Chapter AXIALLY LOADED MEMBERS:

4 4.1 Introduction
4.2 Deformation of Axially Loaded Members
4.3 Statically Indeterminate Structures
4.4 Method of Superposition
4.5 Thermal Deformation and Stress
4.6 Stresses on Inclined Planes
4.7 Saint-Venant’s Principle
4.8 Stress Concentrations
4.1 Introduction:
• As we learn in chapter 2, which introduced the concepts of axial stress.
Additionally, in chapter 3 the deformation and strain concept are considered and
so the deflections are assumed to be small.
• Suitability of a structure or machine may depend on the deformations in the
structure as well as the stresses induced under loading. Statics analyses alone are
not sufficient.
• Considering structures as deformable allows determination of member forces and
reactions which are statically indeterminate.
• Determination of the stress distribution within a member also requires
consideration of deformations in the member.
• Chapter 2 is concerned with deformation of axial loaded member (structural
components subjected only to tension or compression, such as trusses, connecting
rods, columns, etc.). Change in length for prismatic bars, nonuniform bars are
determined, it will be used to solve the statically indeterminate structures, change
in length by thermal effect is also considered stresses on inclined sections will be
calculated.
4.2 Deformation of Axially Loaded Members:
1)Prismatic bars: As mentioned in Chapter 1, a
Figure 4.1: (a) elongation
prismatic bar is straight structural member having
of the prismatic bar, and
the same (or constant) cross section throughout its (b) freebody diagram of a
length.
 Consider the deformation of a prismatic bar
subjected to load P (tension) shown in Figure
4.1. The load P produces uniform elongation δ in the bar, which is said to be in tension. How can
we determine δ?
Make use of Hooke’s law and expressions for normal stress and strain as,

32
 δ
ε= .. . .(a )
i.Geometry of Deformation: normal strain(ε),  L
P
σ= . .. . .. .. .(b )
ii.Condition of Equilibrium: normal stress  A
σ
E= . .. . .. .. .(c )
iii.Material Behaviour: Hooke’s law (linearly elastic)  ε
P
σ A PL
E= = =
ε δ δ A
• Substituting Equs. (a) and (b) into Equ. (c)  L
PL
δ= .........( 4.1)
 EA , (for both tension and compression).
 EA is known as axial rigidity.
 The change in length of a member is normally very small when compared to its length.
 The stiffness k and flexibility f of a prismatic bar are defined in the same way as for a spring. Since
 Stiffness k = force required to produce a unit elongation (k = P/), while
 Flexibility f = elongation produced by a unit load (f =  / P).
 What is the stiffness k and flexibility f for a prismatic bar?
Working:
P
k=
Stiffness  δ
PL P E A
δ= ⇒ =
Now use EA δ L
P EA
∴ k= = . . .. .. .. . .(4 . 2)
δ L
δ
f=
Flexibility  P
PL δ L
δ= ⇒ =
Now using EA P EA
δ L
f = = . .. .. . .. .. . .(4 . 3)
 P EA , (for both tension and compression)

 Again, stiffness k and flexibility f are reciprocal to each other as,

1 1
k= f=
f , and k
2) Multiple Prismatic bars: As mentioned earlier, a prismatic bar of linearly elastic material is
loaded only at the ends  Its change in length can be obtained from  = PL / EA.

33
 Figure 4.2 (a)  A prismatic bar is loaded by one or
more axial loads acting at intermediate points.
Change in length of this bar  can be determined by
adding algebraically the elongations and shortenings
of the individual segments. The method to solve this
problem:
(1) Identify the individual segments.
(2) Cut each segment and consider the free-body
diagram.
(3) Determine the internal axial forces Ni, where i = ©2001 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.

number of individual segments. Ni can be determined using equilibrium (Fv = 0). Ni  Tension (+ve)
and compression (ve).
(4) Determine the changes in lengths (δi) of each segment as :
N i Li
δ i=
Ei A i , where : L = Length of each segment, E = Young’s modulus of each segment, and A =
i i i

Cross section area of each segment.

(5) Obtain the total changes in lengths () of the entire bar by adding i of each segment:
n n N i Li
δ=∑ δi =∑ . . .. .. . .. .(4 . 4 )
i=1 i=1 Ei A i ,
Where n : Total number of segments.  = Elongations (+ve) and shortenings (ve).
 This equation is true for linearly elastic materials.
 Ni  not an external load, but the internal axial force.
 This method can be used when a bar consists
of several prismatic segments and having
different axial forces with different dimensions
and materials, as shown Figure 4.3.
 Non Prismatic Bars: Are bars with continuously varying loads or dimensions, (tapered bar) as

shown in Figure 4. 4  Figure 4. 4 (a)  The load consists of two parts:

(1) Single force PB acting at the end B.

(2) Distributed forces p(x) acting along the axis.

34
 Figure 4.2
Figure
: (a)
4.3 Stepped
Bar withbarexternal
with multiple
loads
 Since the bar with continuously varying loads and loadings. points; (b) (c), and (d)
acting at intermediate
dimensions, therefore, the change in length  free-body diagrams showing the internal axial
cannot be obtained using equ.(4.4). forces N1, N2, and N3.

 However, we can determine the change in length of a ©2001 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.

Figure 4.4: (a) Bar with varying

cross-sectional area and varying
axial force.
differential element of the bar and then integrate over the length of the bar.
 Figure 4.4 (a), select a differential element at distance x from the left-hand end of the bar.
 Figure 4.4 (b) and (c)  Internal axial force N(x) acting
at this cross section can be determined from equilibrium
using either segment AC or CB as free body diagram.
 The internal axial force N(x) and cross section area
A(x) Function of distance x.
 For differential element (or extremely small element), the
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elongation d may be obtained using:

Figure 4.4: (b) Bar with varying
PL cross-sectional area and varying axial
δ=
EA force, and (c) free body of an
 Now substitute N(x) for P, dx for L, and A(x) for A, hence,
PL N ( x)
δ= ⇒ dδ = dx
EA EA ( x )
 The elongation of the entire bar can be obtained using integration over the entire length:
L L
N( x)
δ=∫ dδ=∫ dx . .. . .. .. . ..( 4 .5 )
0 0 EA( x )

 This equation is true for linearly elastic materials.

 The Procedure for analysis can be summarised as:
1) Internal force:
 Use method of sections to determine internal axial force P in the member.
 If the force varies along member’s strength, section made at the arbitrary location x from
one end of member and force represented as a function of x, i.e., P(x).
 If several constant external forces act on member, internal force in each segment, between

35
 two external forces, must then be determined.
 For any segment, internal tensile force is positive and internal compressive force is negative.
Results of loading can be shown graphically by constructing the normal-force diagram.
2) Displacement:
When member’s x-sectional area varies along its axis, the area should be expressed as a
function of its position x, i.e., A(x).
If x-sectional area, modulus of elasticity, or internal loading suddenly changes, then Eqn 4.4
should be applied to each segment for which the quantity is constant.
When substituting data into equations, account for proper sign for P, tensile loadings +ve,
compressive −ve. Use consistent set of units. If result is +ve, elongation occurs, −ve means
it’s a contraction.
Example 4.1:
Given: Aluminium [E = 70 GPa] member ABC supports a load of 28 kN, as
shown in Figure 4.5.
Find:
(a) The value of load P such that the deflection of joint C is zero.
(b) The corresponding deflection of joint B.
SOLUTION:

36
 Example 4.2:
Given: A slightly tapered bar AB of solid circular cross section and length L (Fig.ure 4. 6 a) is
supported at end B and subjected to a tensile load P at
the free end A. The diameters of the bar at ends A and B
are dA and dB respectively.
Find: The elongation of the bar due to the load P.

SOLUTION:

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37
Example 4.3:
Given: Composite A-36 steel bar (Est = 210 GPa) shown in Figure 4.7 (a) is made
from two segments AB and BD. Area AAB = 600 mm2 and ABD = 1200 mm2.
Find:
1) The vertical displacement of end A?
2) Displacement of B relative to C?
SOLUTION: Due to external loadings, internal axial forces in regions AB, BC and
CD are different. Apply method of sections and equation of vertical force
equilibrium as shown. Variation is also plotted.

[+75
PL kN](1 m)(10 )

6
δ=
[+35
+mm
[600 AE 2 kN](0.75
(210)(10 3m)(10
) kN/m
6
)2]
A
[1200+[−45
mm kN](0.5
2 m)(10
(210)(10 3
) 6
)
kN/m 2
]
=[1200
+0.61mm mm2 (210)(103) kN/m2]
[+35
P = L kN](0.75 m)(106)
δ=BC BC
= +0.104
[1200 ABCmm
AE mm
2
(210)(10 3
) kN/m 2
]

=
Example 4.4:

38
Given: A hollow steel [E = 30,000 ksi] tube (1) with an
outside diameter of 2.75 in. and a wall thickness of 0.25
in. is fastened to a solid aluminum [E = 10,000 ksi] rod
(2) that has a 2in.-diameter and a solid 1.375-in.-diameter
aluminum rod (3). The bar is loaded as shown in Figure
4.8.
Find:
(a) the change in length of steel tube (1).
(b) the deflection of joint D with respect to the fixed
support at A.
(c) the maximum normal stress in the entire axial
assembly.
SOLUTION:

39
4.3 Statically Indeterminate Structures:

40
  Statically determinate  Reactions and internal forces (axial,
shear and moment) can be determined only from the 3 equations

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of equilibrium:

∑ F v =0 ; ∑ F h=0 ; ∑ M =0
 Statically determinate  Unknown forces can be determined
without knowing the properties of the materials (such as the
Young’s modulus E).
 Statically indeterminate  Reactions and internal forces cannot
Figure 4.9 statically be found by statics alone (the 3 equations of equilibrium).
.indeterminate bars
 Hence, additional equation is needed (equation of compatibility).

Figure 4.10 (a) Analysis of a  Figure 4.9 statically indeterminate bars. Consider
statically indeterminate bar. equilibrium:
Fv = 0
RA +RB-P=0
 RA + RB = P
 One useful equation (Fv = 0)  cannot solve 2 unknowns (RA,
RB).
 Figure 4.10  Analysis of a statically indeterminate bar.
 Prismatic bar AB  Attached to rigid supports at both ends and
is axially loaded by a force P at point C.
 How to determine RA and RB?
 As mentioned earlier, one equation (Fv = 0) cannot solve the
2 unknowns (RA, RB).
 We need one more equation. How?
 Change in length of a bar   must be compatible with the
conditions at the supports.
 Supports of the bar are both fixed at the ends  Total change in
length is zero (AB = 0).
 Equation of compatibility  In this case, the change in length of
the bar must be compatible with the conditions at the supports
(AB = 0).

41
 PL
 For linearly elastic materials  ¿
AE
 Now determine RA and RB:
Working:

Example 4.5:
Figures 4.11 (a-b) show a solid circular steel cylinder S is encased in a
hollow circular copper tube C. The cylinder and tube are compressed
between the rigid plates of a testing machine by compressive forces P.
Both parts have length L.
Steel cylinder
As = Cross-sectional area
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Es = Modulus of elasticity (Young’s modulus)
Copper tube
Ac = Cross-sectional area
Ec = Modulus of elasticity (Young’s modulus)
Determine the following:
(a) Co
mpressive forces Ps in the steel cylinder and Pc in the copper
tube.
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(b) Co
Figure 4.11 Analysis of a
mpressive stresses s in the steel cylinder and c in the copper
statically indeterminate
tube.
structure.
(c) Shortening  of the assembly.
SOLUTION:

42
 4.4 Method of Superposition
• After subdividing the load into components, the principle of superposition states that the
resultant stress or displacement at the point can be determined by first finding the stress or
displacement caused by each component load acting separately on the member.

• Resultant stress/displacement determined algebraically by adding the contributions of each

component.

Conditions:

1. The loading must be linearly related to the stress or displacement that is to be determined.

2. The loading must not significantly change the original geometry or configuration of the
member

When to ignore deformations?

3. Most loaded members will produce deformations so small that change in position and
direction of loading will be insignificant and can be neglected

4. Exception to this rule is a column carrying axial load, discussed in Later.

43
Superposition principle procedure:

3.5 Thermal Stress:

Most engineering materials expand when heated and contract when cooled. The strain due to
a temperature change of ΔT is called thermal strain and is obtained by:
ε T =α ∆ T ,∧δ T =α ∆ TL … … … … . ( 3.6 )
Where ε T :T h ermal strain , α : coefficient of t h ermal expantion ,
L :original lengt h ,∧δ T :t h ermal elongation .
Total Strains: strains caused by temperature changes and strains caused by applied loads
are essentially independent.the total normal strain in a body acted on both temperature
changes and applied load is given by:
ε total=ε σ +ε T … … … … …(3.7)

Example 4.6:

Given: At a temperature of 40°F, a 0.08-in. gap exists between the ends of the two bars shown in
−6
Figure 4.12. Bar (1) is an aluminum alloy [α = 12.5 × 10 /°F] and bar ( 2) i s s t a i n l e s s s t e e l

44
 −6
[ α = 9 . 6 × 10 /°F]. The supports at A and C are rigid.

Find: The lowest temperature at which the two bars

contact each other?

SOLUTION:

Example 4.7:

45
 2.5 Stresses on Inclined Sections
• Consider the bar loaded as shown in Figure 4.13.
• Pass a section through the member forming an angle q with the
normal plane.
• From equilibrium conditions, the distributed forces
(stresses) on the plane must be equivalent to the force P.
• Resolve P into components normal and tangential to the
oblique section,

P x =P cosθ ,& P y =P sin θ .................(8)

− −

• The average normal and shear stresses on the oblique plane

are:
P
P cos θ P
−

x 2
σx = −
= = cos θ
A − A A
x
cos θ
P
P sin θ P
−

y
τ − = = = sin θ cos θ . .. . .. .. . .. .. . ..( 9 )
A A A
−

x y −

x
cos θ

• The maximum normal stress occurs when the reference plane is

P
σ max = ∧τ ' =0 . .. .. .. . ..(10 )
perpendicular to the member axis,
A0
• The maximum shear stress occurs for a plane at + 45o with
respect to the axis,
P P σ
τ max = sin 45 cos 45= =
A 2A 2 ………..(11)

46
 Example 4.8:
Given: An axial load P is applied to the 1.75 in. by 0.75 in. rectangular bar
shown in Fig.ure 4.15. The bar is subjected to an axial load of P = 18 kips.
Find: The normal stress perpendicular to plane AB and the shear stress
parallel to plane AB?
Assumptions: the bar weight is neglected.
SOLUTION:

4.7 Saint-Venant’s Principle:

• Localized deformation occurs at each end, and the
deformations decrease as measurements are taken further
away from the ends as shown Figure 4.15.
• At section c-c, stress reaches almost uniform value as
compared to a-a, b-b.
• c-c is sufficiently far enough away from P so that localized
deformation “vanishes”, i.e., minimum distance.
• General rule: min. distance is at least equal to largest
dimension of loaded x-section. For the bar, the min.
distance is equal to width of bar.
• This behavior discovered by Barré de Saint-Venant in 1855,
this name of the principle.
• Saint-Venant Principle states that localized effects caused
by any load acting on the body, will dissipate/smooth out
within regions that are sufficiently removed from location of
load. Saint-Venant’s Principle: Stress distribution may be

47
 assumed independent of the mode of load application
except in the immediate vicinity of load application points.
• Thus, no need to study stress distributions at that points
near application loads or support reactions.
4.8 Stress
Concentrations:
Force equilibrium requires magnitude of resultant
force developed by the stress distribution to be
equal to P. In other words,
1
P=∫ σ dA
A

This integral represents graphically the volume

under each of the stress-distribution diagrams
shown.
In engineering practice, actual stress distribution
not needed, only maximum stress at these sections
must be known. Member is designed to resist this
stress when axial load P is applied.
K is defined as a ratio of the maximum stress to
the nominal (average) stress acting at the smallest
cross section:
σ max
K=
σ nom
K is independent of the bar’s geometry and the
type of discontinuity, only on the bar’s geometry
and the type of discontinuity.
As size r of the discontinuity is decreased, stress
concentration is increased.
It is important to use stress-concentration factors
in design when using brittle materials, but not
necessary for ductile materials

48
 Stress concentrations also cause failure structural
members or mechanical elements subjected to
fatigue loadings.

Example 4.9:
Given: Steel bar shown in next (Figure 4.18) has
allowable stress, σallow = 115 MPa.
Find: largest axial force P that the bar can carry.
SOLUTION:
Because there is a shoulder fillet, stress-concentrating
factor determined using the graph next (Figure 4.19).
Calculating the necessary geometric parameters yields
r 10 mm
= =0.5
n 20 mm
Also,
w 40 mm
= =2
h 20 mm

Thus, from the graph, K = 1.4.

Average normal stress at smallest x-section,

P 2
σ nom= =0.005 P N /mm
20 ×10
σ allow =K σ max
N
115 2
=1.4 (0.005 p)
mm
P=16.43 ( 10 3 ) N =16.43 kN

49