travels parallel to the optical axis and then through the focal point
behind the lens. The middle beam propagates through the middle point
of the lens. The two rays meet in one point behind the focal plane. As
the same would happen with rays from any other point of the object,
we can assume that the object is imaged in a plane at that location. This
image is upside down relative to the object and may be different in size.
Consequently, arranged as links in a chain or as wagons in a train, lenses
can be used to transmit an image. This phenomenon is used in the tube
of a rigid borescope.
Figure 6 shows how the lens train works: Suppose the arrow at 0
represents the detail on a surface to be imaged and viewed through a
borescope. The first lens at (1) represents the objective and the four rays
are representative of all rays that contribute to the image. The lens (1)
gathers the rays from a large number of different angles. Behind this
lens, the rays form an image at 0´ and then diverge, striking the tube wall
where they would finally be eliminated. To prevent this, a field lens in
the image plane regathers the rays and projects them to lens (2), which
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Principal Focal
plane plane
Focus beam
Object
Optical axis
Middle beam
Image
Focal length
Figure 5: Image transfer by a lens.
FL1 FL2
(1) (2) (3)
0
0´ 0´´
0´´´
Figure 6: Optical lens system in a borescope tube.
produces a second image at 0´´. At 0´´ another field lens gathers the rays
again. This may be repeated several times depending on the refractive
power of the lens system and the distance the image has to travel.
Eventually, the rays reach the ocular lens, whose greater refractive power
leads to a magnified image 0´´´ for better resolution of the detail for the
human eye.
Rod Lenses
The British physicist Harold Hopkins developed the basic theory of
borescopy in the late 1960s. He concluded that the divergence of the
rays behind the image plane could be suppressed by keeping the travel
path in air as short as possible. This minimized the divergence losses and
provided lighter and sharper images as well as a wider field of view. Rod
lenses are essentially glass rods with optically worked ends. (See Figure 7.)
Figure 7: Rod lenses in a tube. (Arrows indicate the inversion of the

image, that is, whether the image is right-side up or upside-down.)
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Optics
Borescope Magnification
Borescopes allow sharp images at a certain range of distances. Essentially,
they have a large depth of view. Therefore, the user cannot easily
determine the magnification. The manufacturer of the borescope should
provide the user with the neutral distance in order to have a notion of
the dimensions of the details observed.
In Figure 8, the magnification (M) of a borescope versus distance
(D) of the borescope tip from a test object shows red lines representing
two objective tips, A and B. Curve A shows zero magnification at 2.0 in.
(50 mm), B at 2.8 in. (70 mm). To view the same area, objective tip A
has to be closer to the surface (lower curve) than B. At a given distance,
objective tip B will give a higher magnification than tip A, but tip A will
show a larger portion of area.
M
A B
Neutral distance Neutral distance

D
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 2.8 3.0 3.5 4.0 in.
12.7 25.4 38 50 63.5 70 76 89 102 mm
Figure 8: Example of the determination of magnification in a borescope

(M = magnification factor; D = distance).
Fiber Optics and Fiber Bundles

Glass fibers transport light rays by reflection at a coating that
encloses the fibers, as shown in Figure 9(a). Some newer glass fibers,
developed for data transfer, use a glass that changes its refractive index
continuously from the centerline to the outer surface. Light waves in
these fibers travel in the form of a wave because they are stronger and
more strongly refracted as they approach the surface of the fiber. This is
illustrated in Figure 9(b).
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Reflective coating
(a) Material n1 Material n2
Changing refractive index
(b)
Figure 9: Transport of light in a glass fiber: (a) reflected light; (b) light
as a wave.
A fiber borescope (Figure 10) works differently than a rigid

borescope. There are still lenses in the light path. However, the image
is transported by a well-ordered array of small fibers. The objective lens
gathers the light from the inspection surface and focuses it on the cut
surface of the glass fibers. To accomplish this, the objective lens can be
moved by the observer. The fibers transport the image to the other end
of the tube. The light pattern displayed there is magnified by a loupe to
help the eye discern details. The lenses may turn the image upside down.
Entry surface Object
Exit
surface Objective lens
Figure 10: Transport of an image by a fiber bundle.
Glass fibers attenuate light. The longer the path through them, the
more light intensity is lost. The problem is that at the left end of the
light spectrum, the attenuation is much higher than at the right end.
Therefore, the composition of the light is changed. Because violet and
blue are extracted, the image becomes yellow-reddish. This can cause
misinterpretations.
The distal end of the fiber bundle is movable by bowden cables and
can be turned in any direction. The angle of view may influence the
light distribution in the image and therefore influence the contrast of
details and the resolution. Frequent changes of the direction of view may
confuse an inexperienced observer.
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Optics
Furthermore, the resolution of a fiber borescope is dependent on

the fiber diameter. Figure 11 illustrates transportation of a double-cross
image. Depending on the relative orientation of the lines to the pixels, a
different resolution in the horizontal and in the vertical direction might
result. This could cause misinterpretations of details.
Figure 11: Digitized image of double cross; image dependent on

orientation.
Digitization and Charge-Coupled Devices

The process of forming digital images with charge-coupled devices
(CCDs) is shown in Figure 12. The light from the object to be imaged
travels through the objective lens into the camera. Filters sort out any
infrared radiation; other filters select different wavelengths of light and
rate their intensities. The CCD chip contains a high number of individual
elements similar to the end of a fiber bundle. Each of the elements senses
the amount of light that it absorbs, assigns the electric signal to a device
that transports the signals, and remembers the locations where they were
gathered. Once the signals have been transported in cables to a location
where they can be viewed, the signals are reconverted into pixels of
different intensities and placed at the right location where they form an
image.
Charge-coupled devices are semiconductors that use the
photoelectric effect to produce an image. The CCD chip consists of
small semiconductor elements, which gather charges when exposed to
light, pixel by pixel. The amount of each charge is proportional to the
intensity of the light, and the charge distribution represents the intensity
distribution. This information is transferred as voltage, similar to the way
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Infrared filter
Signal transporter device

CCD sensor
Camera lens
RGB color filter
Figure 12: Working principle of a digital camera.
an array of buckets on a conveyor belt may transfer their contents to a

row of other buckets, as shown in Figure 13. The transferred voltage is
reconverted into light on a screen. As such, the electronic information
can be manipulated, enhanced, suppressed, filtered, and so on. Standards
require a demonstration of the resolution capabilities of the system.
The CCD chip can only sense light intensities, never wavelengths or
colors. Therefore, the camera has to provide colors by using a trick: every
picture has to be shot for the intensity of each individual color. Filters in
front of the chip absorb all colors but one, so that at any given time, the
semiconductor elements sense the intensity of only this selected color.
Figure 13: Buckets represent transport of data in a charge-coupled

device (CCD).
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Optics
Within microseconds, the same is done for the other colors, so that the
intensities of red, green, and blue are measured in a short period of time
and submitted as an electric signal. After transport, the three mono-
colored images are superimposed to form a multicolored image. When
all three colors are equally present at a spot, then that spot shows as
white.
Digital Technology
Video borescopes are usually equipped with a recording system in order
to document the whole performance of the visual test. A lightweight
digital camera attached to the eyepiece of a borescope, rigid or flexible,
can also be used to document a test with such equipment. Moreover, the
final evaluation can be done separately from the acquisition of the VT
data from a screen when necessary by a group of experts. Digitized data
can easily be transferred into suitable data formats.
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11
Advanced Visual Testing Equipment
Endoscopes and Borescopes

Devices for viewing the interior of objects are called endoscopes, from
the Greek words for “inside view.” The first borescopes were medical
endoscopes turned to industrial applications for observation of the
internal structures and surfaces of a part or component. Medical
endoscopes and industrial borescopes share several features:
l a source of illumination
l a means of delivering an image to the viewer’s eye
l adjustability to view a surface of interest
In the U.S., an endoscope denotes a medical instrument, whereas
borescope is the preferred term for the same type of instrument used
in NDT. However, the tendency in industrial practice is to extend the
term “endoscope” to visual inspection equipment for NDT, as well.
Nomenclature aside, borescopes may be categorized into three groups:
l rigid borescopes
l fiber borescopes
l video borescopes
Rigid Borescopes
Standard rigid borescopes range in diameter from 0.06 in. (1.5 mm) to
0.4 in. (10 mm) with a length up to approximately 100× longer than the
diameter for one-piece-models. (See Figure 1.) This design uses a sheath
that contains the objective head elements (objective lens, prism, and so
on) placed over the tube, which enhances mechanical stability. Other
designs house the elements in a small objective tip, which is screwed
onto the end of the tube. This design allows the attachment of extension
tubes screwed one in another, so that lengths up to 100 ft (30 m) are
possible. However, these constructions need thicker diameters of
0.5 in. to 1 in. (12 mm to 25 mm) to provide mechanical stability.
Special handling is required so as not to lose light intensity at the
couplings. A specialty design is an objective head with swing prism that
allows the inspector to adjust the direction of view in infinite increments
between 0° and 140° with a control handle.
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60 degrees
90 80
70 80 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0
(a)
(b)
Figure 1: Rigid borescope: (a) schematic; (b) in use.
Typical rigid borescope features include

l pressure resistance up to +72.5 psi (+500 kPa [+5 bars]);
l mechanical stability;
l resistance to oil, fuel, and solvents;
l temperature resistance higher than 302 °F (150 °C);
l high image brightness;
l true color images; and
l high image sharpness.
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Fiber Borescopes
The flexible or fiber borescope is not very different from a rigid
borescope. It works with an objective lens, an ocular lens, and prisms.
The only difference is that the transportation of the light between the
objective lens and the ocular lens is provided by an organized bundle of
glass fibers. The glass fibers facilitate the instrument’s inherent advantage
over the rigid borescope by permitting bending flexibility.
Fiber borescopes are as flexible as the glass fibers they are composed
of. (See Figure 2.) The optical fibers transmit the image from the lens
to the eyepiece. Fiber borescopes enable access to convoluted and
irregularly shaped spaces, channels, or tubing that is inaccessible to an
Ocular lens
Objective lens system
Exit surface
Entry surface
IR filter
Light source
(a)
(b)
Figure 2: Flexible or fiber borescope: (a) schematic showing entry and exit
surfaces of glass fiber bundle; (b) in use.
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unaided direct view. The incorporation of bowden cables permits the

movement of the fiber borescope tip in a two-way or four-way mode,
which enables the viewer to look at larger surfaces under different angles.
Both types have locking mechanisms to maintain a fixed articulation
angle during inspection.
The diameter of a fiber is in the range of hundred-thousandths
of an inch (micrometers). A fiber bundle, depending on its diameter
and resolution capability, may consist of tens of thousands of well-
ordered individual fibers, which are much smaller than a human hair.
The resolution of a fiber borescope and thus the definition of details
in the inspected area depend on the diameter, packing density, and
soundness (unbroken) of the individual fibers in the coherent bundle.
Fiber borescopes are available in diameters between 0.02 in. (0.4 mm)
and 0.4 in. (10 mm) and up to 5 ft (1.5 m) in length. Plastic shells and/
or a metal-tungsten braiding usually provide a protective cover to the
fiber bundle. The eyepiece is normally provided with a T connection to a
digital recorder and/or camera system by way of a variable focus coupler.
The ocular assembly usually incorporates a diopter focus adjustment.
For UV inspections in support of fluorescent liquid penetrant or
magnetic particle testing within confined spaces, quartz fibers are
used. Quartz fibers have a much greater efficiency for transmittal of
UV radiation and thus provide more intense output to stimulate the
fluorescent dyes.
Interchangeable tip optics can be very useful to enable variations in
the width of the visual field of a single fiber borescope.
Typical fiber borescope features include:
l Operating temperature range: 0 to 180 °F (–18 to 82 °C).
l Water tightness: 14.5 psi (100 kPa [1 bar]).
l Liquid compatibility: can be immersed in water, synthetic and mineral
lubricating oil, mineral and synthetic hydraulic fluid, gasoline, and
diesel and jet fuel.
Video Borescopes
Fiber borescopes and video borescopes are virtually indistinguishable.
The main difference is that, with a video borescope, electric signals
transport the image gathered by the objective lens. (See Figure 3.) These
signals are reconverted into an image, which is displayed on a screen to
be viewed by the inspector.
The inspector and other personnel can follow the inspection on an
auxiliary monitor. Any time when deemed necessary, images and video
sequences can be intuitively stored on video recording media, such as an
optical digital data drive, without requiring real-time evaluation or an
additional camera.
Many video borescopes are equipped with an integrated measuring
system. The area to be examined can be marked and details herein
immediately measured with precision. The resulting image can then
be used for additional measurements, such as of height, distance, and
area. In addition, the measurement images can be edited at any time by
inserting text, colored markings, and so on.
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Figure 3: Video borescope in use.
Some video borescopes feature an additional working channel for

introducing tools for magnetic or conventional retrieval of samples or
foreign material removal.
Video Borescope Measurement Techniques
Comparison Technique
The simplest and fastest technique of measurement is to compare the
detail to be measured with another detail on the surface, the dimensions
of which are known. When the area to be tested is well known to the
inspector, those details are usually easy to find. When greater accuracy
is required or no known object is present, there is still the option to
manipulate those objects into the confined area under test.
Shadow Technique
Shadow measurements require the use of shadow-probe measurement
tips, which project a shadow onto a target. (See Figure 4.) At the outlet
of the fiber-optic light source in the tip of a video borescope, a plate- or
columnar-shaped object, called a gnomon, is placed in the path of the
light beam, casting a shadow. The shadow diverges increasingly the
farther the light beam travels. Therefore, the shadow’s diameter will be
the larger, the greater the distance between the outlet of the light and
the object. The comparison of the object size with the shadow is the
measurement. This technique is accurate only for objects perpendicular
to the light beam. Shadows can also be cast on a surface at angles (for
example, 45°). The length of the shadow or its distortion based on
triangulation gives angles and slopes. However, these shadows are
sometimes difficult to see.
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Probe head Illumination

Gnomon
Fiber-
optic
light
0.25 in.
(6.1 mm) Camera
probe imager
Shadow
Image field of view
D1 D2
Shadow falls
Figure 4: Shadow technique (D = distance).
Stereo Technique
Stereo measurements require the use of stereo-probe measurement
tips, which capture stereoscopic images of a target. (See Figure 5.)
Two pictures of the same target are taken from two slightly different
angles. Viewing the superimposed images from the same area gives a
three-dimensional impression. The detail to be measured will be visible
on both images. The shift between them will be the larger, the greater
the distance from the probe to the detail. A computer measures the
shift by counting pixels and calculates the distance by triangulation.
The handling of the system can get complicated in order to position
the matching cursors accurately with any of these conditions in the
measurement area:
l insufficient detail
l repeating patterns
l glare
Laser Measurements
Lasers can be used to measure dimensions and distances by pulsation
and travel time or by interferometry. The area to be measured can
be continuously scanned with a small laser beam. (See Figure 6.)
For this arrangement, the projector and the camera must be moving
independently from each other. Another technique uses several laser
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Aperture
Camera
sensors Lens Light guide Splitting lens
Object
Two images
(a) Head assembly Stereo tip
Stereo views
Far
Fields of
view
Probe
Near
(b) Left Right
Figure 5: Stereo technique: (a) setup; (b) variation of parallax with distance of
three different objects.
Camera
0.4 in.
Projector (10 mm)
3 in. (80 mm)
Figure 6: Laser scanning system.
light beams (multipoint) diverging relative to each other with distance

from the source, as shown in Figure 7. Pixel counting and triangulation
can be used to determine distances. This technique has the advantage
that the tip does not have to be changed during VT in order to take
the measurements. (A measurement using a video borescope is shown
Figure 8.)
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Z
X
Figure 7: Laser multibeam system.
7.29 mm
1.05 mm
Figure 8: Measurement with a video borescope.
Commercially available measurement systems are computer-based

and must be equipped with the proper software. It is necessary to receive
an introduction into the technique to develop the handling skills over
time.
Light Sources for Borescopes

A good light source is of utmost importance for VT for both sufficient
brightness and luminous contrast. Fifty years ago, as state of the art,
bulbs located at the tip of the borescope generated illumination, thereby
heating the inspected object as well as the borescope. Today, the light
source is typically located outside of the borescope, and a fiber light cable
guides the light to the tip of the borescope. This technology generates
cold light, that is, high light levels without significant heating. Any heat
radiation generated in the light source can be eliminated by an infrared
filter and will be absorbed in the fibers. To utilize the light flow generated
by the source effectively, a condenser system focuses the light generated
by the lamp onto the entry surfaces of the fibers.
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Figure 9: Borescope illumination: cold light sources with light guide

cable.
Cold light sources are available in different designs. The suitability of

a light source depends on the application and on the type of borescope
used. Therefore, light sources are available in different power levels as
well as different designs ranging from compact, battery-operated cold
light projectors directly attached to the borescope to separate boxes
connected to the borescope by fiber cables. (See Figure 9.) Power levels
may start from 5 W for light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and go as high
as 300 W for xenon high-performance light sources. Projectors are
mostly lightweight and easy to bring on site. The light source may be
incandescent halogen, discharge-type bulbs, or even xenon high-pressure
lamps that are adjustable to the light levels needed for a specific surface.
Color temperatures range from around 3500 K for halogen and 6000 K
for LEDs and xenon light sources.
For each borescope, there is an optimal light cable. For example,
large-diameter borescopes should be used with light cables with a large
cross section (active diameters), so that the high light output can be fully
passed on. Therefore, it is important to choose a suitable light cable.
Specialized Inspection Systems
Push-Tube Cameras
A push-tube camera is fixed on the tip of a rigid rod, which the inspector
inserts into the area to be inspected. The rod can be extended by
attachments to the length needed. A separate cable allows the inspector
to control the camera and to transfer images for viewing. There are
usually rod diameter, cable length, camera size, and lens options available
to adapt to specific test situations. Push-tube cameras are used for quick
inspections of turbines and tube sheets in heat exchangers, headers, and
other confined spaces. The photograph in Figure 10 shows a view on a
resolution chart through a camera. The chart includes letters of different
sizes, lines, and a tape rule.
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Pipe Crawler Camera System

Pipe crawlers (Figure 11) are small
vehicles (tractors) on which a
camera and lighting are mounted
to inspect piping in a diameter
range of 4 in. (10 cm) to 40 in.
(100 cm). The inspector controls
the vehicle by means of a cable
connected to the controls and
the screen. The camera typically Figure 10: Resolution test with an
equipped with pan, zoom, and inspection camera.
tilt functions in order to adapt to
a number of viewing situations.
Crawlers are used to explore pipelines, steam headers, small tanks, and
pressure vessels. Problems can occur when debris or sharp bends limit
the space to move forward or even to turn.
Camera
Cable connector
(a)
Strain relief
(b)
Figure 11: Pipe crawler: (a) side-view diagram; (b) application.
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Subsea Remote Camera System

Figure 12 shows a subsea vehicle equipped with a camera, several
adjustable light sources, and a blower to remove dirt. The model is
equipped with a motor to provide the necessary movement. It also
provides in situ viewing so that when directing the submersible in
confined spaces, the inspector can avoid obstacles, choose a proper
viewing angle and lighting, and adjust the zoom as needed. Videos and/
or photographs can be taken to document the test. Nuclear plants use
this type of submersible for the inspection of the reactor vessel interior
and the associated piping systems.
Figure 12: Submersible remotely operated vehicle (ROV) unit being

prepared for visual inspection (Westinghouse ROV MIDAS VI).
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Checklist for Selecting Suitable Equipment

1. What type of openings have to be passed though in order to perform
an inspection? Straight or curved openings or holes? (See Figure 13.)
2. What are the smallest diameter and the maximum length of
introduction or entry? (See Figure 14.)
3. What is the direction of view? Forward, sideways, or backward? (See
Figure 15.)
(a)
(b)
Figure 13: Endoscope for: (a) straight inspection; and (b) curved
inspection.
Test object
Direct viewing
borescope
Entry port
Figure 14: Borescope entry port.
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4. How large is the area to be inspected? (See Figure 16.)

5. What is the necessary magnification to discern details?
6. How deep (diameter in the direction of view) is the test object? (See
Figure 17.)
Side view borescope
Test object
Direct view
borescope
Figure 15: Borescope direction of view.

Test object
Direct view
borescope
Entry port
Figure 16: Size of the test object viewed by a borescope.
Figure 17: Diameter of test object in direction of view.
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7. How far will the tip be from the surface? (See Figure 18.)
8. How is the condition of the surface? (See Figure 19.)
9. Choose the adequate light level. (See Figure 20.)
Figure 18: Distance of borescope tip from test object surface.
Discontinuity
Test object
Direct view
borescope
Entry port
Figure 19: Condition of test object surface viewed by borescope.
Dark surface
Test object
Direct view
borescope
Entry port
Light surface
Figure 20: Viewing of light versus dark surface.
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10. Where will you use the borescope? Some options are
l on site or in a lab,
l under a high temperature,
l in water, or
l in a high-radiation area.
11. What do you want to look at or through, for example, an ocular
eyepiece or at a screen? (See Figure 21.)
12. Do you want to make digital photographs or video captures?
Figure 21: Visual testing with a screen.
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12
Service-Induced Discontinuities
Inservice versus Inherent and Processing

Discontinuities
Discontinuities may be defined as
l inherent,
l a result of processing, or
l service-induced.
Inherent, in this context, means that the discontinuity originates from
an initial stage of manufacturing, that is, from the solidification of cast or
molten metal.
Processing discontinuities may be primary or secondary:
l Primary processing discontinuities arise from formation processes,
for example, the forging of metal or joining operations, such as
welding.
l Secondary processing discontinuities are caused by finishing
operations such as machining, grinding, or heat treatment.
Service-induced or inservice means that the discontinuity was caused
by the service loads, which may have been either excessive or degrading
under normal conditions.
During manufacture, inherent and processing discontinuities may
not have been detected or may have been detected but evaluated as
acceptable.
Types of Inservice Loads

Inservice loads can be of different types:
l mechanical
l thermal
l chemical and corrosive
l abrasive and erosive
In reality, inservice failure is caused by a combination of two or
more of the above load types. In a power plant, it may be mostly
attributable to mechanical and thermal causes, but corrosion is also a
significant factor. In a chemical plant, corrosion may be the main reason
for failure of components, but here also pressure and heat contribute
heavily to failure. In machines, mating surfaces require lubricants and
oil; otherwise, failures occur due to heat and wear. Because pumps
and turbines work with flowing liquids, vapors, or gases, erosion and
cavitation contribute to their failure.
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Discontinuities Caused by Mechanical Loads

As shown in Figure 1, mechanical loads can be caused by different types
of stress:
l tensile
l compressive
l torsional
l shear
l bending
A failure of a part or component is eventually indicated by fracture.
The fracture surface can result from two principal types:
l Ductile fracture: Figure 2(a) shows plastic flow and deformation prior
to breaking either partly or in the entirety of the surface.
l Brittle fracture: Figure 2(b) shows flat cleavage surfaces with little or
no deformation.
Two types of discontinuities in bolts are shown in Figure 3.
The load may be constant or varying, as represented in Figure 4. The
variation or change may be in one direction only or periodic (cyclic) in
two directions, for example, tensile and compressive. In many practical
cases, the service load consists of a combination of constant and
periodically changing loads due to starting a pressurization of a vessel
and shutting it down, changing the service conditions based on the needs
of consumers.
Fractures due to a cycle of varying loads are called fatigue. The
fracture surface looks mostly flat except for the last part where it breaks
violently due to the actual load (as in the case of constant-load fractures).
The fatigue fracture surface in Figure 5 shows an origin (crack), an area
of “beach marks” due to step-by-step propagation of that crack, and
finally a deformation or cleavage rupture. When not explicitly starting
from an inherent surface crack, a notch, or scratch, cracks may begin
forming from areas of excessive surface roughness due to cyclic load.
Discontinuities Caused by Thermal Loads
Creep and Creep Damage

At elevated temperatures, all materials become more ductile up to a
plastic deformation. This means they no longer deform elastically like
a spring that returns to its former shape when the load is removed but
instead stay in the distorted form they assume under load. When stress
is exhibited above a certain temperature range, metals are said to creep.
The planes of the crystal lattice start to slide relative to each other—
similar to the way an inchworm creeps—resulting in a permanent
deformation (Figure 6).
The photo in Figure 7(a) shows a section of a tube from a
petrochemical component that operated at very high temperatures. The
tube surface shows areas of deformation and fracture. The cross section
in Figure 7(b) shows a multitude of jagged and branched cracks, which
result from their running along the grain boundaries of the metal’s
microstructure.
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(a)
(b)
(a)
(c)
(d)
Tension
Compression (b)
(e)
Figure 1: Basic types of mechanical loads: Figure 2: Types of fractures
(a) tensile stress; (b) compressive stress; involving deformation: (a) ductile;
(c) torsional stress; (d) shear stress; (b) brittle fracture.
(e) bending.
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(a) (b)
Figure 3: Bolt discontinuities: (a) bolt showing deformation (necking down);

(b) bolt broken directly under the head with only minor deformation.
F T
F
F0
α t
(a) t (b)
Figure 4: Types of forces: (a) application of a constant load (F = force; t = time);

(b) cyclic load (F0 = maximum force in one direction; T = full cycle).
Figure 5: Fracture surface of fatigue damage with weave patterns (bar).
138
(a) (b)
Figure 6: Progressive stages of creep: (a) inch-worm analogy;

(b) direction of stress.
High-Temperature Corrosion
Under high temperatures and in an oxygen atmosphere, metallic surfaces
are oxidized, as shown in Figure 8(a). Depending on the contact time
and the degree of oxidation, several layers of oxide cover the surface of
the metal. These can be seen in Figure 8(b). Because all of the oxides
are very brittle and therefore not able to withstand heavy loads, the load-
carrying cross section is weakened and prone to failure.
Thermal Fatigue
Materials expand when heated and shrink when cooled. In components
such as heat exchangers where the temperatures change frequently or in
cycles, the material is mechanically stressed by changing its elongation
under fluctuating temperatures. Therefore, in certain areas of such a
component, the cyclic load leads to some kind of material fatigue. The
cracks caused by this type of load are located in the component’s surface,
have a visual appearance like a network, and are normally shallow.
(See Figure 9.) They can mostly be removed by grinding, and the
removed material may be redeposited by cladding or a weld overlay.
139
(a) (b)
Figure 7: Discontinuities of crack-oven tubes: (a) deformation under

high temperatures; (b) cross section.
Oxide
Metal
100 µm
(a) (b)
Figure 8: Degraded part of a heat exchanger: (a) with holes due to through-wall
oxidation; (b) section of metal with oxide layers.
(a) (b)
Figure 9: Thermal fatigue: (a) visual appearance; (b) cross section with cracks.
140
Discontinuities Caused by Chemical Loads
General Corrosion
Corrosion is a chemical reaction of metal with its environment, for
example, salt water or other oxidizing substances, leading to a loss
of its essential properties or a loss of function of the component it
composes. General corrosion reduces the wall thickness of a metallic
object by oxidizing the metal layer by layer (Figure 10). Depending
on the intended life of a product, the designer adds thickness to the
component’s base wall as calculated to withstand the nonscheduled
service pressure.
(a)
(b)
Figure 10: General corrosion: (a) in a vessel wall; (b) inside surface of
boiler tube.
Localized Corrosion: Pitting

Corrosion is not always general—that is, reducing the overall wall
thickness—but can also be localized. An example of localized corrosion
is pitting. When the medium contains chlorides, even stainless steel
can be locally attacked. Pitting comprises rounded cavities, normally
in large numbers at certain areas of a component where chloride ions
concentrate or at one area only where the cavity extends very deeply,
forming a hole and eventually a leak. (See Figure 11.)
141
5 mm
(a)
(b)
Figure 11: Pitting: (a) area with pitting cluster; (b) a single through-wall
pit.
A dense layer of oxides (passivation layer) on stainless steel surfaces

normally protects the metal against corrosive attacks. Under certain
electrochemical conditions and/or in the presence of halides, the
passivation layer may be locally destroyed or weakened, thus allowing
local attack.
Stress-Corrosion Cracking
Stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) is not always readily visible to the naked
eye. The visibility can be enhanced by a good surface preparation. In
most cases, a liquid penetrant test (PT) or a magnetic particle test (MT)
is necessary to reliably find this kind of cracking. The photograph in
Figure 12(a) was taken after a red dye penetrant test. The photograph in
Figure 12(b) shows an example of stress-corrosion cracking revealed by
black magnetic particles after a layer of white paint was applied.
Tensile stress on a stainless steel surface breaks the passivation
layer locally, thus allowing an aggressive medium to attack the material
at these locations. Generally, tensile stress, an aggressive medium,
and a sensitive material altogether may cause such a cracklike type of
corrosion.
142
(a)
(b)
Figure 12: Visual appearance of stress-corrosion cracking: (a) cracking

area enhanced by liquid penetrant testing (PT); (b) magnetic particle
testing (MT) indications.
Discontinuities Caused by Abrasive Wear or Localized Erosion
Wear
In many machines, two solid mating surfaces—bearings, for example—
move relative to each other with a lubricant between the parts to avoid
friction. When parts or surfaces are manufactured to meet precisely,
the machine works fine. When the lubricant is decomposing or the
relative movement becomes irregular or uneven, the surfaces may come
into direct contact. Rubbing and friction cause wear and grating. Tiny
particles between the surfaces cause grooves and scratches. Finally, the
friction heats the surface, which shows burns and chips. (See Figure 13.)
143
Figure 13: Part of a rotating machine showing wear.
Erosion
Fluids in industrial applications may contain impurities such as sand
or debris. Turbulence makes imprints of erosion on the surface of a
part or component, whereby the flow pattern of the liquid becomes
visible (Figure 14). The small particles impinging onto a solid surface—
for example, a pipe wall—may cause abrasion called erosion. Erosion
shows as wave marks transverse to or in line with the flow mostly when
turbulence occurs due to a change in cross section. (See Figure 15.)
(a)
(b)
Figure 14: Schematic of the flow pattern of a liquid causing erosion:

(a) liquid surface; (b) action of liquid on solid component.
144
(a) (b)
Figure 15: Erosion: (a) photograph of eroded area (external surface); (b) evidence
of erosion by droplets from the nozzle into the tube (internal surface).
Erosion Corrosion
In liquid media, erosion occurs very often in conjunction with corrosion
(Figure 16). The passivation layer of stainless steel is destroyed in a
first step by abrasive erosion. In a second step, the unprotected metal is
attacked by corrosion exacerbated by the ongoing erosion. In these cases,
the bottom of the erosion wave marks is covered with pits.
Figure 16: Erosion corrosion on a water turbine wheel, showing pits in the
grooves.
145
Cavitation
Fluid media in pumps (Figure 17) or turbines (Figure 18) may undergo
drastic pressure decay in certain areas whereby gas bubbles are formed.
The gas bubbles collapse or implode under the higher pressures
generated by higher pump velocities and exhibit explosive forces that
ultimately damage the bubble’s surrounding surface. Thus, the interior
surfaces are locally eroded and deformed into pitting resembling craters.
Figure 17: Pump impeller material damage caused by cavitation.
Figure 18: Cavitated turbine blades.
146
13
Evaluation
General Evaluation Scheme

The evaluation of the quality of a product or of the integrity of a
component in service should be performed in three distinct steps:
1. Determination of relevancy: Is the anomaly a relevant
discontinuity?
2. Determination of severity: Are any rejectable discontinuities
present?
3. Accept/reject determination: Apply acceptance criteria.
A flowchart of the steps involved in a visual evaluation is provided in
Figure 1.
To elaborate on the steps:
1. Relevancy: Nicks, small scratches, or dirt might not be relevant
to the quality or integrity of a part or component. However, the
inspector should be certain that such anomalies are not covering
Visual anomaly
Acceptable
Relevant? NO
(e.g., scratches, dirt)
YES
Severe? YES Not acceptable
NO
Acceptable NO Exceeds limits? YES Not acceptable
Figure 1: General evaluation scheme.
147
or superimposing relevant discontinuities. Standards define what

is relevant and what is nonrelevant. Therefore, the applicable code,
standard, or specification should be consulted before starting any
evaluation. In case of doubt, any anomaly should be treated as a
discontinuity.
2. Severity: Once the character of an anomaly has been determined
to be a discontinuity, the severity of the discontinuity is in question.
Some discontinuities, such as cracks, are often regarded as defects
regardless of their extension, number, or location. The use of
measuring tools, reference bodies, or comparison kits would not
necessarily be required in such cases.
3. Acceptance: In cases where the acceptance of a specific type of
discontinuity is based on its extension, the limiting value (for
instance, a multiple of the wall thickness) has to be determined from
the acceptance criteria of a standard or procedure. The acceptance
criteria may be one or more measures of a discontinuity’s parameters,
such as its overall length, width, and through-wall depth. Other
criteria might be a concentration in a defined area or measured
distance between similar discontinuities or their general appearance,
such as in lines or as clusters. The standard’s or procedure’s limits
of individual or grouped sizes might be dependent on the main
direction of stresses in a part or component.
Evaluation Criteria and Techniques

Evaluation of visual anomalies must always be done in accordance with
the applicable standard. Reference criteria are typically provided in
standards as follows:
l verbal descriptions (rolled flat products, inservice bolts)
l a series of photographs or replicas (castings)
l embodiments or reference test pieces (surface roughness)
l maximum dimensions of discontinuities (welds, inservice welds)
The following sections describe evaluation techniques based on specified
criteria.
Verbal Description of Criteria

The inspector might prefer distinct numbers and sizes for the acceptance
determination. However, in the steel industry and also in some areas of
the inservice inspection, it might be important to recognize the types of
discontinuities rather than their extensions. A good example is the VT-3
examination of bolts in ASME Section XI, “Inservice Inspection,” an
excerpt of which is provided below.
ASME XI, IWB-3500 – Acceptance Criteria for Visual Examination:
The following relevant conditions shall require correction:
…
(d) bending, twisting, or deformation of bolts or studs to the extent that
assembly or disassembly is impaired;
(e) missing or loose bolts, studs, nuts, or washers;
148
Evaluation
(f) fractured bolts, studs, or nuts;

(g) degradation of protective coatings on bolting surfaces; or
(h) evidence of coolant leakage near bolting.
ASME Section XI also defines what is not to be considered as

relevant:
Relevant conditions do not include fabrication marks, scratches, surface
abrasion, material roughness, and any other conditions acceptable by material,
design, and manufacturing specifications.
This specific section of the code defines anomalies that are acceptable
during the manufacturing process as nonrelevant.
Some other criteria, not referenced here (a-c above), are based on
measurement(s).
Optical and Tactile Comparisons

Evaluation can be accomplished by comparison with a standard
representing a set of graduated severity levels. This technique of
evaluation would typically require a visual comparison of the actual
extension of a discontinuity against a comparable standard and thereby
permitting a direct comparison of what was detected versus what is
acceptable. In addition to the pure visual comparison, replicas allow a
physical comparison. (See Figure 2.)
Reference photographs are used for the evaluation of castings
intended for valves, flanges, fittings, and other piping components.
MSS SP-55, Quality Standard for Steel Castings for Valves, Flanges,
Fittings, and Other Piping Components — Visual Method for Evaluation
of Surface Irregularities, is a standard developed and approved by
the Manufacturer Standardization Society of the Valve and Fittings
Industry. The set of photographs it contains is accompanied by a
description of how to use it during a VT examination. Five photographs
per each of the 12 discontinuity types are presented. Two out of the
five show a condition of acceptable severity, and three show a condition
(a) (b)
Figure 2: Comparison testing: (a) visual, assisted by (b) tactile or

physical comparison.
149
Figure 3: Set of photographs in MSS SP-55: Type X, unfused chaplets.

(Extracted from ANSI/MSS SP-55-2011 with permission of the
publishers, Manufacturers Standardization Society of the Valve and
Fittings Industry, Inc. Reproduction is prohibited. All rights reserved.)
of unacceptable severity. As an example, Figure 3 shows a set of

photographs for discontinuity Type X, unfused chaplets.
MSS SP-55 contains a table that references a set of replicas issued by
the British Foundry Association and Steel Castings Research and Trade
Association (SCRATA). Most of these replicas exhibit different severity
levels of discontinuity types ranging from 1 (lowest) to 5 (highest). MSS
SP-55 references the highest acceptable severity level of the SCRATA set
as an alternative to their photographs.
To form such a replica, a soft malleable plastic is pressed onto the
surface forming a mold that replicates its contour. The plastic hardens
after a certain time, keeping the impression of the contour after removal.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 4: Replication: (a) surface contour; (b) malleable plastic mass

pressed onto the surface; (c) adaptation to the contour; (d) hardened
material removed from the surface.
150
Evaluation
The mold is used to make replicas in order to provide a visual and tactile
document of the surface to be evaluated. (See Figure 4.)
Evaluations of the quality and roughness of surface finishes may
be made after mechanical operations such as drilling, grinding, or
polishing. At jobs or on a construction site, there is often no need for
exact measurements; an approximate assessment of the roughness
is sufficient. Therefore, a simple visual comparison with a reference
block or a standard block is much easier. Those blocks are available for
different surfaces, and each consists of several areas of continuously
smoother surface conditions. To each of the areas a certain value of
roughness is attributed and imprinted. The inspector performs his or her
measurement by a combination of visual and tactile comparison of the
actual surface with the applicable set of standard surfaces. (See Figure 5.)
Figure 5: MSS quality standard for comparing cast surface finishes.
The set of BNIF surface comparators from the French Standardization

Bureau of the Foundry Industry (Bureau de Normalisation des Industries
de la Fonderie) serves for castings.
This set contains three stacks of replicas of the following surface
conditions:
l as cast (S1)
l mechanically treated (S2)
l thermally treated (S3)
151
The three stacks (S1, S2, and S3) shown in Figure 6(a) contain a
series of replicas with progressively larger roughness. The standards that
reference the BNIF set require their minimum surface quality by the
maximum roughness, for example, 3S1/4S2.
As previously mentioned, SCRATA comparators are another set of
reference panels for the visual determination of surface roughness and
surface discontinuities in steel castings. Two replicas are shown in
Figure 6(b).
As an alternative to reference panels and replicas, surface quality may
be specified in a technical drawing (Figure 7).
Size-Based Criteria
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) issues
standards for worldwide business and industry. One standard, ISO 5817,
Welding — Fusion-Welded Joints in Steel, Nickel, Titanium and Their
Alloys (Beam Welding Excluded) — Quality Levels For Imperfections,
defines three quality levels: B, C, and D, with B representing the
best. It also defines the maximum dimensions of a large number of
(a) (b)
Figure 6: Replicas for the surface quality of castings: (a) BNIF; (b) SCRATA.
Waviness
height
0.002 µin.
Roughness Roughness
height width
0.005 µin.
60
µin.
Lay
Figure 7: Surface quality requirements in a technical drawing.
152
No. ISO Imperfection Remarks t Limits for imperfections for quality levels
6520-1 designation mm
reference D C B
1 Surface imperfections
1.1 100 Crack ≥0,5 Not permitted Not permitted Not permitted
1.2 104 Crater crack ≥0,5 Not permitted Not permitted Not permitted
1.3 2017 Surface pore Maximum dimension of a single pore for 0,5 to 3 d ≤ 0,3 s Not permitted Not permitted
—butt welds d ≤ 0,3 a
—fillet welds
Maximum dimension of a single pore for d ≤ 0,3 s, d ≤ 0,2 s,

—butt welds >3 but max. 3 mm but max. 2 mm Not permitted
—fillet welds
d ≤ 0,3 a, d ≤ 0,2 a,
but max. 3 mm but max. 2 mm
1.4 2025 End crater pipe 0,5 to 3 h ≤ 0,2 t Not permitted Not permitted
h
>3 h ≤ 0,2 t, h ≤ 0,1 t, Not permitted
t
but max. 2 mm but max. 1 mm

1.5 401 Lack of fusion Not permitted Not permitted Not permitted
(incomplete fusion)
≥0,5
Micro lack of fusion Only detectable by micro examination Permitted Permitted Not permitted
1.6 4021 Incomplete root Only for single side butt welds ≥0,5 Short imperfections: Not permitted Not permitted
penetration h ≤ 0,2 t,
but max. 2 mm
t
153
Evaluation
Figure 8: Excerpt from ISO 5817 as an example of defining the quality levels of welds (B5 EN ISO 5817:2014).
imperfections for those quality levels. Thus, based on the dimensions of

their imperfections, welds are rated as being B, C, or D quality level.
(See Figure 8.)
Besides optical comparison with references, determination of the
roughness can be accomplished by tactile measurement with a spring-
loaded needle, which is drawn over the surface with its movements
monitored in a vertical direction (Figure 9). The forces on the needle are
translated into electric signals, thus documenting a roughness profile.
In this case, it is essential in which direction relative to the lay
the measurement is taken. The measurement results are values of
average roughness Ra; the magnitude is in the range of micro-inches
(micrometers).
Figure 9: Measuring surface roughness.
154
14
Codes, Standards, and Specifications
VT as an Engineering Task
Even though design is typically a responsibility of the engineering
organization involved, NDT is already very important at the planning
stage. The details of the construction must be such that they can be
reliably inspected. When the manufacture and the assembly of a machine
or a component are planned, the inspection must be performed at
those stages of manufacture where the surfaces to be observed are still
accessible. Furthermore, the details to be observed and the sensitivity of
the test are dependent on the types and on the magnitude of loads that
the component or the machine has to withstand. Thus, an activity plan
during manufacture must be consulted for:
l dividing manufacturing of a part into working steps and defining
when NDT has to be performed,
l establishing the qualifications of personnel who perform VT,
l identifying who must witness the test (for example, third party,
buyer),
l specifying the procedure to be followed during the test, and
l listing the criteria for acceptance and rejection to be applied.
When discontinuities are detected during the test, the engineering
organization should have the final word regarding whether a repair is
necessary.
These relations are reflected in the hierarchy of applicable standards
(Figure 1). The design standard typically refers to a performance
standard, which covers the rules of how the NDT method (for example,
VT) has to be applied. The design standard itself or a separate acceptance
Design standard
Refers to
VT performance VT acceptance
standard standard
How to do VT What is acceptable
Figure 1: Applicable standards for VT.
155
standard covers the acceptance criteria to grade a possible outcome of

VT (in our case).
VT as a Technician Task
NDT technicians may be part of either the manufacturing organization
(self-control) or a separate structure independent of the manufacturing
organization, such as a quality control department. The Level III
normally extracts a VT procedure from the applicable standards, which
comprise all aspects of VT for a specific job. Typically, a high level, if not
full coverage, of VT must be conducted at all stages of manufacture. The
most important parts of such a procedure are:
1. Purpose and scope.
2. Referencing codes and standards.
3. Personnel qualification.
4. Time of visual testing.
5. Extent of VT (details to be observed and coverage).
6. Test equipment.
7. Test parameters (such as light level).
8. Sensitivity verification.
9. VT acceptance criteria.
10. Reporting VT results.
Level I and II personnel are typically the individuals performing
inspections. All testing has to be performed in accordance with the
applicable procedure. Procedure extraction and development is the
responsibility of the Level III. Typically, a procedure contains all of the
information from the different standards. If they are contradictory, the
requirements of the main or design code are always binding.
U.S. Visual Testing Standards
ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code

Visual inspections are required throughout the ASME Boiler &
Pressure Vessel Code. In this code, visual testing as an NDT method
with personnel certification is required in the nuclear field. Section III
applies to erecting new plants, whereas Section XI covers the inservice
inspection of nuclear power plants. For visual tests, both of these sections
refer to Section V, Nondestructive Examination, except that Section XI
overrules the 100 fc (1000 lx) requirements for the illumination of the
surface to be tested and requires only 50 fc (500 lx). (See Figure 2.)
The information on how to perform VT per the code is contained in
Section V, Article 9. The article presents a very short set of requirements
for VT and details:
l the contents of a VT procedure and its essential and nonessential
variables,
l rules for demonstration of the procedure,
l test sensitivity,
l the VT techniques (direct, remote, and translucent),
156
ASME B&PV
Code Section III,
NX 1000 ff
Refers to
ASME B&PV ASME B&PV

Code Section V, Code Section III,
Article 9 NX 5000 ff
Visual examination Acceptance criteria
Figure 2: Breakdown of ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code as it

applies to VT.
l requirements for direct VT (angle of view, distance from surface, and

illumination),
l the necessity of a checklist, and
l reporting.
Section V, Article 9, does not stipulate any certification requirement
or any acceptance criteria.
ASME procedures have to be demonstrated prior to use to ensure
that they work the way they are intended. This demonstration must
satisfy the ASME inspector, who indicates his or her satisfaction by
signature.
American Welding Society Codes
AWS D1.1
AWS D1.1, Structural Welding Code — Steel, covers quality criteria for
welds in:
l statically loaded nontubular connections,
l cyclically loaded nontubular connections, and
l tubular connections for all loads.
The code requires that all welds be visually inspected. However, it
does not explicitly specify how to do so compared with ASME Section
V, Article 9. AWS provides a number of publications on how to perform
visual inspections. Also, the code contains a checklist of discontinuities
to look for. This checklist (referred to as Table 6.1) exhibits detailed
descriptions of the discontinuities with quantitative metric criteria for
acceptance/rejection determinations.
AWS D17.1/D17.1M
AWS D17.1/D17.1M, Specification for Fusion Welding for Aerospace
Applications, is an aerospace specification that provides general
requirements for welding aircraft and space hardware. Materials include
aluminum, nickel, iron, magnesium, and cobalt and their alloys. Welding
processes referred to are electric arc and high-energy beam. Section 6
(of 8 sections) stipulates the rules for inspection and the qualification of
157
inspectors. Besides other NDT methods, this section describes standard

requirements for the performance of visual testing. The specification is
applicable, in full or in part, when referenced by the prime contractor of
the aircraft.
European Standards
The European Pressure Equipment Directive (PED) has initiated a series
of standards on a number of pressure-retaining components. One of
them is EN 13445, which covers the manufacture of unfired pressure
vessels. The inspection is regulated in Part 5 of the standard, which
includes visual testing. The acceptance criteria are based on the quality
categories of ISO 5817, Welding – Fusion-Welded Joints in Steel, Nickel,
Titanium and Their Alloys (Beam Welding Excluded) – Quality Levels
for Imperfections. The letter C in the code stands for noncyclically loaded
structures and the letter B for cyclically loaded structures.
EN 13445 sets up some additional criteria for certain discontinuities.
For the performance of visual testing, EN 13445-5 refers to another ISO
standard, ISO 17637, Non-destructive Testing of Welds — Visual Testing
of Fusion-Welded Joints. (These relationships are diagrammed in
Figure 3.)
EN 13445,
Part 5
Refers to
EN ISO 17637 EN ISO 5817
Visual examination Acceptance criteria
Figure 3: Breakdown of European standards governing VT.
EN 13018, Non-Destructive Testing – Visual Testing – General

Principles, is a European standard on the general principles of the
performance of VT, which is not focused on some specific product, such
as welds, and is very similar to ASME Section V, Article 9. It may be
referenced in product standards, but so far there is no direct reference to
it. Other VT-based inspection standards are EN 10163-1 for hot-rolled
steel plates and EN 1370 for castings, both of which are applicable for
quality determinations of products but not for inservice inspection.
158
ISO Standards
As originally intended, International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) standards are voluntary standards, meaning they are applicable
only by agreement between the purchaser and the manufacturer. There
is no legal requirement to apply them verbatim, nor is a country’s
standards organization forced to accept them as a national norm or state
of the art. However, since ISO established links to European Committee
for Standardization (CEN) standards by the so-called Vienna Agreement,
once CEN accepts an ISO standard, it automatically becomes mandatory
in all participating countries in Europe.
159
References
The following publications are training references for further study as

recommended in ANSI/ASNT CP-105: ASNT Standard Topical Outlines for
Qualification of Nondestructive Testing Personnel (2011).
Allgaier, M.W. and S. Ness, tech. eds., P. Mclntire and P.O. Moore, eds.
Nondestructive Testing Handbook, second edition: Volume 8, Visual and Optical
Testing. Columbus, OH: The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
1993.*
Allgaier, M.W. and R.E. Cameron, tech. eds., P.O. Moore, ed. Nondestructive
Testing Handbook , third edition: Volume 9, Visual Testing. Columbus, OH: The
American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. 2010.*
ASM Handbook, Volume 17: Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control. Metals
Park, OH: ASM International. 1989.*
ASNT Level II Study Guide: Visual and Optical Testing Method. Columbus, OH:
American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc, Latest edition.*
ASNT Level III Study Guide: Visual and Optical Testing Method. Columbus, OH:
American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. Latest edition.*
Cary, H.B. and S. Helzer. Modern Welding Technology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall, Inc. 2004.
The Tools and Rules of Precision Measuring. Athol, MA: L.S. Starret Co. 1982.
Welding Handbook, Volume 1. Miami, FL: American Welding Society. Latest

edition.
Welding Inspection. Miami, FL: American Welding Society. Latest edition.
*Available from the American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc., Columbus,
OH.
Additional references used in this book include the following:
Black, J.T. and R.A. Kohser. DeGarmo’s Materials and Processes in Manufacturing,
11th edition. New York: Wiley. 2011.
Graff, H. and O. Werk. Technik und Produktion in Übersichten. Berlin, Germany:

Volk und Wissen. 1982.
Naumann, H. and G. Schröder. Bauelemente der Optik-Taschenbuch der technischen

Optik. Munich, Germany: Carl Hanser Verlag, 1987.
161
Roller, R. Fachkunde für gießereitechnische Berufe: Technologie des Formens und Gießens.
Haan-Gruiten, Germany: Verlag Europa Lehrmittel. 2013.
Schröder, G. Technische Optik. Würzburg, Germany: Vogel Business Media. 1998.
Tipler, P.A. and G. Mosca. Physik: für Wissenschaftler und Ingenieure. Heidelberg, Germany:
Spektrum Akademischer Verlag. 2004.
Figure Sources
All figures derive from sources published or purchased by The American Society
for Nondestructive Testing, Inc., or supplied by the author, except for the following
used by permission:
Chapter 2
Figures 1, 3, 4, 6, 7(a), and 8(a): Reproduced with permission of VECTOR NDT
Training, Germany
Figure 5: Verlag Handwerk und Technik GmbH
Figure 7(b): Karl Storz GmbH & Co. KG
Chapter 3
Figures 1-3: Reproduced with permission of VECTOR NDT Training, Germany
Figure 4: Tubular Services LLC
Figure 6: AREVA GmbH
Chapter 4
Figures 2, 6, and 13: Reproduced with permission of VECTOR NDT Training,
Germany
Figures 5 and 10: Karl Storz GmbH & Co. KG
Figure 11: GE, Inspection Technologies

Figure 20: Selit, Wikimedia Commons
Figure 21: Glenn McKechnie, Wikimedia Commons
Figure 22: FlawTech, Concord, NC
Chapter 5
Figures 1, 5-7, 12, 14, 16(a), and 17: Reproduced with permission of VECTOR NDT
Training, Germany
Figure 20: EPRI NP-1590-SR, NDE Characteristics of Pipe Weld Defects. Palo Alto,
CA: Electric Power Research Institute (1980). Reprinted with permission.
Figure 21(a): Mannesmann
Figures 23, 25(b), 26, 27, and 29: G.A.L. Gage Company
Figure 33: GAR Electroforming, Danbury, CT
163
Visual Testing Classroom Training Book | FIGURE SOURCES
Chapter 6
Figures 4(b), 5(b), 6(c), 7(c), 10, and 11: Extracted from ANSI/MSS SP-55 with
permission of the publisher, Manufacturers Standardization Society of the Valve
and Fittings Industry, Inc. Reproduction is prohibited. All rights reserved. Due to
variations in viewing environments, the printed version published by MSS shall be
the “official” rendering of this Standard Practice for inspection, code, or any other
purpose.
Figures 6(b) and 7(a): Reproduced with permission of VECTOR NDT Training,
Germany
Figure 12: Karl Storz GmbH & Co. KG
Figures 15(a), 16(a), 17(a), 18(a), 19(a), 20(a), 21(a), and 22(a): Mannesman
Figures 15(b), 16(b), 17(b), 18(b), 19(b), 20(b), 21(b), and 22(b): Copyright 1973,
Verlag Stahleisen GmbH, Düsseldorf, Germany. Reprinted with permission.
Figures 23 and 24: BS EN 10163-1:2004, Delivery Requirements for Surface

Condition of Hot-Rolled Steel Plates, Wide Flats and Sections – Part 1: General
Requirements. Permission to reproduce extracts from British Standards is granted
by BSI Standards Limited (BSI). No other use of this material is permitted. British
Standards can be obtained in PDF or hard copy formats from the BSI online shop:
www.bsigroup.com/Shop
Table 1: Extracted from ANSI/MSS SP-55 with permission of the publisher,

Manufacturers Standardization Society of the Valve and Fittings Industry, Inc.
Reproduction is prohibited. All rights reserved.
Chapter 7
Figure 1: Level III Service, Winston-Salem, NC
Figure 5: Richard C. Hooper, Central Piedmont Community College
Figure 7: G.A.L. Gage Company
Figure 8: MISTRAS Group, Inc.
Chapter 8
Figure 8(b): Latham & Phillips Ophthalmic
Chapter 9
Figure 2(a): Pearson Scott Foresman, Wikimedia Commons
Figure 5(a): Naumann/Schröder, Bauelemente der Optik, Carl Hanser Verlag,

Munich
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164
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Chapter 10
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Chapter 11
Figures 1(b), 3, 6-9, 13, and 21: Karl Storz GmbH & Co. KG
Figure 12: Westinghouse ROV MIDAS VI
Chapter 12
Figure 1: Federal Aviation Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation
(public domain)
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Training, Germany
Figures 11(a) and 17: Reproduced with permission of Verein Deutscher Ingenieure
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Chapter 13
Figure 2: Adapted from Graff, Technik und Produktion in Übersichten, Volk und
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Nickel, Titanium and Their Alloys (Beam Welding Excluded) – Quality Levels for
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165
Glossary
acceptance criterion: benchmark borescope: a nonflexible instrument

against which test results are to be used as a direct viewing visual aid. The
compared for purposes of establishing instrument typically consists of mirrors,
the functional acceptability of a part or prisms, and lenses to transmit images
system being examined. for viewing and/or recording. A rigid
borescope does not bend, typically in
accommodation, visual: adjustment order to keep the geometrical optics in
of the eye, either the focus or the iris alignment through a light train system.
opening, to optimize its performance
under the specific viewing conditions borescope, fiber optic: industrial
prevailing. endoscope that uses glass or quartz
fibers to transmit light and the optical
acuity, vision: ability to distinguish path to and from the test object.
fine details visually at a given distance.
Quantitatively, it is the reciprocal of the candela: unit of luminous intensity
minimum angular separation in minutes (formerly defined by the light from a
of two lines of width subtending one standard candle having a certain wick
minute of arc when the lines are just length). One candela is the luminous
resolvable as separate. intensity in the perpendicular direction
of a surface of 1/600 000 m2 of a
ambient light: light in the environment blackbody radiator at the temperature
as opposed to illumination provided by of freezing platinum under a pressure of
a visual testing system. 101 325 Pa.
angle of vision: angle between a surface charge-coupled device (CCD): an

to be viewed or tested and the point of optoelectronic device, which converts
observation. light intensities pixel by pixel in electric
signals.
auxiliary lighting: artificial lighting
in addition to the natural or principal color: visual sensation by means
lighting. of which humans distinguish light
of differing hue (predominant
black body: theoretical object that wavelengths), saturation (degree to
radiates more total power and more which those radiations predominate
power at any wavelength than any over others), and lightness.
other source operating at the same
temperature. color blindness: deficiency in ability to
perceive or distinguish hues.
black light: see near ultraviolet
radiation. color discrimination: perception of
the difference between two or more
wavelengths of light.
167
Visual Testing Classroom Training Book | GLOSSARY
color temperature: rating of a light direct visual testing: a visual

source for color vision expressed as an testing technique where there is an
absolute temperature. uninterrupted optical path from the
observer’s eye to the test area. This
color vision: distinction of light of technique can be performed either
different intensities and wavelengths. unaided or aided via mirror, lens,
endoscope, or fiber optics.
cone: color-sensitive photoreceptor at
the inner region of the retina. Compare discontinuity: interruption in the
rod. physical structure or configuration of a
test object.
contrast: difference between perceived
levels of brightness from different distal: of or pertaining to the end
sections of a surface or an image. opposite from the eyepiece and farthest
from the person using the system.
dark adaptation: process by which the Compare objective.
retina becomes adapted to a luminance
less than about 0.034 cd·m–2. endoscope: rigid or flexible device
to transmit images of the interior or
defect: discontinuity whose size, shape, generally inaccessible parts of objects;
orientation, or location (1) makes applied in medicine or in materials
it detrimental to the useful service testing.
of its host object or (2) exceeds an
accept/reject criterion of an applicable equivalent 20/20 near vision acuity:
specification. Some discontinuities do vision acuity with remote viewing or
not exceed an accept/reject criterion and other indirect viewing that approximates
are therefore not defects. 20/20 direct viewing closely enough to
be considered the same for visual testing
demonstration test piece: test piece purposes.
with indications as close as possible to
those to be detected on the component false indication: test indication that
to be tested. could be interpreted as originating
from a discontinuity but that actually
depth of field: the range of distance originates where no discontinuity exists
over which an imaging system gives in the test object. Compare indication,
satisfactory definition when it is in the nonrelevant; defect.
best focus for a specific distance.
farsightedness: vision acuity
detailed visual testing: local visual functionally adequate for viewing
testing of smaller areas to discern details objects at a distance, generally farther
such as cracks, pitting, or signs of than arm’s length. Also called hyperopia.
corrosion or erosion typically done with Compare nearsightedness.
aids or equipment providing higher
magnification. far vision: vision of objects at a
distance. For direct visual testing, this
direct viewing: a view that is not is generally beyond arm’s length. In an
redefined by optical or electronic means. optical system, this is beyond 10× the
Compare indirect viewing; remote visual focal length.
testing.
168
feature extraction: characterization of grayscale: reference chart to test for
objects in an image, usually with the an image sensor, optical device, or
goal of distinguishing those objects. optoelectronic device response to
varying levels of luminance.
fiber borescope: flexible device using
fiber optics to transmit images of the heat-affected zone: portion of base
interior or generally inaccessible parts of metal not melted during brazing,
objects. cutting, or welding but with mechanical
properties altered by the heat.
fiber optics: technology of efficient
transmission of light through illuminance: light level at a surface;
transparent fibers such as glass, quartz, measured in fc or in lx.
and plastic by means of total internal
reflection. image: visual presentation of an object.
field of view: panoramic view achieved image sensor: sensor that converts
by an optical instrument held in a rigid an image pixel by pixel into electrical
position, typically related to visual aids signals.
incorporating lenses.
incandescence: emission of visible
fluorescence: phenomenon of radiation as a result of heating.
absorption of electromagnetic radiation
and its reemission at a lower energy indication: nondestructive test response
(longer wavelength). In visual testing, that requires interpretation to determine
fluorescence is typically a response to its relevance.
ultraviolet radiation.
indication, nonrelevant: indication
footcandle (fc): traditional (non-SI) that has no relation to a discontinuity
unit of illuminance, where 1 fc = that might constitute a defect. Test
1 lm/ft2 = 10.76 lx. response caused by geometry or by a
physical condition that is not a relevant
general visual testing: visual testing discontinuity.
over areas of the component to observe
overall condition, integrity, and state indication, relevant: indication from
of degradation. Typically, this includes a discontinuity (as opposed to a false
noting surface finishes or coatings, indication or nonrelevant discontinuity)
distortion or damage, general fit or requiring evaluation by a qualified
alignment, and identification of missing inspector, typically with reference to an
parts of the component. acceptance standard, by virtue of the
discontinuity’s size or location.
glare: excessive brightness within
the field of view that interferes with indirect viewing: viewing of a test
clear vision, critical observation, and object during which the light image
judgment. is mediated through a system of two
or more lenses (as in a borescope) or
graticule: scale or network of fine transduced through an electronic signal
lines placed in the optical path of an (as with a charge-coupled device).
instrument to allow measurement or Compare direct viewing; remote visual
comparison; also known as reticule. testing.
169
infrared radiation: electromagnetic line chart: form of test chart or

radiant energy of wavelengths longer resolution target showing lines of
than 700 nm. graduated distance and width on
suitably contrasting background.
inverse square law: physical law for a
point source of energy. The quantity or linearity indicators: form of resolution
strength is inversely proportional to the target to test linearity of the optical
square of the distance from the origin. system.
iris: ring of variable area around the lumen (lm): SI photometric unit of
pupil and in front of the lens of the luminous flux. One lumen equals the
eye. The surface area of the iris adjusts light emitted by one candela (cd) point
spontaneously to change in the amount source into one steradian (sr) solid angle
of light entering the eye. (1 lm = 1 cd/sr).
irradiance: radiant power falling upon a luminance: level of light intensity

known surface area at a given angle. reflected from a surface area in a given
direction; measured in candelas per
jaeger eye chart: eye chart used for near square meter. The term brightness is
vision acuity examination. Compare used in international standards.
snellen vision test.
lux (lx): SI unit of illuminance, equal to
laser: (1) acronym for light one lumen per square meter (1 lx =
amplification by stimulated emission 1 lm/m2).
of radiation; (2) device that produces
a highly monochromatic and coherent mirror: equipment based on an optical
(spatial and temporal) beam of system that makes use of reflection.
radiation.
monochromatic: light from a very small
leaked visible light: unwanted portion of the spectrum.
electromagnetic radiation that has a
wavelength between 400 and 700 nm near ultraviolet radiation (UV-A):
that is generated by a UV-A source ultraviolet radiation with wavelengths
but not filtered out of the emission ranging from about 320 to about 400
spectrum. Leaked visible light is nm. Formerly called black light.
generally perceived as purple or dark
blue and not accurately measured using nearsightedness: vision acuity
a photometric sensor. functionally adequate for viewing
objects nearby, generally within arm’s
lens: translucent object that refracts length. Also called myopia. Compare
light passing through it in order to focus farsightedness.
light rays or disperse them.
near vision: vision of nearby objects.
lighting, back: placement of light source For direct visual testing, this is generally
and image sensor on opposite sides of within arm’s length so that test objects
the test object, used when the silhouette can be inspected tactilely. In an optical
of a feature is important. system, this is within 10× the focal
length.
170
nondestructive testing (NDT): reflection: the process by which the
determination of the physical condition light leaves a surface from the incident
of an object without affecting that side. Reflection is usually a combination
object’s ability to fulfill its intended of specular and diffuse reflection.
function. Nondestructive test methods
typically use an appropriate form reflectivity: amount of light reflected
of energy to determine material from parts of a surface compared with
properties or to indicate the presence the amount from a perfect reflector
of material discontinuities (surface, (100%).
internal, or concealed). Sometimes
called nondestructive evaluation, refraction: reorientation of the path of
nondestructive examination, or radiation by the medium through which
nondestructive inspection. it passes.
objective: In discussion of a lens system remote visual testing: visual testing

(camera, borescope, microscope, where there is an interrupted optical
telescope), of or pertaining to the path from the observer’s eye to the test
end or lens closest to the object of area. Remote visual testing covers the
examination—at the end opposite from use of photography, video systems,
the eyepiece. Compare distal. automated systems, and robots.
Compare direct viewing; indirect
optical test chart: chart that can be used viewing.
to quantify or qualify the characteristics
of an optical device. replication: technique of using a
malleable material molded to a test
optics: physical science of the surface for recording or analyzing the
transmission of radiation, especially of surface.
light.
resolution capability: aspect of image
optoelectronic device: any device whose quality pertaining to a system’s ability
function is based on optical to electronic to depict details of an object, often
conversion, such as a videotape, measured by distinguishing (resolving) a
photograph, or digital storage. pair of adjacent features or parallel lines.
photometer: device used to measure resolution target: marker, such as a line

illuminance. The sensor is filtered chart, used as a point of reference for
such that its response closely matches measuring resolution.
the spectral responsivity curve of the
human eye. In nondestructive testing, resolution threshold: minimum
photometers measure lux. distance between a pair of points
or parallel lines when they can be
pupil: black aperture in the center of the distinguished as two, not one, expressed
eye’s lens, through which light enters in minutes of arc.
the lens to impinge on the retina.
radiance: radiant flux per unit solid

angle and per unit projected area of the
source. Measured in watts per square
meter steradian. Compare irradiance.
171
resolving power: ability of vision or stereo photography: close-range

other detection system to separate two photogrammetric technique involving
points. Resolving power depends on the the capture and viewing of two
angle of vision and the distance of the images of the same object in order to
sensor from the test surface. Resolving reconstruct a three-dimensional (3D)
power is often measured using parallel image of the object.
lines. Compare resolution capability.
ultraviolet radiation: electromagnetic
reticule: see graticule. radiation with wavelengths between
10 and 400 nm.
retina: the tissue on back, inside surface
of the eyeball, opposite the pupil, where videoscope: flexible device using an
rods and cones sense light. image sensor at the tip to transmit
images normally of the interior or
rod: retinal receptor that responds at generally inaccessible parts of objects.
low levels of luminance even down
below the threshold for cones. At these vision: perception by eyesight.
levels, there is no basis for perceiving
differences in hue and saturation. vision acuity: ability to distinguish fine
details visually at a given distance.
sensitivity level: relative magnitude of
a system’s resolution or capability to visibility: the quality or state of being
detect details of a certain size. perceived by the eye.
snellen vision test: acuity measure that visible light: radiant energy with a
refers to a standard distance of 20 ft wavelength between 400 and 700 nm
(6 m) and compares the actual vision as measured in photometric units of
with this standard. Compare jaeger eye footcandles or lux.
chart.
visual angle: angle formed by lines
spectral: related to wavelengths of light drawn from the center of the eye
sources. subtended by an object or detail at
the point of observation. It is usually
spectral irradiance: measure of energy measured in minutes of arc.
emitted by a radiation source as a
function of wavelength. Units of spectral visual background noise: formations
irradiance are watts per square meter. on or signals from a test object
that constitute the background to a
spectrum: representation of radiant discontinuity. The higher the level
energy in adjacent bands of hues in of visual background noise, the
sequence according to the energy’s more difficult it is to distinguish a
wavelengths or frequencies. A rainbow discontinuity.
is a well-known example of a visible
spectrum. visual field: point or points in space
that can be perceived when the head
speed of light: speed of all radiant and eyes are kept fixed. The field may be
energy, including light, is 186 000 mi/s monocular or binocular.
(299 792 458 m/s) in a vacuum.
172
visual perception: interpretation of wavelength: distance between repeating
impressions transmitted from the retina values of a wave. For example, the
to the brain in terms of information distance from one peak to the next peak
about a physical world displayed before on a sine wave.
the eye.
white light: light containing all
visual testing: method of nondestructive wavelengths in the visible spectrum.
testing using electromagnetic
radiation in the optical range to detect
discontinuities.
173
Index
A brightness (European unit). See luminance

abrasive discontinuities, 135 British Foundry Association, 150
accept/reject determination, 148 brittle fractures, 136, 137f
activity plans, 78 Bureau de Normalisation des Industries de la
adaptation and accommodation, 89–90 Fonderie (BNIF), 64, 151–152, 152f
aerospace industry, 20, 157–158 buyer’s representatives, 78
American Welding Society (AWS), 37, 157–158
angle of illumination, 12, 14f C
ANSI/ASNT CP-105, vi calibrations of gages, 36, 36f
arc strikes, 45, 47f calipers, 33–34, 33–34f
arc welding, 38 cambridge (general purpose) gage, 48–49, 50–51f,
ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code 84–85
boiler inspection (1915), 4 cameras
DVT standards, 18 charge-coupled device cameras, 3
examination checklist, 81, 81t pipe crawler camera system, 128, 128f
nuclear power industry codes, 82–83 push-tube cameras, 127, 128f
translucent visual testing, 20 subsea remote camera system, 129, 129f
VT requirements, 148–149, 156–158, 157f See also charge-coupled device (CCD);
attenuation of light, 114 optoelectronic devices; remote visual testing
automated systems, 36 candelas (cd), 8
AWS (American Welding Society), 37, 157–158 castings, 57–65
casting process, 57–59, 57–59f
B cold shuts, 60, 60f
bending stress, 136, 137f discontinuities in, 59–62
BNIF (Bureau de Normalisation des Industries de la EN 1370 for, 158
Fonderie), 64, 151–152, 152f endoscopic images of, 64f
boiler inspection, 4 hot tears, 59, 60f
borescopes/borescopy, 119–126 MSS SP-55 comparison table, 65t
endoscopic images of castings, 64f parting line in, 63f
fiber borescopes, 19, 27–28, 28f, 29f, 121–122, scabs, 61, 62f
121f SCRATA replica, 65f
invention and early uses, 4 surface porosity in, 64f
laser multibeam system, 126f surface sand adherence, 63f
laser scanning system, 125f surface shrinkage in, 64f
light sources for, 126–127, 127f testing sequence, 62–65
magnification, 113, 113f unfused chills and chaplets, 60–61, 61f
prisms in, 110 cavitation, 146, 146f
for remote examination, vii CEN (European Committee for Standardization)
rigid borescopes, 19–20, 25, 26–27f, 119–120, standards, 3, 159
120f certification, vi, 73
shadow technique, 124f chaplets, 60–61, 61f
stereo technique, 125f charge-coupled device (CCD)
types described, 25–30 photoelectric effect in, 115
video borescopes, 28–30, 29f, 30f, 122–126, 123f, in sensing of light intensities, 116, 116f
126f use in cameras, 29–30, 30f
175
Visual Testing Classroom Training Book | INDEX
use in VT, 3 dedicated or task lighting, 103

See also cameras; video borescopes defects, defined, 70
chemical load discontinuities, 135, 141–142, 141– depth of field, 24
143f depth of view, 113
chills, 60–61 diffuse light
chromatic (color) contrast, light levels for, 102 front illumination, 104f
clustered discontinuities, 71 rear illumination, 105f
codes, standards, and specifications, 155–159 reflection of light, 10, 11f, 103
American Welding Society Codes, 157–158 surface light, 31, 32f
ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code, 156–157, digital calipers, 33, 34f
157f digitization/digital technology, 29, 115–117, 116f
classification of discontinuities, 83 diopters, 90
for DVT of welds, 73 direct reading calipers, 33, 34f
European standards, 158, 158f direct visual examination, vi
ISO standards, 159 direct visual testing (DVT), 17–18, 17f, 18f, 48,
nuclear power industry codes, 82–83 73–75, 75t
U.S. VT standards, 156–158 discontinuities, 3, 71, 83–85, 83t
VT applicable standards, 155f See also service-induced discontinuities
VT as engineering task, 155–156 divergence of light sources, 8–9, 9f
VT as technician task, 156 double luminance (proportionality), 11
See also specific codes and standards drag (casting), 58
coherent bundles, 27 drop-through, 42, 43f
cold light sources, 27, 126–127, 127f ductile fractures, 136, 137f
cold shuts, 60, 60f dynamic casting, 57, 58f
collimators, 31, 32f
color discrimination tests, 94f E
color in CCDs, 117 electromagnetic radiation, 7, 7f, 95t
color rating of light sources, 98f electromagnetic testing (ET) for interior
comparisons. See evaluation and comparisons discontinuities, 3
compressive stress, 136, 137f EN 473 (2001), 3
concave root surface, 42, 43f, 44f EN 1370, 158
condenser reflectors, 31, 32f EN 10163-1, 158
cones and rods, 90 EN 13018, vi, 158
contrast (luminance difference), 12 EN 13445, 158
copes, in sand casting, 58 endoscopes, medicinal use, 4
core supports, 60–61 See also borescopes/borescopy
corrosion engineering organizations, 77
color differences in, 5 environmental factors and safety, 12–13
erosion corrosion, 145, 145f equipment, basic, 23–36
general corrosion, 141, 141f automated systems, 36
high-temperature oxidation, 139, 140f borescopes, 25–30
as inservice load, 135 calibration of gages, 36, 36f
localized corrosion (pitting), 141–142, 142f calipers, 33–34, 33–34f
stress-corrosion cracking, 142, 143f feeler and wire gages, 35, 35f
cracks, 5–6, 12, 13f, 40, 41f, 68, 68f fiber borescopes, 27–28, 28f, 29f
Crampton, George S., 4 go/no-go gages, 35, 36f
craters, 40 light sources and special lighting, 31–32, 31–32f
creep and creep damage, 136, 139–140f magnifiers, 23–25, 24f, 25f
crown or root reinforcement, 75t measurement tools, 32–36
mirrors, 20, 23, 23f, 100, 101f
D remote visual inspection systems, 30, 31f
dark fields, 12, 103, 104f rigid borescopes, 25, 26–27f
daylight, VT testing problems in, 8 rulers, 32–33, 33f
176
video borescopes, 28–30, 29f, 30f final evaluation, 79–81, 80f
equipment, advanced, 119–133 fins, 67
borescope light sources, 126–127, 127f flasks, 58
endoscopes and borescopes, 119–126 flexible borescopes. See fiber borescopes
equipment checklist, 130–133, 130–133f fluorescent light, 98–99
fiber borescopes, 121–122, 121f focal length, 24
laser multibeam system, 126f focal point (F´), 111, 111f
laser scanning system, 125f focus beams, 111
pipe crawler camera system, 128, 128f footcandles (fc), 8
push-tube cameras, 127, 128f foundries, 21, 22f
rigid borescopes, 119–120, 120f fusion weld cross section, 37f
shadow technique, 124f
specialized inspection systems, 127–129 G
stereo technique, 125f gages, 35–36, 35f, 36f
subsea remote camera system, 129, 129f See also specific gage types
video borescopes, 122–126, 123f, 126f gas bubble formation (casting), 58–59
erosion discontinuities, 144–146, 144–146f gas metal arc welding (GMAW), 39–40, 40f
European Committee for Standardization (CEN) gas pores, 40
standards, 3, 159 gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), 40
European Pressure Equipment Directive (PED), 158 gating systems, 58
evaluation and comparisons general purpose (cambridge) gage, 48–49, 50–51f,
borescope technique, 123 84–85
in classification of discontinuities, 85 glare and fatigue, 102–103
criteria and techniques, 148–154 glasses, refractive indexes of, 109, 109t
general scheme, 147–148, 147f GMAW (gas metal arc welding), 39–40, 40f
ISO 5817 excerpts, 153f gnomons, 123
MSS SP-55 photographs, 150f go/no-go gages, 35, 36f
optical and tactile comparisons, 149–152 government regulations for inservice inspections, 77
of plates, 70–72 grating and wear, 143, 144f
replications, 150f, 152f grinding cracks, 45–46, 47f
size-based criteria, 152–154 GTAW (gas tungsten arc welding), 40
surface quality requirements and standards, 151f,
152f H
surface roughness measurement, 154f hammer marks, 48f
tactile testing/tactile comparisons, 19, 149–152, heat-affected zone (HAZ), 37, 37f
149f, 154, 154f high-intensity discharge (HID) bulbs, 99, 99f
visual and tactile comparisons, 149f high-low gage, 48, 49f
excessive crown/excessive reinforcement, 45, 45f hold points, 78
excessive root, 42, 43f Hopkins, Harold, 112
eye anatomy and vision mechanics, 89–90, 89f, 90f hot tears, 59, 60f
hot-rolled steel plates, EN 10163-1 for, 158
F
F´ (focal point), 111, 111f I
farsightedness, 90 illumination, surface, 11
fatigue fractures, 136, 138f illumination measurement, 10
fc (footcandles), 8 imperfections, defined, 70
feeler and wire gages, 35, 35f incandescent radiators, 96–97, 96f, 97f
fiber borescopes, 19, 27–28, 28f, 29f, 114–115, 114f, inclusions, 42, 43f
121–122, 121f incomplete root penetration, 42, 43f, 44f
fiber optics and fiber bundles, 113–115, 114f, 115f, indirect transfer calipers, 33, 33f
122 indirect visual testing, vi–vii, 19–20, 19f, 30, 31f
field of view, 26, 27f infrared radiation (IR), 7, 10
fillet weld testing and gages, 51, 53–54f inherent discontinuities, 135
177
inservice discontinuities, 135–136 incandescent radiators, 96–97, 96f, 97f

chemical load discontinuities, 141–142, 141–143f intensity and illumination, 8–9, 9f
inservice load types, 135–136 lasers, 100, 101f, 125f, 126f
inservice versus inherent and processing light field illumination, 103
discontinuities, 135 light field specular illumination, 104f
mechanical load discontinuities, 136, 137f, 138f light levels, 101–102, 102t
thermal load discontinuities, 136–140, 139f, 140f light meters, 10, 10f
wear or erosion discontinuities, 143–146, 144– light sources and special lighting, 8, 31–32,
146f 31–32f, 96–98
inservice inspections, 77 light transmission through solid and liquid
inservice load types, 135–136 media, 107, 107f
inspection checklists/checkpoints, 81, 81t lighting requirements, 103
inspection mirrors, 20, 23, 23f, 100, 101f light-matter interaction, 10–11, 11f
inspection objectives, 75–77 luminescent radiators, 98–100
inspection stages, 78–79, 78f nature of, 7
inspection techniques, 82–83 optical radiation, 96f
interior discontinuities, 3, 6, 10 reflection of, 11f
International Organization for Standardization refraction of, 107–109
(ISO) standards, 152, 159 spot projectors, 31, 32f
inverse square law (illumination), 9 See also optics
IR (thermal/infrared testing) for interior light-emitting diodes (LEDs), 99–100, 100f, 127
discontinuities, 10 linear discontinuities, 71–72, 72f
ISO 5817, 152, 153f, 158 liquid penetrant testing (PT), 3, 6, 142, 143f
ISO 17637, 158, 158f localized corrosion (pitting), 141–142, 142f
isolated discontinuities, 71, 71f longitudinal cracks, 40
loupes, 24, 25f
J luminance (L), 8t, 11–12, 11–12f, 101–102
jaeger test, 92, 93f luminescent radiators, 98–100
lux (lx), 8
L
L (luminance), 8t, 11–12, 11–12f, 101–102 M
landoldt rings, 92, 93f magnetic particle testing (MT), 3, 6, 142, 143f
laps and overlaps, 67, 67f magnifiers and magnification, 23–25, 24f, 25f
laser multibeam system, 126f Manufacturer Standardization Society of the Valve
laser scanning system, 125f and Fittings Industry, 149–150, 150f
lasers, 100, 101f maximum acceptable depths, 70
law of illumination, 9 measurement in classification of discontinuities, 83
lenses, 111–112, 111f, 112f measurement tools, 32–36, 84f
Level I testing, 156 measuring magnifiers, 25
Level II testing, 6, 156 mechanical load discontinuities, 135, 136, 137f, 138f
Level III procedure extraction and development micrometers, 34, 34f
responsibility, 156 mirrors, 20, 23, 23f, 100, 101f
light and elements of lighting, 95–105 misalignments, 45, 45f, 46f
attenuation of, 114 molds, 57, 57f
collimators, 31, 32f MSS SP-55, 64–65, 65t, 149–150, 150f
color rating of light sources, 98f MT (magnetic particle testing), 3, 6, 142, 143f
dark field specular illumination, 104f multiple linear discontinuities, 72f
diffuse light, 31, 32f, 104f, 105f
electromagnetic radiation values, 95t N
fluorescent light, 98–99 nearsightedness, 90
fundamentals of, 95–96 nondestructive testing (NDT), 75, 155
glare and fatigue, 102–103 nonmetallic test objects, light sources for, 103
high-intensity discharge light, 99, 99f
178
nuclear power industry, 3, 21–22, 22f, 82–83, 129, light, nature of, 7
156 light intensity and illumination, 8–9, 9f
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) visual weld light meter, 10f
acceptance criteria, 49–50, 51f light sources, 8
light-matter interaction, 10–11, 11f
O luminance and reflectivity, 11, 12f
optical and tactile comparisons, 149–152, 149f luminance conversions, 8t
optical illusions, 15, 15f perception and illusion, 14–15, 14f
optical radiation, 95–96, 96f reflection of light, 11f
optics, 107–117 reflectivity contrast, 12, 13f, 14f
borescope magnification, 113, 113f pipe crawler camera system, 128, 128f
digitization and charge-coupled devices, 115–117, pitting (localized corrosion), 141–142, 142f
116f pixels/pixelization, 29
fiber optics and fiber bundles, 113–115, 114f, 115f plates, 65–72
lens optics and lens trains, 111–112, 111f cracks in, 68f
lenses and light focus, 111, 111f evaluation of, 70–72
light transmission through solid and liquid line around discontinuity, 71f
media, 107, 107f multiple linear discontinuities in, 72f
prisms, 110, 110f roll marks, 69f
reflection and refraction of incident light, 107– rolling as manufacturing process, 65–66
109, 108f scale, 67f
refractive indexes of glasses, 109, 109t scratches, 68f
rod lenses, 112, 112f seams, 70f
See also light and elements of lighting shells, 69f
optoelectronic devices, 3, 29–30, 30f slivers and spills, 69f
overfills, 45, 45f visible discontinuities, 66–69, 66f, 67f
overlaps and laps, 67, 67f POD (probability of detection), 102
oxidation, 68, 97, 139, 140f, 142 pores/porosity, 40, 42f, 62, 64f, 83
portable microscopes, 25
P pre-attentive processing (vision), 90
palmgren gage, 49, 52f, 84, 84f pressure vessels, EN 13445 for, 158
parallelism, 91, 91f primary processing discontinuities, 135
parting line in casting, 63f prisms, 110, 110f
passivation layer on stainless steel, 142, 145 probability of detection (POD), 102
patterns procedures, 73–85
in erosion, 144, 144f components of, 156
feeler and wire gages for, 35 discontinuity classifications, 83–85, 83t
fillet weld gage for, 51 final evaluation, 79–81, 80f
known versus perceived, 14 inspection checklists/checkpoints, 81, 81t
light patterns in fiber borescope, 114 inspection objectives, 75–77
pattern recognition, 90–91, 91f inspection stages, 78–79, 78f
in sand casting, 58, 59f inspection techniques, 82–83
stored patterns for comparisons, 36 measurement tools, 84f
weave patterns, 138f reporting, 85–86, 86t
in welding, 48, 80 sample instruction (for welds), 73–75, 75t
PED (European Pressure Equipment Directive), 158 timing or sampling plans, 77
perception and illusion, 14–15, 14f VT personnel, 77–78
personnel certification, 73, 92–94, 93–94f VT report form, 76f
photoelectric effect, 115–116, 116f working conditions during inspection, 81–82
physics and fundamentals, 7–14 processing discontinuities, 135
electromagnetic spectrum, 7f production staff inspections, 78
environmental factors and safety, 12–13 PT (liquid penetrant testing), 3, 6, 142, 143f
illumination measurement, 10 push-tube cameras, 127, 128f
179
Q shells, 68, 69f

quality assurance including NDT, 77 shielded metal or electrode arc welding (SMAW),
quality control (QC), 36, 75–77 38–39, 39f
quartz fibers, 122 shrinkage/shrinkage cavities, 58–59, 61, 64f
SI (International System of Units) luminance unit
R conversions, 8t
Ra (roughness measurement), 154 size-based criteria, 152–154
radiographic testing (RT) for interior slag inclusions, 42, 43f
discontinuities, 6 slivers and spills (rolling discontinuities), 69, 69f
reference blocks, 151, 151f snellen acuity measure, 92, 93f
reference photographs, 149–150, 150f Snell’s law, 108
reference test pieces, 22 SNT-TC-1A, 3, 18, 92, 92f
reflection and refraction of incident light, 108f spatter (welding discontinuity), 45, 46f
reflectivity contrast (f), 11, 12, 13f, 14f specialized inspection systems, 127–129
refraction of light, 107–109 specifications. See codes, standards, and
refractive indexes of glasses, 109, 109t specifications
relevancy as evaluation criterion, 147–148 specular reflection of light, 10–11, 11f
remote visual testing (RVT), vi–vii, 19–20, 19f, 30, specularly reflective surfaces, 103
31f spills and slivers (rolling discontinuities), 69, 69f
replicas/replication, 22, 22f, 64–65, 149–151, 149f, spot projectors, 31, 32f
150f, 152f stainless steel, 141–142, 145
reporting, 85–86, 86t standard-related gages, 49–50
rigid borescopes, 19–20, 25, 26–27f, 111–112, 112f, standards. See codes, standards, and specifications
119–120, 120f, 123–126, 126f static casting, 57
rod lenses, 112, 112f Steel Castings Research and Trade Association
rods and cones, 90 (SCRATA), 64–65, 65f, 65t, 150
roll marks, 68, 69f stereo technique, 125f
rolled-in scale, 67, 67f stress-corrosion cracking (SCC), 5, 142, 143f
rolling as manufacturing process, 65–70 submerged arc welding (SAW), 39, 39f
root discontinuities, 42–43, 43f, 44f subsea remote camera system, 129, 129f
root or crown reinforcement, 75t suck-back in welds, 42, 43f, 44f
rulers, 32–33, 33f surface characteristics, lighting needs for, 103,
RVT (remote visual testing), vi–vii, 19–20, 19f, 30, 104–105f
31f surface comparators, 55, 55f
surface irregularities, 61, 63f
S surface pores. See pores/porosity
safety precautions, 13 surface quality standards and requirements, 151f,
sample instruction (for welds), 73–75, 75t 152f
sampling or timing plans, 77 surface roughness, 55, 55f, 64, 153f
sand castings, 22, 22f, 58, 59f surface sand adherence, 63f
scabs, 61, 62f surface shrinkage in casting, 64f
scale, 67f
SCRATA replica, 65f T
scratches, 67, 68f tactile testing/tactile comparisons, 19, 149–152, 149f,
seams, 70, 70f 154, 154f
secondary processing discontinuities, 135 task or dedicated lighting, 103
service-induced discontinuities. See inservice technician tasks, 156
discontinuities techniques, 17–21
severity as evaluation criterion, 148 direct visual testing (DVT), 17–18, 17f
shadow technique, 123, 124f in foundries, 21, 22f
shape deviations, 61, 63f indirect or remote VT, 19–20, 19f
shear stress, 136, 137f nuclear power plants, inservice inspections in,
21–22, 22f
180
RVT cameras, 20 visual angles, 23–24, 24f, 91, 91f
tactile testing, 19 visual and tactile comparisons, 149–152, 149f
translucent VT, 20 visual examination (VE). See visual testing
in tube mills, 21, 21f visual testing (VT)
viewing angles and distances, 18f applicable standards for, 155–156, 155f
tensile stress, 136, 137f, 142 capabilities and limitations, 4–6, 5f
testing sequence, 62–65 castings and wrought products, 57–70
thermal fatigue, 139, 140f certification history, 3
thermal load discontinuities, 135, 136–140, 139f, as engineering task, 154–156
140f equipment, advanced, 119–133
thermal/infrared testing (IR) for interior equipment, basic, 23–36
discontinuities, 10 evaluation, 147–152
third-party inspections, 78 inservice or service-induced discontinuities,
timing or sampling plans, 77 135–146
torsional stress, 136, 137f introduction to, 3–4
total reflection, 110 lighting, elements of, 95–105
translucent visual testing, 10, 11f, 20 optics, 107–117
transmissivity and transmittance of light, 10, 20 personnel, 77–78
tube mills, 21, 21f physics and fundamentals, 7–14
tungsten inclusions, 42 procedures, 73–85
tungsten-halogen incandescent bulbs, 97 report form, 76f
turbulence, 144, 144–145f steps in, 4–6
as technician task, 155
U techniques, 17–21
ultrasonic testing (UT) for interior discontinuities, vision, elements of, 89–92
3, 6 welds, 37–55
ultraviolet radiation (UV), 7 See also codes, standards, and specifications
undercut in welds, 44f, 84–85 voluntary standards, 159
underfill in welds, 44 VWAC gage, 49, 51f, 84–85
unfused chills and chaplets, 60–61, 61f
U.S. Illuminating Engineering Society, 102, 102t W
wavelengths, energy relationship to, 7
V wear or erosion discontinuities, 143–146, 144f, 145f,
VE (visual examination). See visual testing 146f
vernier scale (sliding scale), 33, 34f weld crowns, measuring, 84
video borescopes, 3, 28–30, 29f, 30f, 74, 122–123, weld gages, 48
123f Welding Procedure Specification (WPS), 78
Vienna Agreement, 159 welds, 37–55
viewing angles and distances, 18f arc strikes, 47f
visible discontinuities in rolled products, 66–70, AWS D1.1 for, 157
66–70f AWS D17.1/D17.1M for, 157–158
vision, elements of, 89–92 cambridge (general purpose) gage, 48–49, 50f, 51f
adaptation and accommodation, 90 cleaning and dressing, 79
color discrimination tests, 94f cracks, 40, 41f
eye anatomy and vision mechanics, 89–90, 89f, direct VT of, 48
90f fillet weld testing, 51, 53f, 54f
jaeger test, 92, 93f final evaluation, 79–81, 80f
landoldt rings, 92, 93f fusion weld cross section, 37, 37f
snellen acuity measure, 92, 93f gas metal arc welding (GMAW), 40f
vision acuity examination, characters, and tables, grinding cracks, 47f
92–94, 93f, 94f hammer marks, 48f
vision limitations, 90–91, 91f high-low gage, 48, 49f
vision testing for DVT, 18 inclusions, 42, 43f
181
ISO 17637 for, 158, 158f weld grooves, 38f

joint types, 37–38, 38f welding discontinuities, 40–47
misalignments, 45f, 46f welding joints, 38f
overfills, 45, 45f welding processes, 37–40
palmgren displacement weld gage, 52f welding symbols, 37f
pores, 40, 42f wire gages, 54, 54f
profile and dimensions, 80 white fields, 103
root and surfaces, 80 white light, colors in, 7
root discontinuities, 42–43, 43f wire and feeler gages, 35, 35f
shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), 39f working conditions during inspection, 81–82
spatter, 46f WPS (Welding Procedure Specification), 78
standard-related gages, 49–50 wrought products. See plates
submerged arc welding (SAW), 39f
surface quality inspection, 55, 55f X
undercut, 44f xenon light sources, 127
VT prior to and during welding, 79, 79f X-radiation, 7
VWAC gage, 51f
182
CATALOG NO.: 1646
ISBN: 978-1-57117-376-8


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VISUAL

The American Society

The American Society

first printing 03/17

ISBN: 978-1-57117-393-5 (print)

Printed in the United States of America

Edited by: Bob Conklin, Educational Materials Editor

ASNT Mission Statement:

William E. Blum – NDT Consulting Group, Inc.

The Publications Review Committee includes:

Joseph L. Mackin, Chair – International Pipe Inspectors Association

Dietmar F. Henning graduated in 1975 with a master’s degree

As a German delegate, Henning served in several European and

About the Author .....................................................................................................................v

Chapter 1: Introduction to Visual Testing...............................................................................3

Chapter 2: Physics and Fundamentals of Visual Testing......................................................7

Chapter 3: Visual Testing Techniques..................................................................................17

Chapter 4: Basic Visual Testing Equipment.........................................................................23

Light Sources and Special Lighting....................................................................................... 31

Chapter 5: Visual Testing of Welds.......................................................................................37

Chapter 6: Visual Testing of Castings and Wrought Products...........................................57

Chapter 7: Visual Testing Procedures..................................................................................73

Chapter 8: Elements of Vision...............................................................................................89

Chapter 9: Elements of Lighting............................................................................................95

Chapter 10: Optics...............................................................................................................107

Digital Technology................................................................................................................ 117

Chapter 11: Advanced Visual Testing Equipment............................................................119

Chapter 12: Service-Induced Discontinuities....................................................................135

Chapter 13: Evaluation........................................................................................................147

Chapter 14: Codes, Standards, and Specifications.........................................................155

Definition of Visual Testing

History of Visual Testing

Figure 1: Tests of forgings for steam turbine generator shaft in the

Overview of VT Applications: Capabilities and

Figure 2: Drawing from a patent for a borescope for gun barrels.

Step 1 is screening for anomalies done at a lower sensitivity

Visual testing can be a very simple (just look!) but powerful

Figure 1: Electromagnetic spectrum with enlargement of visible light perceived

Table 1: Luminance conversions.

Light Intensity and Illumination

Figure 2: Decreasing intensity of light based on distance from light

Consequently, the illumination becomes lower with distance. If the

Figure 3: Light meter with sensor and built-in display.

Interaction of Light with Matter

Incident light Transmitted light

Figure 4: Absorption, reflection, and transmittance of light.

Figure 5: Reflection of light: (a) rough, uneven surface; (b) smooth

Luminance and Reflectivity

Figure 6: Perceived luminance of a reflected light source.

Environmental Factors and Safety

working atmosphere that tends to influence the physical and mental

Figure 7: Reflectivity from a crack: (a) diagram; (b) photograph of

Figure 8: Visual examination of a poorly reflecting (textured) surface:

Perception and Illusion

Figure 9: Optical illusions: (a) perceived black spots where white

Typical examples for misinterpretations of optical clues by the brain

There are two basic visual testing techniques:

Direct Visual Testing

Light source Eye