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NATURAL GAS ENGINEERING Gas Compression

 Gas compression is required
 To increase the pressure of the gas
 For gas transportation through pipeline
 Reducing gas volume for shipment by tankers or for
storage
 Compressor are also required in lowering well head
pressure to increase gas production
 In processing application, compressors are required for
LNG tankers circulation of gas through process or system

Dr. Jitendra Sangwai, IIT Madras

+ve Displacement and Continueous

Types of Compressor
Compressor
 +ve Displacement: In such compressor design
 Successive volume of gas are confined within
compressor chamber at elevated at high pressure
 Pressure elevation (compression) can be achieved in
two ways
 By reducing gas volume in enclosure
 Carrying gas volume to discharge (without volume change)
and compressing the gas by backflow from discharge
system
 Continuous flow: In such compressor design
 Flowing gas stream is accelerated and subsequently
convert the velocity head into pressure head

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Reciprocating +ve displacement

Typical pressure output of compressor
compressor
 Compressor type Approx. Max. Press., psig  Two types
 Reciprocating 100,000  Single acting (single piston)
 Vane – type 400  In this case basic reciprocating compressor element is a
single cylinder compressing only on one side of piston
 Helical lobe rotary 250
 Double acting (double piston) piston
 Centrifugal dynamic 5500
 Inthis case the cylinder compresses on both side of the
 Axial flow dynamic 500 piston
 This compressor uses automatic spring loaded valve
which open only when sufficient differential
pressure is observed across the valve

Working element of reciprocating

compressor

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Rotary +ve displacement compressor Rotary +ve displacement compressor

• Rotary element is used for compression and displacement  Type-1: Vane compressor
• Compressing and displacement are affected by the positive action of rotating elements.
• Two rotor rotates in opposite direction  Maximum discharge pressure of 50 psig per stage
• Rotor do not compress the gas, they just transmit the gas from inlet to outlet
• Compression occur due to backflow into the casing  Primarily used for air compressor, vacuum pump, gas
• These compressor offers low pressure differential booster, etc.
• Can handle large amount of gas
• Easy to install operate and maintain

Rotary +ve displacement compressor Centrifugal compressor

 Type-2: Screw compressor
 The gas compression process of a rotary screw is a continuous sweeping
motion, so there is very little pulsation or surging of flow, as occurs with
piston compressors.
 Uses a rotary type positive displacement mechanism.
• Operated by transmitting energy from rotating blades to the gas by
changing momentum and pressure of the gas
• Quite common for application in upstream oil and gas industry

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Ejector Compressor design

 Compressor design problem consist of
 Determining compressor capacity
 Determining power requirement
 Three methods
 Analytical method
 Mollierdiagram
 Quick estimates

 We will focus reciprocating and centrifugal

compressor

Isothermal compressor Oil & Gas value-chain

 Various thermodynamic processes are possible during
compression:
 1. Isobaric process GAS
 2. Isochoric process
 3. Isothermal process
 4. Adiabatic process
 5. Isentropic process
 6. Reversible and irreversible process

 In isothermal compression, the temperature is kept constant as OIL

pressure increases
 Require removal of heat of compression continuously.

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Onshore Oil & Gas Production Facilities Transportation

 Oil/gas/water separation  Produced Oil & Gas are required to transport
 Produced water treatment and disposal (move out) from one part of the world to the other.
 Gas and liquids treating
 Gas compression Why?
Gas dehydration
How?


 NGL production
 Emergency flare systems

Gas trade movements

Oil trade movements

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Why oil & gas are moved out?
 Natural gas and crude oil must be moved from the production site
to refineries/gas processing plant and from there to
consumers/end-users.
 Earlier slides show the worldwide oil & gas trade movement
according to the consumption and demand in various
countries/region.
 These movements (crude and/or refined products) are made using
a number of different modes of transportation.
 Crude oil and refined products are transported across the water in tankers
and/or underwater pipelines
 On land crude oil and products are moved using pipelines, trucks, and
trains.
Crude oil tanker
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How oil & gas are moved out?
 Similarly pipelines are used to move gas from the
field to consumers.
 Gas produced from onshore and offshore facilities is
transported via gathering systems and inter- and intra-state
pipelines to residential, commercial, industrial, and utility
companies.
 Inorder to transport natural gas in areas not served by
pipelines, the gas is liquefied to reduce its volume.
 Whenthe gas is liquefied, it shrinks to l/600 of its gaseous
volume.
Oil pipeline
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Oil pipeline Pipelines Definition

A pipeline system is defined as a pipeline section extending
from an inlet point (may be an offshore platform or onshore
compressor station) to an outlet point (may be another
platform or an onshore receiving station).

Pipelines types, classification and categories Pipelines: Types

Pipelines can be categorised as:  These lines are used to transport oil from field pressure
and storage to large tank where it is accumulated for
 Onshore, and pumping into the long distance called trunk line.
 Offshore  Gathering pipelines typically consist of lines ranging
The onshore and/or offshore pipelines have THREE from 4″- 8″ inside diameter, operating pressure is higher
(3) types: than oil flow lines.
1. Trunk or gathering  Gathering system throughput varies widely
2. Transmission or transportation
depending on:
 Number of field storage tanks.
3. Distribution
 The producing capacity of well in each field.

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Trunk Lines
 From large central storage, oil is moved through large
diameter, long distance pipeline called trunk line to
refineries.
 Pump are required at the beginning of the trunk line and
pumping stations must also be spaced along the pipeline
to maintain pipeline pressure at the level required to
overcome friction, change in the elevation and other losses.
 Crude trunk lines operate at higher pressure than
gathering systems. These lines are made of steel and
individual sections are joined by welding.
 These lines are almost buried below ground surface are
coated externally to protect against corrosion.
Distribution Lines
 Distribution Pipelines - Composed of several
interconnected pipelines with small diameters, used
to take the products to the final consumer.
 Feeder lines to distribute gas to homes and businesses
downstream.
 Pipelines at terminals for distributing products to tanks
and storage facilities are included in this group.
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Transmission/Transportation
 Transportation Pipelines - Mainly long pipes with
large diameters, moving products (oil, gas, refined
products) between cities, countries and even
continents.
 These transportation networks include several
compressor stations in gas lines or pump
stations for crude and multi-products
pipelines.
 The large diameter may range from 24
to 60 inches
Distribution Lines
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Oil Pipelines
 Crude oil is collected from field gathering systems
consisting of pipelines that move oil from the wellhead
to storage tanks and treatment facilities where the oil is
measured and tested.
 Oil pipelines are made from steel or plastic tubes with
inner diameter typically from 10 to 120 cm (about 4 to
48 inches).
 Most pipelines are buried at a typical depth of about 1
- 2 meters (about 3 to 6 feet).
 From the gathering system the crude oil is sent to a
pump station where the oil delivered to the pipeline.
Oil Pipelines
 A pipeline may handle several types of crude
oil. The pipeline will schedule its operation to
ensure that the right crude oil is sent to the
correct destination.
 The pipeline operator sets the date and place
when and where the oil is received and when the
oil will arrive at its destination.
 Crude oil may also move over more than one
pipeline system as it journeys from the oil field to
the refinery or shipping port.
 Storage is located along the pipeline to ensure
smooth continuous pipeline operation.
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Oil Pipelines
 The pipeline may have many collection and delivery
points along route. Booster pumps are located along
the pipeline to maintain the pressure and keep the
oil flowing usually flows at speed of about 1 to 6
m/s.
 The delivery points may be refineries, where the oil
is processed into products, or shipping terminals,
where the oil is loaded onto tankers.
Natural Gas Pipelines
 Natural gas pipelines are used to move gas from
the field to consumers. Gas produced from
onshore and offshore facilities is transported via
gathering systems and inter- and intra-state
pipelines to residential, commercial, industrial, and
utility companies.
 For natural gas, pipelines are constructed of
carbon steel and varying in size from 2 inches
(51 mm) to 56 inches (1,400 mm) in diameter,
depending on the type of pipeline.
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Natural Gas Pipelines Gas Gathering and Transportation

 The gas is pressurized by compressor stations and is  Typical gas production facility
odorless unless mixed with an odorant where flare

required by the proper regulating body. Gas

 Most natural gas pipelines operate using a complex

automated system so that they are capable of Crude oil for treatment
operating under command of a computer system
that coordinates the operation of valves, prime
Gas reservoir
movers, and conditioning equipment.
Pipeline
Gas NGL Gas transportation to
conditioning Recovery processing consumers/industri
al

Gathering system Gathering from the wells to compression

 Radial
 Axial Compressor station

wells

 Modifications Gathering Lines

 well centered (for larger fields) flowlines

 Trunk line

Trunk line

Central gathering station

Central gathering station

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Criterion for selection Transportation

 Complex metering facility is required for gas flow  These facility mainly contents four distinct units
for individual wells simultaneously  Gathering systems
 Choice between type of gathering system is based  Compression stations
on economics  Main trunk lines

 Technical feasibility in a given geological location  Distribution lines

 Production forecast of individual wells  After initial capital investments, pipeline

 Well head flowing pressure transportation shows low operating costs
 Future development plans of the field  Once compression station is designed gathering
systems are designed

Factors affecting design of gathering systems Typical Transportation Pipeline Specifications

 Location of wells
 CO2 = less than 2%
 Amount of gas to be handled
 Availability of resources (land, etc.)  Less than 3% total inert (CO2 & N2)

 Pressure difference between the field, transmission
lines, and the target point
 Material of construction, etc.
 Water = less than 5 lbs/MMSCFWater MMSCF
 O2 = less than 10 ppmppm
 H2S = less than .25 grains (approx 4 ppmppm

 Hydrocarbon dew point = 15Hydrocarbon 15 oF

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From the well, the gas will flow into a separator

Gas production starts at the well to remove any free water and oil

Field Compression Pipelines Components

 Pipeline networks are composed of several pieces
of equipment that operate together to move
products from location to location.
 The main elements of a pipeline system are shown
in the figure on the next slide.

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Pipelines Components
Pipelines Components
 Partial Delivery Station - Known also as
Intermediate Stations, these facilities allow the
pipeline operator to deliver part of the product
being transported.
 Block Valve Station - These are the first line of
protection for pipelines.
 With these valves the operator can isolate any
segment of the line for maintenance work or
isolate a rupture or leak.
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Pipelines Components
 Initial Injection Station - Known also as Supply or Inlet
station, is the beginning of the system, where the product
is injected into the line.
 Storage facilities, pumps or compressors are usually
located at these locations.
 Compressor/Pump Stations - Pumps for liquid pipelines
and Compressors for gas pipelines, are located along
the line to move the product through the pipeline.
 The location of these stations is defined by the
topography of the terrain, the type of product being
transported, or operational conditions of the network.
Pipelines Components
 Block valve stations are usually located every 20
to 30 miles (48 km), depending on the type of
pipeline.
 Even though it is not a design rule, it is a very
usual practice in liquid pipelines.
 The location of these stations depends exclusively
on the nature of the product being transported,
the trajectory of the pipeline and/or the
operational conditions of the line.
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Pipelines Components Pipelines Installation

 Regulator Station - This is a special type of valve  Onshore
station, where the operator can release some of the  Buried
pressure from the line. Regulators are usually
located at the downhill side of a peak.  Overhead
 Final Delivery Station - Known also as Outlet  Hanging
stations or Terminals, this is where the product will
be distributed to the consumer. It could be a tank
terminal for liquid pipelines or a connection to a
distribution network for gas pipelines.

Buried Lines Overhead Lines

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Overhead Lines Pipeline Bridge

OFFSHORE LINES
Pipelines Installation
 Offshore
 On sea floor
 Buried into a trench

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Offshore Pipelines Installation Offshore Pipelines Installation

Typically done with ROVs

Pipelines Inspection Pipelines Inspection

 Crude oil contains varying amounts of wax, or
paraffin, and in colder climates wax buildup may
occur within a pipeline.
 Often these pipelines are inspected and cleaned
using pipeline inspection gauges pigs, also known as,
scrapers or Go-devils.

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Tankers Tankers Architecture

 Oil tankers, also known as petroleum tankers, are ships
designed for the bulk transport of oil.
 There are two basic types of oil tanker:
 the crude tanker and the
 product tanker
 Crude tankers move large quantities of unrefined crude oil
from its point of extraction to refineries.
 Crude oil tankers are used to transport crude oil from
fields in the Middle East, North Sea, Africa, and Latin
America to refineries around the world.
 Oil tankers are often classified by their size as well as
their occupation. Tanker sizes are expressed in terms
of deadweight (dwt) or cargo tons. The smallest
tankers are General Purpose which range from 10 to
25,000 tons.

Floating, production, storage and Offloading (FPSO) LNG Tankers

 Tankers equipped with pressurized, refrigerated, and
insulated tanks are used to transport natural gas
liquids and liquefied natural gas (LNG).
 Natural gas is liquefied at the destination point and
transported by special LNG cryogenic tankers to its
destination. At the delivery point the LNG is
re-gasified and charged into a gas pipeline system.
 In order to liquefy the gas its temperature is lowered
to -259°F (-162°C).
 Natural gas is kept in refrigerated and insulated
tanks to maintain in its liquefied state during
transport.

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Gas Gathering and Transportation Factors…

 Transmission of the gas to consumer: 4 distinct units  Factors affecting design of gathering system
 Gathering system  Location of wells
 Compression station  Availability of resources (land, etc.)
 Main trunk line  Amount of gas to be handled

 Distribution line  Distance to be transported

 After initial capital investment required, pipeline  Pressure difference between the field and transmission

transportation shows low operating cost. line.

 Material of construction, etc.
 After the compression station is designed, gathering
system is designed

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Equations Basics of flow thorough pipe

 Studies on flow of natural gas in pipelines have led  Energy balance equation (considering steady state system)
to the development of complex equation for
relating the transmission of volume of gas
transmitting through the pipeline, mainly,
 Weymouth equation
In differential form and for energy per unit
 Panhandle equation mass
 Modified Pandhandle Equation

 From these equations, various combinations of pipe

diameters and wall thickness for desired rate of gas
throughout is calculated. Using thermodynamic relations for ‘dh’ and ‘dU’ and for dw = 0

Where ‘lw’ is the energy losses due to friction,

etc.

Fanning (f’) and Moody’s (f) Friction Factor

 For inclined pipe at an angle ‘θ’ then dZ = dL sin  Fiction factor

f’ is fanning friction factor

The wall shear stress can be calculated (from pressure

forces and viscous forces) as:

Therefore, Friction head can be related to the Fanning friction factor,

In terms of pressure gradient (by multiplying /dL):
Where,

Pressure gradient due to

In case of Moody’s friction factor, which relates to Fanning friction factor as,
frictional losses
f = 4 * f’

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Reynold’s number

For Re < 2100, flow is laminar

If viscosity is expressed in cP, then Nre can be expressed as,

NRe can also be expressed as below (with proper unit conversion)

 Some base condition to measure ‘q’
Relative roughness
 Wall roughness is function of pipe material, method of
manufacturing, and environment to which it is exposed
 Relative roughness is the ratio of absolute roughness to pipe
diameter,

Therefore, NRe can be commonly expressed for all practical application

as,
Where, e is the absolute roughness

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Correlations for f
 Relative  For laminar single phase flow,
roughness for  Using Hagen-Poiseuille’s eqn,
some cases

We get,

 For turbulent single phase flow: several correlation

are used

Pipeline flow calculations

 For turbulent single phase flow: several correlation  Consider steady state flow of dry gas in constant diameter horizontal
pipeline.
are used  Pressure drop for a pipe
Drew, Koo and McAdams correlation

For smooth pipe

Blasius correlation
 Pipeline equation for a steady state flow of dry gas in const. diameter and
horizontal flow:

Colebrook and White correlation θ = 0; du/dL = 0

For turbulent flow in Integrating;
rough zone

Colebrook correlation

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Weymouth Equation
 We get; Where;  Assumption:
 Kinetic energy change is negligible and can be taken
as zero
 Flow is steady state and isothermal
 Flow is horizontal
Above equation in terms of flow rate  Heat is not transferred to or from surrounding to the
of gas at base condition Tb and Pb
gas
Value of ‘C’ as per units used in equation  No work done by the gas

 Weymouth’s equation  Previous equation can also be written as,

This is general steady state flow Where,
equation for isothermal gas flow
over pipelines (1/f) )0.5 is called as
transmission factor

In above equation Weymouth proposed that friction factor varies as

function of diameter (inches), as:

Above equation gets simplified to:

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Colebrook correlation

Solution NPS Nominal Pipe Size

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Weymouth Equation : Non-horizontal flow Possible elevation cases

 Earlier equation of Weymouth was developed for

horizontal flow where the inlet and outlet conditions are
at same elevation
 In actual practice the transmission line often deviation
from the horizontal case
 The Weymouth equation for horizontal flow is modified Case - I
for non-horizontal flow using all the assumption except
that of horizontal flow.
 The idea is to add or subtract the weight of the gas
column in the elevation from the pressure difference Gas column
between pt. 2 and
across the equivalent vertical gas column 3 in case 1
Case - II

Solution !!! Solution !!!

• Based on the hydrostatic pressure differential,
• For the height, ∆Z
• For the pressure difference, ∆P = P3 – P2
∆Z
• We can write,

Integrating using
Case - I
• One of the simplest way is to add or subtract, from one of
the point the amount of pressure equivalent to weight of the
gas column caused by the elevation difference

• And then proceed with the calculation as in case of

horizontal flow.

• The length to be taken for calculation is the actual length and

not the horizontal length

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Solution !!! Solution !!!

• In terms of gas volume formation factor, Bg:  We have Weymouth’s equation for horizontal flow
Where,
Bg = 0.02827 ZT/P (ft3/scf)

Using developed equation for ∆P , i.e.,

In terms of gas Where,

formation volume
factor

Additional equation for horizontal flow:

Case II
Panhandle A
 Panhandle A pipeline equation assume:

Friction factor, f, as: Replacing ‘f’ in Weymouth’s

∆Z
horizontal flow equation

Pipeline flow equation is then written as:

Case - II
As discussed earlier,

we make correction on P1 to
get following equation on
gas flow
In SI units, Panhandle A Eqn

With pressures in kPa

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Modified Panhandle Equation – Horizontal

Clinedinst Equation: Horizontal flow
flow: Panhandle B
 Most widely used equation for long pipe lines.  Clinedinst Equation
 This equation assumes, f, as: • This is a rigorous equation than Weymouths equation

Replacing ‘f’ in Weymouth’s

horizontal flow equation

Pipeline flow equation is then written as:

Where,

Values of integral are given in the

Handbook of Natural Gas
In SI units, Panhandle B Eqn Engineering: by, Katz et al.

Values of integrals in Clinedinst Equation Pipeline efficiency

 Reference: Handbook of Natural Gas Engineering: Katz. Et al.
 All above equations assume 100 % pipeline efficiency
 In actual practice, water, gas condensate, and sometimes
crude oil gets accumulated thereby decreasing pipeline
efficiency
 The net results calculated from all above equations are
multiplied by the efficiency factor, E
 Efficiency factor : E : Actual flow rate / Theoretical flow
rate
 E in the range of 0.85 to 0.95 represent a clean line
Casinghead Gas is natural gas
that is produced from an oil
well, (including "dissolved
gas") along with the crude oil

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Summary of equations Example

 A general form of non-iterative flow equation is
given as where

P1 = 1000 psig P2 = ???

Values of constant in above equation are given as: 20 miles

Gas flow rate

150 MMSCFD NPS: Nominal pipe size : 18 inch,
At 70 oF Wall thinkness: 0.250 inch

Example

Solutions: Given

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Gas flow in series, parallel and looped

pipelines

 It is often desired to increase throughput of a pipeline while

maintaining the same pressure drop
 This happens when new gas wells are developed in the
fields
 A solution for above is to place one or more pipeline in
parallel, either partially or whole in length, or to replace a
portion of line with larger one
 The above calculation are generally based on equivalent
length or diameter, here equivalent means both the lines will
have same capacity with same total pressure drop
 All the above equations developed, such as, Weymouth,
Panhandle A and Panhandle B equations can be used to
calculate total pressure drop across the new loop

Series Pipelines

 Weymouths equation
If a ‘L’ mile long
pipeline of diameter DA
inch operated with ∆P
= P1 – P2, is to be
As P1 – P2 to be required same (constant)
replaced by a line with
length ‘LB’ having
diameter DB. If the total
i.e.
pressure drop to be
remained constant, what Thus for transporting the given quantity of gas at given pressure drop, length is
should be the capacity proportional to the diameter raised to the power of 16/3
of the new series LB LA
Therefore, equivalent length of DA line, LA’,
pipeline? that would have the same pressure drop as
the LB mile of DB line is

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% Change in flow-rate
 Weymouths Eq
Therefore,

i.e.

As P1 – P2 to be required same (constant)

The flow rate is proportional to (1/L)0.5. the percentage change in flow rate is:

Therefore the series line is

having an equivalent
length of

Multiple Series Pipeline Multiple Series Pipeline

Total Pressure drop Total Pressure drop

Pipes in Series Pipe in Series

Le : is the
 Weymouths Eq equivalent length
…. 1

From P1 to P4 as shown in figure: Weymouth

equation can be written as …. 2
Le : is the
equivalent length

Comparing equation 1 and 2 :

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Parallel Pipelines Parallel Pipelines

Suppose a pipeline of

L mile having DA inch  qt = qA + qB
diameter is in parallel
to an another pipe of According to Weymouths Eq.
same length and with
diameter DB.
 What would be the  qh = constant [(D)16/3]0.5
resulting increase in
capacity ?  The ration qt / qA:
 It is obvious that the
new total flow rate, qt,
is the equal to the sum
of flow rate of
individual lines, as:
qt = qA + qB
% increase in flow rate

Parallel lines Parallel lines

 When length of the parallel lines are not equal  For multiple parallel lines
D1, L1, q1

According to Weymouths Eq. D2, L2, q2

D3, L3, q3
Flow rate, qh

Therefore, using Weymouths Equation

Ration of Flow rate,

% increase
in flow rate

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Looped pipelines Looped pipelines

 Many time in actual  According to Weymouth Equation

practice a part of
pipe may be in Flow rate,
parallel to another qh
pipeline, called as
looped pipelines We can write
 The looped pipeline for the given
system may be situation
represented by
series system as
shown in figure Therefore from above equation for equivalent length of looped segment, LAB′

 To obtain flow rate the looped section and unlooped section

are solved as series flow situation

Looped pipelines Multiphase flow: Gas and Liquid Flow in Pipeline

 The use of single pipeline for simultaneous flow of gas and liquid is
Therefore from above equation for quite common
equivalent length of looped segment,  Such pipeline gives and economic advantages for offshore
LAB′ applications
 Natural flow of gas and liquid also happens in case of gas
condensate or wet gas reservoir fluids, particularly at surface
facilities and GGS.
 Some cases, the crude oil enters at high pressure at one end and as
If, DAB′ = DA = DC; then, pressure decreases, the associated gas leaves out of crude oil
making the multiphase flow condition.
 Some cases, the gas flows along with a small condensate.
 The pressure drop is substantial as compared to single phase flow
and the flow can be unsteady.
 The use of flow equation for single phase flow results in inadequate
or oversized, which results in excessive cost for given pipeline
If, LA = LB; then,

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Three methods: Flanigan Correlation

 Three methods are widely used to  This method account for added pressure drop due
design pipeline with liquid and gas
flow to hills.
 It ignore any pressure recovery in the downhill
These are section
• Duckler case II – for horizontal
flow  The uphill section is treated as they affect the
• Flanigan correlation – for lifting pressure drop in the same manner as a vertical
fluids up hills and hilly terrain column with equivalent liquid amount
pipeline – doe not take into
account the angle of inclination
 Due to the presence of two phase, he used a term,
• Beggs and Brill correlation – liquid hold up’
takes angle of inclination into
account

Some terms for two phase flow: Flanigan Correlation

 Superficial velocity,  Flanigan holdup factor is calculated using,

 USL – qLiq. / A - for liquid Usg represent superficial gas velocity
 USg – qgas / A - for gas Al Ag calculate at average pressure and
temperature in the line
 Insitu velocity
 Ul = ql/Al
 Ug = ql/Ag Flanigan propose
 Fractional holdup is defined as, to use ‘Panhandle
 Hl = Al/A and Hg = Ag/A A’ equation to
 therefore, we can write, Ul = Usl/Hl and Ug = Usg/Hg calculate pressure
 When gas flows with high velocity than the liquid, then the drop due to
difference is called as slip velocity, friction based on
 Us = Ug – Ul = (Usg/Hg) - (Usl/Hl ) the gas flow rate

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Procedure for Flanigan Correlation Procedure for Flanigan Correlation

 Procedure for calculating total pressure drop  Frictional pressure drop using Pnahandle A
 Calculate Usg in ft/sec

 Determine holdup factor

 Calculate liquid to gas
HLF from figure
ratio, R, in barrels of
 Calculate pressure drop
liquid/MMSCF of gas
due to elevation using:
 Calculate Usg/R0.32 and
determine Panhandle
pipeline efficiecncy factor,
E from Figure
 Total pressure drop:
 Calculate frictional
pressure drop using
Panhandle A

Example Pipeline Economics

 Determine the size of gas gathering line to handle
60 MMSCFD of gas with an expected liquid content
of 12 BBLS per MMSCF. The length of line is 10
mile and sum of elevation difference is 500 ft. the
gas is to be delivered at the processing plant at
950 psig. The maximum delivery pressure at the
well site is 1200 psig. The average temperature in
the pipe line is 70 oF. Assume pipeline diameter as
8 inch
Given:
Specific gravity of gas = 0.65 , Z = 0.8, density of gas = 7.10 lbs/ft3, density
of liquid = 44 lbs/ft3,
 The scale of operation has considerable effect on the unit
cost.
 For ex. doubling the diameter of pipe increases capacity
more than six times, and cost by two time, so that cost per
unit delivery of fluid comes down to one third of original unit
cost. However, the other factor may also governs the
economics.
 Rate of growth in demand
Operating factor (ration of average throughput at any time to

maximum throughput during the same time period)
 Power/pumping cost
 Varying cost with time (capital and operating)
 Rates of interest
 Physical/geographical difficulties in construction of pipeline

33
 21-04-2023

Thorough put curves

 At any q1, there is
certain diameter at
which the cost is
minimum. NATURAL GAS PROCESSING
 In this caser of q1 it
is D2.
 Cost would be
minimal at some
through put q2.

Jitendra Sangwai

Field treatment of a gas project

Natural Gas Field treatment of a gas project could be divided into two main stages

1. Stage I, known as gas treatment or gas conditioning

2. Stage II, known as gas processing
Non-Hydrocarbon Hydrocarbon
(Sour Gas)

What is Sour Gas?

Sour Gas is acidic gases such as Carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide.

34
 21-04-2023

Some of the impurities…

• All of the H2S and most of the water vapor, CO2, and N2 must be removed from the gas.
Gas compression is often required during these various processing steps.
• To illustrate this point, a sour gas leaving a gas–oil separation plant (GOSP) might
require first the use of an amine unit (MEA) to remove the acidic gases, a glycol unit
(TEG) to dehydrate it, and a gas compressor to compress it before it can be sold.

To recover and separate NGL from a bulk of a gas stream would require a change in
phase; that is, a new phase has to be developed for separation to take place by using one
of the following:

1. An energy-separating agent; examples are refrigeration for partial or total liquefaction

and fractionation.
2. A mass-separating agent; examples are adsorption and absorption (using selective
hydrocarbons, 100–180 molecular weight).

Natural Gas Sweetening

• Natural gas with H2S or other sulfur compounds (such as COS, CS2 and mercaptans) is
called ‘‘sour gas,’’ whereas gas with only CO2 is called ‘‘sweet gas.’’
• It is usually desirable to remove both H2S and CO2 to prevent corrosion problems and
to increase heating value of the gas.

Sweetening of natural gas is one of the most important steps in gas processing for the
following reasons:

1. Health hazards.

At 0.13 ppm, H2S can be sensed by smell. At 4.6 ppm, the smell is quite noticeable. As
the concentration increases beyond 200 ppm, the sense of smell fatigues, and the gas
can no longer be detected by odor. At 500 ppm, breathing problems are observed and
death can be expected in minutes. At 1000 ppm, death occurs immediately.

35
 21-04-2023

2. Sales contracts.

Three of the most important natural gas pipeline specification are related to sulfur content,
as shown in Table. Such contracts depend on negotiations, but they are quite strict about
H2S content.

1 grain = 17.14 parts per million (ppm)

3. Corrosion problems.

If the partial pressure of CO2 exceeds 15 psia, inhibitors usually can only be used to
prevent corrosion. The partial pressure of CO2 depends on the mole fraction of CO2 in
the gas and the natural gas pressure. Corrosion rates will also depend on temperature.
Special metallurgy should be used if CO2 partial pressure exceeds 15 psia. The presence
of H2S will cause metal embrittlement due to the stresses formed around metal sulfides
formed.

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 21-04-2023

Absorption Adsorption

Pipeline Specification (Typical)

Oxygen 10 ppm
Nitrogen 3 %
CO2 2-3% pipeline to 100 ppm for LPG plant feed
H2S low as 4 ppm for pipeline higher for fuel gas
CS2, COS, RSH 20 grains/100 scf

GAS-SWEETENING PROCESSES
1. Batch solid bed absorption. For complete removal of H2S at low concentrations, the
following materials can be used: iron sponge, molecular sieve, and zinc oxide. If the
reactants are discarded, then this method is suitable for removing a small amount of
sulfur when gas flow rate is low and/or H2S concentration is also low.
2. Reactive solvents. MEA (monoethanol amine), DEA (diethanol amine), DGA (diglycol
amine), DIPA (di-isopropanol amine), hot potassium carbonate, and mixed solvents.
These solutions are used to remove large amounts of H2S and CO2 and the solvents are
regenerated.
3. Physical solvents. Selexol, Recitisol, Purisol, and Fluor solvent. They are mostly used
to remove CO2 and are regenerated.
4. Direct oxidation to sulfur. Stretford, Sulferox LOCAT, and Claus. These processes
eliminate H2S emissions.
5. Membranes. This is used for very high CO2 concentrations. AVIR, Air Products, Cynara
(Dow), DuPont, Grace, International Permeation, and Monsanto are some of these
processes.

37

Zinc Oxide
 Zinc oxide can be used instead of iron oxide for the removal of H2S, COS, CS2, and
mercaptans.
 However, this material is a better sorbent and the exit H2S concentration can be as low
as 1 ppm at a temperature of about 300 C.
 The zinc oxide reacts with H2S to form water and zinc sulfide:
• A major drawback of zinc oxide is that it is not possible to regenerate it to zinc oxide
on site, because active surface diminishes appreciably by sintering.
• Much of the mechanical strength of the solid bed is lost due to fines formation,
resulting in a high-pressure-drop operation.
• The process has been decreasing in use due to the above problems and the difficulty
of disposing of zinc sulfide; Zn is considered a heavy metal.
21-04-2023
Iron Sponge Process
• This process is applied to sour gases with low H2S concentrations (300 ppm)
operating at low to moderate pressures (50–500 psig).
• Repeated cycling of the process will deactivate the iron oxide and the bed should be
changed after 10 cycles
Molecular Sieves
• Molecular sieves (MSs) are crystalline sodium alumino silicates and have very large
surface areas and a very narrow range of pore sizes.
• They possess highly localized polar charges on their surface that act as adsorption
sites for polar materials at even very low concentrations.
• This is why the treated natural gas could have very low H2S concentrations (4 ppm).
38
 21-04-2023

C1 , C2, H2O Dehydration/

Compression
C1 , C2, H2S, CO2 etc..
Acid Gas Adsorption is the process of removing impurities from a gas
Removal stream by means of a solid material called adsorbent that has
special attraction for the impurities.
H2S, CO2
Sulphur HC, SO2, CO2
Inlet Recovery
Separators
S
condensate (C2-C5+)
Condensate C3 , C4 Propane/Butane
Stabilization Processing

C5+ Simplified PFD for Sour Gas Processing Plant

Absorption process is used to remove a component (solute)

from the gas stream by contacting the gas with a liquid
solution (solvent).

Sweet Gas

Lean
Solvent
Choice of solvents
 High solubility.
 Low volatility.
Natural  Easy to recovery.
Gas  Low viscosity.
Rich  Low cost.
Solvent

39
 21-04-2023

LIQUID-PHASE PROCESSES
The alkanolamines are the most generally accepted and widely used
solvent for the removal of H2S and CO2 from natural gas.
 This is one of the most commonly used processes
for acid gas treatment.
 Chemical solvents are used in the form of
aqueous solution to react with H2S and CO2
reversibly and form products which can be Acid  Base  Salt  Water
regenerated by a change of temperature or
pressure or both.
H 2 S  A min e  A min e Sulfide  H 2 O
 Physical solvents can be utilized to selectively
remove sulfur compounds.
 They are regenerated at ambient temperature by CO2  A min e  A min e Carbamate  H 2 O
reducing the pressure.
 A combination of physical and chemical solvents
can be used.

 MonoEtanol Amine (MEA)

 DiEthanol Amine (DEA)
 Methyldiethanolamine (MDEA)

40
 21-04-2023

LIQUID-PHASE PROCESSES LIQUID-PHASE PROCESSES

Amine Processes
Amine Processes

• The most widely used for sweetening of natural gas are aqueous solutions of
alkanolamines.
• They are generally used for bulk removal of CO2 and H2S.
• The low operating cost and flexibility of tailoring solvent composition to suit gas
compositions make this process one of most commonly selected.
• A liquid physical solvent can be added to the amine to improve selectivity.
• Among the amines discussed here, DEA is the most common. This is may be due
to the fact it is less expensive to install and operate.

LIQUID-PHASE PROCESSES

41

LIQUID-PHASE PROCESSES
Monoethanolamine Solvent
 Monoethanolamine (MEA) is a primary amine and the strongest amine among
others. It can produce pipeline specification gas. It reacts with H2S and CO2 as
follows:
 These reactions are reversible and are forward in the absorber (at low
temperature) and backward in the stripper (at high temperature).
 Monoethanolamine will react with H2S and CO2 nonselectively. Unfortunately, it
will react irreversibly with carbonyl sulfide and carbon disulfide, which can result
in a loss of solution and a buildup of solid products in the circulating solution.
These products could also be a source of corrosion.
 The MEA process is usually using a solution of 15–20% MEA (wt%) in water.
Loading is about 0.3–0.4 mol of acid removed per mole of MEA.
LIQUID-PHASE PROCESSES
Diethanolamine Process (DEA)
 Diethanolamine (DEA) is replacing MEA and becoming the most widely used gas
sweetening solvent.
 It is a secondary amine with lower reactivity and corrosivity than MEA.
 Moreover, it reacts with COS and CS2 and the product can be regenerated.
 It has a lower vapor pressure (lower losses) and lower heat of reaction (easier to
generate) than MEA.
 The basic reactions with CO2 and H2S are the same as MEA
 A higher strength of 35% (wt) can be used because of its lower corrosivity.
 Loading up to 0.65 mol of acid gas per mole of DEA can cause fewer operational problems
than MEA because the elimination of the degradation products and the absence of a
reclaimer.
 Corrosion is less because DEA is weaker than MEA. Foaming is reduced probably due to
absence of degradation and corrosion products.
21-04-2023
LIQUID-PHASE PROCESSES
 The circulation rate is between 2 and 3 mol of MEA per mole of H2S.
 The number of trays used in absorbers in commercial units is between 20 and
25 trays.
 However, the theoretical number of trays calculated from published equilibrium
data is about three to four.
 If we assume an efficiency of 35% for each tray, then the actual number of trays
is 12.
 It has been reported that the first 10 trays pick up all of the H2S and at least
another 10 trays are of not much value.
 Thus, it is suggested to use 15 trays.
 It is recommended that MEA be used if the feed does not contain COS or CS2,
which form stable products and deplete the amine.
 If the feed has these compounds, a reclaimer must be used, where a strong
base like NaOH is used to regenerate and liberate the amine. This base has to
be neutralized later.
LIQUID-PHASE PROCESSES
Methyldiethanolamine (MDEA)
 Methyldiethanolamine (MDEA) is commonly used in the 20–50% (wt) range.
 Lower weight percent solutions are typically used in very low-pressure and
selectivity applications.
 Acid gas loading as high as 0.7–0.8 mol acid gas/mol amine are practical in carbon
steel equipment.
 Corrosion is much reduced in this case even under these high loadings.
 In the presence of oxygen, MDEA forms corrosive acids which, if not removed
from the system, can result in buildup of iron sulfide.
 Other advantages include lower vapor pressure, lower heat of reaction, higher
resistance to degradation, and high selectivity for H2S.
42
 21-04-2023

LIQUID-PHASE PROCESSES
Methyldiethanolamine (MDEA) Mixed Amines
 Mixtures of amines are generally mixtures of MDEA and DEA or MEA and are used
 The overwhelming advantage of MDEA is its selectivity for H2S in the presence of to enhance CO2 removal by MDEA. Such mixtures are referred to as MDEA-based
CO2. amines.

 At high CO2/H2S ratios, a major portion of CO2 can be slipped through the
absorber and into the sales gas while removing most of H2S.
 The enhanced selectivity of MDEA for H2S results from its inability to form
carbamate with CO2.
 Selectivity absorption of H2S can be enhanced by controlling the residence time
per tray to 1.5–3.0 s and increasing the temperature in the absorber.
 The secondary amine generally comprises less than 20% (mole) of the total amine.
 At lower MEA and DEA concentrations, the overall amine strength can be as high
as 55% (wt), without invoking corrosion problems.
 Amine mixtures are particularly useful for low-pressure applications because
MDEA becomes less capable of CO2 pickup sufficient enough to meet pipeline
specifications.

 Both of these conditions favor H2S absorption with CO2 rejection.  At higher pressures, amine mixtures appear to have little or no advantage over
MDEA.
 Mixed amines are also useful for cases where the CO2 content of the feed gas is
increasing over time due to field aging.

Hot Potassium Carbonate Process

 In this process, hot potassium carbonate (K2CO3) is used to remove both CO2 and
H2S. It can also remove (reversibly) COS and CS [Carbon disulfide (CS2) and
carbonyl sulfide (COS)].
 Good for inlet CO2 partial pressure is in the range 30–90 psi

 It can be seen from first reaction that a high partial pressure of CO2 is required to
keep KHCO3 in solution, and in second Eq., H2S will not react if the CO2 pressure is
not high.
 For this reason, this process cannot achieve a low concentration of acid gases in
the exit stream and a polishing process is needed (molecular sieve).
 An elevated temperature is also necessary to ensure that potassium carbonate and
reaction products (KHCO3 and KHS) remain in solution.
 Thus, this process cannot be used for gases containing H2S only.

43
 21-04-2023

Physical Solvent Processes Physical Solvent Processes

 Organic liquid (solvents) are used in these processes to absorb H2S (usually)
preferentially over CO2 at high pressure and low temperatures.
 Regeneration is carried out by releasing the pressure to the atmosphere and
sometimes in vacuum with no heat.

 Fluor Process
 This process uses propylene carbonate to remove CO2, H2S, COS, CS2, and H2O
from natural gas.
 Thus, in one step, the natural gas can be sweetened and dehydrated.
 Figure shows a typical process flowsheet with regeneration consisting of three flash
drums.
 The first flash drum gas containing mostly hydrocarbons is compressed and recycled.
The second flash drum derives expansion turbine. The third flash contains mainly
acid gases. The process is used to remove the bulk CO2 down to 3%.

Physical Solvent Processes

LIQUEFIED NATURAL GAS

DIPA (di-isopropanolamine)
Jitendra Sangwai

44

India : Oil and Gas Snapshot
724 Mtoe energy consumption
213 Mtoe oil consumption
25 BCM LNG imports
32 BCM domestic production
235 MTPA refining capacity
Source : BP statistical review & IGU report
Natural Gas Pipelines Network in India
• India is world’s third largest energy consumer with
724 Mtoe consumption in year 2016 and India is
expected to double its energy consumption by 2035
• India is world’s third largest consumer of oil with
213 Mtoe in year 2016. Oil demand to grow with
CAGR of 3.6% to 458 Mtoe by 2040
• India increasingly relies on imported LNG; the
country is the 4th largest LNG importer in 2016 &
accounted for 7.4 per cent of global imports
• India with 235 MTPA of refining capacity makes it
second largest refiner in Asia
• Existing pipeline connectivity of
over 16000 km with a capacity of
around 430 MMSCMD
• Pipeline networks concentrated
around existing domestic gas
fields with majority in the northern
and the western regions of the
country
• Unified tariff proposed by PNGRB
can act as an enabler for
developing natural gas
infrastructure across the region
21-04-2023
India : Oil and Gas National Targets
• More than 84% of oil and 44% of natural gas
requirement is fulfilled through import.
10% import reduction of oil
• The Prime Minister vision states that India needs to
bring down its oil import dependence by 10 per cent
of its requirement by 2022.
• Target to be achieved with increase in domestic
production, investments in upstream sector &
increase in dependency towards renewable energy
15%
share of natural • India also aims to raise the share of gas in the
energy basket to 15% from the current share of
gas in primary energy basket
6.5% by 2030
Basic Terminology
 LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas): Natural gas cooled to
–160 deg C and is in liquid state
 CNG (Compressed Natural Gas):Natural gas
compressed to high pressure(200 barg)and is in
gaseous state
 PNG (Piped Natural Gas):Natural gas compressed
to low pressure(3 barg)and is in gaseous state
 LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas):Hydrocarbon
gas(mainly Propane and Butane) in refrigerated or
in pressurized condition and is in liquid state
45
 21-04-2023

TOP 10 LNG IMPORTERS -2016 TOP 10 LNG EXPORTERS -2016

RANK COUNTRY QUANTITY %

RANK COUNTRY QUANTITY (MT) %
(MT)
1 Japan 83.34 31.61 1 Qatar 79.42 31.98
2 South Korea 34.19 12.97 2 Australia 44.88 12.01
3 China 27.42 10.40 3 Malaysia 25.08 10.19
4 India 18.99 7.20
4 Nigeria 17.78 7.95
5 Taiwan 15.07 5.72 5 Algeria 11.44 7.35
6 Spain 10.17 3.82 6 Russia 10.7 4.95
7 Egypt 7.50 2.85 7 T&T 10.46 4.82
8 UK 7.48 2.84 8 Oman 8.12 4.31
9 France 5.55 2.07 9 PNG 7.66 3.08
10 Turkey 4.59 1.74 10 Brunei 6.29 2.93
Others 49.50 18.78 Others 41.79 10.43
TOTAL GLOBAL EXPORT
263.62 100.00
TOTAL GLOBAL EXPORT 263.62 100.00

Source : GIIGNL Annual Report - 2017

Source : GIIGNL Annual Report - 2017

BCM: billion cubic meter

46
 21-04-2023

INDIA – A MAJOR GAS/LNG CONSUMER SECTORAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS

 16th largest gas consumer – 50 bcm (~132 mmscmd)
 4th largest LNG importer – 22.5 bcm (~59mmscmd)
 Economy growing at CAGR of about 6-7% with similar growth in Energy Consumption
 Government aims to increase share of Natural Gas in Indian Energy basket from 7% to
20% by 2025
 Despite increase in domestic gas production- dependency on imported gas to increase
substantially
 Pipeline network- developing into a national grid- needs to grow faster, connecting new
markets

SECTOR WISE PROJECTED GAS DEMAND (mmscmd)

350.00 1000
Power Demand
900 713
300.00 Domestic Supply

800 625
Fertilizer
250.00
700
200.00 600
City Gas 442
500
150.00 358
400
100.00 Industrial
300
50.00 200
212 231
Petchem/
140 172
0.00 Refineries / 100
2016-17 2019-20 2026-27 Interal
0
Cons.
2016-17 2019-20 2026-27 2029-30 1 Source : PPAC 186
Source : BP Statistical Review June 2017 & Vision 2030, Natural Gas Infrastructure in India
8
5

What is LNG?

 It is natural gas in liquid form.

 LNG is a Cryogenic liquid with temperature in the order of -

162 C.

 It contains in varying proportion the following compounds

 Methane (CH4)– It is the main component
 Ethane (C2H6)
 Propane(C3H8)
 Butane(C4H10)
 Traces of pentane and higher species
 Nitrogen(N2)
 Impurities such as sulphur, mercury etc. (in ppm).

 LNG is colorless

47
 21-04-2023

 The density of LNG is around 450 kg/m3.

 The boiling point of LNG is around –160C.

 The LNG flammability limits is

 Lower Flammability limit – 5%
 Upper flammability limit – 15%

 The Auto ignition temperature of LNG is 540 C

Level of Impurities Acceptable for Producing LNG What makes LNG Technology Special

Components Level  LNG is a cryogenic liquid

H2O < 1 ppm  The liquefaction process is thermodynamic rather than
chemical
CO2 < 20 TO 50 ppm  The material used in construction of equipment in
H2S < 1 to 4 ppm
contact with the low temperatures and associated
systems are specialized
MERCURY < 10 nanogram /Nm3  Cryogenic materials must be able to remain ductile at
AROMATICS (Heavy very low temperatures
< 5 to 10 ppm
Hydrocarbons)  Data on the cryogenic capabilities of material cannot be
TOTAL SULPHUR < 5-30 mg /Nm3 extrapolated. Actual testing for suitability must take
place.
Nm3: milligrams per cubic meter; The N means “normal or standard", i.e. standard
temperature and pressure (25 degrees C and 1 kPa)

48
 21-04-2023

LNG Value Chain Typical LNG Chain

Liquefaction Loading
Transfer

Gas Field Storage

Transport Transportation
(Ballasted) (Loaded)

Pumping Vaporised
Unloading LNG to Gas
Consumers
Transfer
Storage Regasification

Simplified LNG Process

49
 21-04-2023

LIQUEFACTION OF NATURAL GAS Treatment Steps

Components Method
Major Steps Involved
Solids and Liquids Inlet Separation / Filtration

 Gas Condensate Water Separation

Absorption by solvent like
CO2 / H2S
 Gas Treatment Amines, Methanol , Sulfinol
 Refrigeration (Gas Chilling) H2O
Adsorption on solid bed
 Flashing & Compression
 LNG Storage MERCURY Adsorption on solid bed

AROMATICS /Inerts Fractionation

Typical Refrigeration Cycle Typical Refrigeration Cycle

Latent Heat of refrigerant is used

50
 21-04-2023

TECHNOLOGIES FOR LIQUEFACTION

 APCI Propane Pre-Cooled mixed Refrigerant Process

 Philips Optimized Cascade Process
 Black & Veatch Prico Process
 Stat Oil / Linde Mixed Fluid Cascade Process
 Axens Liquefaction Process
 Shell Double Mixed Refrigerant Process

APCI: Air product and Chemical Incorporation

51
 21-04-2023

INDIA’S GAS INFRASTRUCTURE

Pipelines Length Designed

GLOBAL LNG SUPPLY SCENARIO TILL 2025 Chhara

(Kms) Capacity
(MMSCMD)

Existing 16150 384

Under 13821 551

Implementat
ion

Jafarbad Total 29971

700

Speculative
600 Kolkatta
Mundra
500
Possible
Digha
400 Jaigarh

300 Probable Dhamra

Dahej
200
Gangavaram
Under Construction
100 Hazira

Krishnapattam
0 Operational
2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025
Kakinada
Liquefaction Status 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025
Operational 294.76 303.21 305.36 302.03 299.73 295.72 293.11 285.21 276.99 Dabhol
Under Construction 1.37 20.96 59.9 88.4 92.83 96.57 98.97 98.92 98.28 Ennore
Probable - - 0.76 1.5 2.9 4.07 6.91 8.09 9.05
Possible - - - - - 8.89 48.45 131.42 172.68 Kochi
Speculative - - - - - 2.45 5.5 19.05 36.67
Total 296.13 324.17 366.02 391.93 395.46 407.7 452.94 542.69 593.67

LNG TERMINAL INFRASTRUCTURE IN INDIA

What is Regasification?
CAPACITY
No. TERMINAL DEVELOPERS
(MMTPA)
Existing Terminal
1 Dahej Petronet LNG Limited 15.0
2 Hazira Royal Dutch Shell, Total Gaz Electricite 5.0
3 Dabhol * GAIL,NTPC 5.0
4 Kochi Petronet LNG Limited 5.0
TOTAL EXISTING 30.0
UNDER CONSTRUCTION
1A Dahej Expansion Phase III B Petronet LNG Limited 2.5
5 Mundra GSPC, Adani 5.0
6 Ennore Indian Oil Corp, TIDCO 5.0
TOTAL UNDER-CONSTRUCTION 12.5
PLANNED
7 Dhamra Adani, IOCL, GAIL 5.0
8 Jafrabad (FSRU) Swan 5.0
9 Jaigarh H Energy 5.0
TOTAL PLANNED 15.0
PROPOSED
10 Kakinada APGDC 3.5
11 Gangavaram # Petronet LNG Limited 5.0
12 Kolkata/Digha Port H Energy 2.5
13
14
Chhara
Krishnapatnam
HPCL & Shapoorji Pallonji
LNG Bharat
5.0
2.5
It is the process of converting Liquefied Natural Gas in
TOTAL PROPOSED 18.5
Liquid state to Gaseous state by adding heat.
GRAND TOTAL 76.0
• In absence of breakwater terminal can operate at 1.3 MTPA
• # in absence of commercial commitments, plans have been put on hold

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Classification of Vaporizers Types of Vaporizers

Ambient Vaporizer
 A vaporizer that derives its heat from naturally occurring heat sources,
 Open Rack Vaporizers (ORV)
such as the atmosphere, seawater, or geothermal waters.
Heated Vaporizer
 A vaporizer that derives heat for vaporization from the combustion of fuel,
 Submerged Combustion Vaporizers (SCV)
electric power, or waste heat, such as from boilers or internal combustion
engines.
Integral Heated Vaporizer  Intermediate Fluid Vaporizers (IFV)
 A vaporizer, including submerged combustion vaporizers, in which the
 Glycol / Methanol Water System
heat source is integral to the actual vaporizing exchanger.
Remote Heated Vaporizer
 A heated vaporizer in which the primary heat source is separated from the
actual vaporizing exchanger, and an intermediate fluid (e.g., water,
 Ambient Air Vaporizers (AAV)
steam, isopentane, glycol) is used as the heat transport medium.
Process Vaporizer
 A vaporizer that derives its heat from another thermodynamic or chemical
process to utilize the refrigeration of the LNG.

Open Rack Vaporizers (ORV):

Open Rack Vaporizers (ORV)
ORV is mainly composed of Heated Vaporizer
(1) Heat Exchanger,
(2)Seawater system,
(3)Support structure.
The term "open rack" is used because the panels are
Among the componets, suspended in a rack, facilitating access for maintenance.
(3)Support structure is
composed of steel structure
and concrete structure.

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 21-04-2023

Open Rack Vaporizers (ORV) Submerged Combustion Vaporizers (SCV)

 Source of heat: Sea water • LNG flows through a stainless steel tube coil that is submerged in a
water bath which is heated by direct contact with hot flue gases from a
 Material Of Construction: Aluminium alloy submerged gas burner.
• Because of the high price of LNG, SCVs are sometimes used during
(suitable to operate at the cryogenic temperature and with high thermal
winter months to supplement other vaporizers.
conductivity which is effective for heat transfer equipment)
 Coating : Zinc alloy for corrosion protection
 For large regasification terminals where significant
amounts of water are required, in-depth evaluation
and assessment of the seawater system must be
performed
 Is the seawater quality suitable?
 Does the seawater containing significant amounts of heavy metal ions?

Glycol-Water Intermediate Fluid

Intermediate Fluid Vaporizers (IFV)
Vaporizers
• The IFV is characterized by its unique concept of three heat exchangers and the use of
intermediate fluid. Air Heater
• Thanks to the use of intermediate fluid, the IFV is not subject to freezing and has a wider
temperature range of the heating medium.
• This LNG vaporizing via intermediate fluid utilizes Heat Transfer Fluid
(HTF) in a closed loop to transfer heat to vaporize LNG GW Pump

Water Collection STV

Water to
different users

Water Pump
LNG
Glycol Water Circulation

STV: SHELL AND TUBE LNG VAPORIZERS

54
 21-04-2023

Intermediate Fluid Vaporizers

Intermediate Fluid Vaporizers (IFV)
with Rankine Cycle
 Main Application of IFV
 for FSRU (Floating Storage & Regasification Unit)
 with Cold Power Generation System
 for Seawater with High Content of Suspended Solid (SS)
 Erosion/corrosion-resistant Titanium Tubes are used
 with Circulation System of Heating Medium in Closed-
loop
 for Utilization of Cold Energy, such as
 Cold Power Generation System (with Propane Rankin Cycle,
Direct Expansion of Natural Gas, etc.)
 Intake Air Cooling for Gas Turbine to increase Power Output

Intermediate Fluid Vaporizers Ambient Air Vaporizers

(AAV)
(Propane and sea water)

55
 21-04-2023

Ambient Air Vaporizers (AAV) Type of Vaporizer

• High capital
• Minimum operating cost
• Simple operation
• Most effective where ambient temperature is high
• Large Space requirement.

• Special Design Consideration

 Recirculation of Cold air

 Generation of Fog

 Removal of condensed water

 Ice formation and regeneration

LNG CHAIN
Flow diagram of the LNG chain

56
 21-04-2023

Ship Handling:Support crafts Tugs

Tug Pilot Boat
 Assist berthing / unberthing of vessel
 Escort
 Help in turning the vessel
 Keep the vessel in position
alongside
 Emergency assistance in fire fighting
Mooring Boat
& rescue
 Other support services

Pilot / Mooring Boats Motion Freedom of Ship

 Pilot boat: for transferring pilot

 Mooring boat: for passing ship’s mooring line to jetty

 Patrol boat: speed boats used for security

57
 21-04-2023

SHIP BERTHING MOORING

 The principal requirements are:  Mooring is fastening of a vessel to a fixed object

 Ship to remain stable during all weather conditions such as a (Jetty head), or to a floating object
 Movement of ship within limits imposed on movement such as an anchor buoy.
of loading arms
 Minimum effect of met-oceanic parameters
 Mooring is often accomplished using thick ropes
called mooring lines or hawsers. The lines are
fixed to deck fittings on the vessel at one end,
How we achieve this is : By proper mooring & Fender design.
and fittings on the shore, such as bollards, rings, or
Let us see in next few slides
cleats, on the other end.

Mooring System Mooring Layout

 Steel Wires or synthetic ropes (Nylon,PP,HMPE etc)

 Holds in place & prevents drifting away from berth

 May assist in berthing / unberthing positioning

 Maintain ship’s position counteracting forces:

Wind, Current, Tide, Wave, Surge passing ships, Draft Change

Mooring Hooks

58

A typical mooring scheme
Number Name
1 Bow line
2 Forward Breast line
3 Forward spring line
4 After Spring line
5 After Breast line
6 Stern line
Fender arrangement
Type : Cell/Cone/Arch (Rubber)
Rubber bellows, supporting
chains, frontal frame & facia pads
Foam & pneumatic
Portable fenders
Design factors: Reaction Energy
absorption & Hull contact
pressure
21-04-2023
Marine Infrastructure
Purpose
Prevent backwards movement
Keep close to pier
Prevent from advancing
Prevent from moving back
Keep close to pier
Prevent forwards movement
Ship Arrival
 Tugs escort ship in constrained areas
& made fast when close to jetty
 Ship brought in position parallel to
jetty pushed alongside by tugs in
controlled way
59
 21-04-2023

Floating Storage and Regasification Unit (FSRU)/ Floating Storage Unit LNG Terminal Main Features
(FSU)
Boil off gas
Compressors Recondenser

HP Pumps

•FSRU’s are floating Flare

terminals where LNG
is stored before being
regasified.
Vaporisers
•FSRU’s have ability
to move from one
demand centre to
Unloading
another. arms

•FSRU may be LP pumps

Send out
designed to trade also
as a LNG carrier.
LNG carrier’s
pumps

LNG Jetty at Dahej Ship maneuvering

Tug Boat

Tug Boat

60
 21-04-2023

LNG Storage Tanks: 4 X 148,000 m3 LNG Storage Tanks

Capacity :1,48,000 m3
Outer Dia. : 81 m
Height : 55 m

LNG Truck Loading Facility VAPORISATION FACILITIES AT CUSTOMER’S END

Truck Loading facility at Dahej

terminal was commissioned in
August 07.

Facility can handle 2500

loadings per year

61
 21-04-2023

LNG Storage Tanks

Narrow Flammability Range of NG

62
 21-04-2023

Specific Hazards of LNG/NG Weathering

 Dispersion of vapour
 Spills & Pool fire
 Jet fire
 Flash fire
 Rapid Phase Transition
 BLEVE (A BLEVE is a boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion)
 Cold burn
 Rollover

BLEVE: A Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion is an explosion

caused by the rupture of a vessel containing a pressurized liquid that
has reached a temperature above its boiling point

Stratification Rollover Phenomenon

 LNG of different densities can form separate layers, which is known as
stratification.
- Filling of tank with LNG of different density
 Significant heat leak is possible in:
- Peak shaving plants (Peak shaving is when LNG is stored at a power
plant so that in times of peak demand the utility
can tap into the LNG in order to increase power
output to meet demand spikes.)
- In-ground tanks
- Regasification terminal if unloading lines are too long
 Stratification is initially stable and can lost for longer time
 The boil-off gas from the bottom layer is suppressed due to hydrostatic
pressure imposed on it from upper layer.
 Over the period of time top layer density increases due to weathering and
bottom layer density decreases due to increase in temperature.
 As the density of two layers approach equilibrium, the potential for
rollover increases. As two layers mix, BOG retained by lower layer releases.
 This rate is significantly greater than tanks normal boil-off rate and may be
to the tune of 10 to 30 times more.
 Depending on the severity of event , the effect can range from small
pressure rise in the tank for short period of time to a significant loss of
product over an extended period of time through tank relief valves.

63
 21-04-2023

Rollover Phenomenon Causes of Rollover

 Upper layer gradually become heavier because of evaporation.  Improper filling procedure
 Lower layer becomes lighter due to increase in temperature.  If heavier LNG filled at bottom or lighter LNG filled at
top.
Boil Off Gas

Liquid density
 Auto stratification
Lighter Layer Get Denser
Rollover
 Presence of nitrogen more than 1% in LNG causes auto
stratification .
( Top Cell )

Bottom layer
Top layer
Denser Layer Gets Lighter
( Bottom Cell )
Time
Variation of density with time

Prevention of stratification
Cold Burn

1. Top and bottom filling provision to promote natural mixing.

2. Circulation of tank contents using in-tank pumps.
3. Specify LNG with nitrogen content less than 1%.
4. Different composition of LNG to be stored in different tanks.
5. Monitoring of LNG density and temperature over tank
height.
6. Ensure LNG residence period in tank is not too long.
7. Use of software based on LNG tank thermodynamic
modelling to predict potential for rollover.

64
 21-04-2023

BLEVE: Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion

 Best wishes!!!

65
 28-03-2023

FLOW ASSURANCE PROBLEMS DURING OIL AND
GAS PRODUCTION Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai
Department of Chemical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Chennai, India – 600 036
Background
 As Petroleum Engineering drill a
well on onshore and offshore
fields, one of the prime task of
the Petroleum Engineer is to
ensure a flow of reservoir fluid
from the surface, sub-surface
condition to the separation
plant.
 As the focus for next generation
exploration and production
activities is on offshore fields,
the transportation of reservoir
fluids has become more 1

challenging

Flow Assurance FLOW ASSURANCE CONCERNS

 Flow assurance is a
relatively new term in oil
and gas industry. It refers
to ensuring successful and
economical flow of
hydrocarbon stream from
reservoir to the point of
sale.
 The term ‘Flow Assurance’ covers broadly the same meaning as
the term ‘multiphase transport technology’:
Design tools, methods, equipment, knowledge and professional
skills needed to ensure the safe, uninterrupted transport of
reservoir fluids from the reservoir to processing facilities.

1
 28-03-2023

Normal condition of the seven naturally occurring petroleum

fluids Organic Deposits
One aspect of “flow assurance” is
managing the precipitation and
deposition of these solids.
natural gas gas-condensate(NGL) light crude intermediate crude heavy oil tar sand oil shale  Asphaltenes
 Waxes
 Hydrates
 Scales
 Sulfur

G.A. Mansoori, in Downstream section of Encyclopedia of Life

Support Systems, 33 pages, UNESCO, UN, Paris, France
(2009).
.

Other reason for FA Other reason for FA

 Hydrates  Scales
Under certain conditions methane gas and water may Scale is precipitates formed in the production systems
react and form an ice-like structure called Natural gas during oil and gas recovery.
hydrates. This happens at high pressures and  The main and most common scales are inorganic salts
temperatures well above freezing. Hydrates can have like barium sulphate (BaSO4), strontium sulphate
dramatic consequences if they form a plug in the (SrSO4), calcium carbonate (CaCO3), etc.
pipeline.
 Sulphate scales are mainly due to mixing of chemically
 Corrosion incompatible waters (like sea water and formation Scales removed from oil
Carbon steel is thermodynamically unstable in water pipeline
water) while carbonate scales are due to pressure
with dissolved CO2 and H2S and the only reason that Gas Hydrate in release of waters containing high concentrations of
carbon steel can be used in oil and gas production is pipeline bicarbonate.
that the steel surface becomes covered by a protective *Petrobras
 Scaling may deteriorate permeability in the near-well
layer of corrosion products, oil, mineral scale or
zone, plug sand screens and production tubing, cause
inhibitors. The real challenge is to reduce the corrosion.
failure in valves, pumps, heat exchangers, and
separators as well as and block transportation
pipelines. Scales inside pipeline

2
 28-03-2023

Terminology: Precipitation vs. Deposition Cholesterols in PE industries

Adhesion Cohesion  Wax and

Fluid Flow asphaltenes deposits
in well tubing and
production pipelines
TUBING as the temperature
and pressure
 Precipitation is the formation of a solid phase out of a changes from
liquid phase. f (P,T, x..) bottomhole to the
 Deposition is the formation of a solid layer on a “surface”. surface conditions,
Function of (shear, surface-particle interaction, P, T, x, …) thus restricting the
 Precipitation is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for flow of crude oil.
Deposition.

SARA composition Wax NORMAL PARAFFIN

CH CH CH CH CH CH CH
12 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

CH CH CH CH CH CH CH CH
3 2 2 2 2 2 2 3

BRANCHED (ISO) PARAFFIN

CH CH CH CH CH CH CH
paraffin hydrocarbons 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

(C20 - C36) CH
3
CH
2
CH
2
CH
2
CH
2
CH
2
CH CH
3
CH
2

naphtenic hydrocarbons CH
3

(C30 - C60) CYCLOHEXYL PARAFFIN (NAPHTHENE)

CH CH CH CH CH CH CH
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

CH CH CH CH CH CH CH CH
3 2 2 2 2 2 2

CH CH
2 2

CH
2

Jitendra Sangwai, IITM, 2011

3
 28-03-2023

Wax

• The higher end HCs : Waxes

(higher paraffin, C15+
compounds), Asphaltene
(complex structures with rings
and non-HC atoms) Asphaltenes
• Cause problems during the
transportation of crude oil,
especially through cold sub-
sea pipelines.
Macrocrystalline , Microcrystalline, and
Crystal Deposit Network of Wax
Jitendra Sangwai, IIT Madras 28-Mar-23

Asphaltenes Asphaltene is a highly active non- hydrocarbon molecule which is

often present, along with many variety of hydrocarbons and non-
hydrocarbons, in petroleum. Variations of the molecular structures of
Asphaltene asphaltenes from natural sources is well documented
Asphaltenes are molecular
substances that are found in crude
oil, along with resins, aromatic
hydrocarbons, and alkanes.

Asphaltenes are the material that

are:
(1) insoluble in n-pentane (or n-
heptane) at a dilution ratio of
40 parts alkane to 1 part
crude oil and VENEZUELAN MEXICAN CANADIAN
(2) Re-dissolves in toluene. ASPHALTENE
Hypothetical structure

4
 28-03-2023

Asphaltenes - Flow Assurance Context

Heaviest and the most
polarizable components of
the crude oil.

Solubility class of
components of crude oil
Insoluble in low molecular
weight alkanes (e.g. n-
heptane), Soluble in
aromatic solvents (toluene Asphaltenes affect oil production
or benzene) Deposition in
 Reservoirs – near well bore Intervention costs –
 Arterial blockage in oil well-bores – waxes, gas hydrates and region – alter wettability.
USD 500,000 for on-shore field
asphaltenes.  Well bore. to USD 3,000,000 or more for a
 Other production facilities – deepwater well along with lost
 Asphaltenes – Special challenge - not well characterized, form
separator, flow lines, etc. production that can be more
a non-crystalline structure, deposition can occur even at
 Poison refinery catalysts. than USD 1,000,000 per Day*.
relatively high temperatures.

Asphaltenes Phase Envelopes

Wax
Envelope
Reservoir P & T

Well Profile
Hydrate
Asphaltene
Envelope
V-L Equilibrium

(a) n-C5 asphaltenes (b) n-C7 asphaltenes

Asphaltene separated from crude oil

5
 28-03-2023

Typical PT diagram of a petroleum fluid which may experience variety of phase transitions.
This diagram as a whole may not apply to all the seven petroleum fluids, but it gives a
general picture of how various phases and phase transitions may be distinguished from one
another. In this figure points 1-9 correspond to the phase transition points 1-9 in Table.

G.A. Mansoori, Int. J. Oil, Gas and Coal Technology, Vol. 2, No.
2, 2009 pp.141-167 (2009)..

Structures of Gas Hydrate Natural Gas Hydrate Potential

46 H20
molecules, 2  Natural Gas Hydrates
types of  Source of Energy
cages, small
Flow Assurance
Energy
Source


(2 no.s) and
large (6 no.s)  Transportation and Storage of Natural Gas
 Structure of Natural Gas Hydrates
136 H20  sI, sII, sH – Our main focus is on sI structure as, CH4/CO2
molecules, forms sI type structures
Assurance

2 types of
cages
 Hydrate Potential of Indian Basins
Andaman, K-G Basin, Mahanadi Basin
Flow

34 H20 GH stores 163 World Potential

molecules,
Formation Instability
m3 of gas in a 1
3 types of
cages
m3 of gas
pentagonal dodecahedron hydrate at std.
condition Gas Hydrates
23
28-Mar-23
Sloan, Nature, 2003.

6
 28-03-2023

Global Warming & Gas Resource

Relevance of Natural Gas Hydrate in FA

 Deposits in oil and gas pipelines!!!

 Gas kick in offshore drilling!!
 Storage and transport of gas!
 Cold flow in subsea pipelines?
 Gas resource (big claims)??
 Global warming (hyd. melting)???

7
 28-03-2023

Gas Hydrate Formers

24 X  136 H 2O

Dissociation Pressure

8
 28-03-2023

Formation and Dissociation of Gas Hydrate

Hydrate stability zone

Destabilization of the
phase stability is the key
to gas production from
gas hydrates.
Chemical inhibition
Thermal
stimulation
 Temperature induced
depressurization
 Pressure induced
 Chemical injection
 Replacement

Lw - Liquid Water; H - Hydrate; V - Vapor

Ref: Koh and Sloan, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res.,
2009
34

Gas Hydrate Gas Hydrate Prevention

 Location and intensity of hydrate  There are four techniques to prevent hydrate formation:
accumulations in a pipeline or well  Remove the free and dissolved water from the system with
vary and depend on: separators, glycol dehydrators, molecular sieves, or other
P
• Operating regime r Hydrate stable zone methods.
• Design e  Maintain low pressures to keep all phases fluid.
s
• Geothermal gradient  Maintain high temperatures so that hydrates do not form.
s
• Fluid composition u  Inject an inhibitor to prevent hydrate formation.
 The formation of natural gas r
e Pipeline flow condition: initiating
The first method of water removal is reliable but not viable because of
hydrates can cost a company hydrate formation
remote locations (i.e. offshore), submersion or other factors. Whereas,
hundreds of millions and lead to the reduction of pressure will be a major cost addition to long distance
catastrophic equipment breakdowns Temperature transport of hydrocarbon material.
and safety and health hazards.
Fig: Hydrate Equilibrium Graph Therefore, flow channels are frequently operated with inhibitor injection
at well followed by dehydration at downstream location.

9

Dispersants and anti-agglomerates
 The object of these chemicals is to convert water into finely dispersed
hydrate particles that can be transported in a hydrocarbon liquid. These
chemicals are typified as long-chain quaternary ammonium salts. While
three of the four branches of a quaternary nitrogen salt form as a part of
the hydrate structure, the fourth acts as a long tail that protrudes from the
hydrate structure and prevents agglomeration of the hydrates into a larger
mass. The maximum water volume is 40% of the total liquid phase.
The commercial use of dispersants began in the Gulf of Mexico in 2001, after laboratory
studies showing ΔT = 45°F sub cooling. These dispersants are particularly effective in
hydrate-plug protection upon line shut-ins and restarts.
Hammerschmidt’s Equation
K x
T 
M (1 x)
28-03-2023
Kinetic Inhibitor and Emulsifiers
Kinetic Inhibitor
 These chemicals are polymers which adsorb into partially formed hydrate
cages to keep the polymer anchored along the hydrate-crystal surface.
 Growing hydrate crystals are forced to grow around the polymer,
stabilizing the hydrates as small particles in the aqueous phase.
 Field tests have shown these chemicals to be effective at sub cooling up to
ΔT = 20°F, at dosages from 550 to 3,000 ppm in the water phase.
Emulsifiers
 These chemicals work by stabilizing small hydrate particles in an oil phase.
Some oils contain natural emulsifiers such that, even with favourable
hydrate formation conditions, the water, which might convert to hydrates, is
stabilized within the oil phase.
Hydrate Equilibrium Midgard Field Gas
10
 28-03-2023

Insulation and heating PREVENTATION AND REMOVAL OF DEPOSITS

 Because fluids come from the reservoir at high PREVENTATION

temperatures, a low cost solution is to preserve the
 Injection of paraffin inhibitor / PPD
reservoir temperature (or add heat to the line) to keep
the system out of the hydrate region.  Insulation

 There are three types of insulation listed in ascending  Heating

order of cost: coatings applied to pipes; pipe-in-pipe  Solvent
(PIP) or bundling; and vacuum-insulated pipes or pipes REMOVAL
with insulating gases.  Pigging
 Chemical
 Dispersant

Prevention of deposits
Mechanical Cleaning

 A variety of mechanical techniques including high pressure jetting,
 Combined Cleaning Programmes
milling and pigging tools are available to assist in the removal of  Where minimal system upset is dictated and a
the most stubborn deposits encountered in today's pipelines and
flowlines. combination of cleaning technologies is required, a
single cleaning train utilising for example, a
 Thermal Cleaning combination of mechanical cleaning pigs and chemical
 Wax deposits can be removed using traditional thermal, hot cleaning parcels. These specialised chemical parcels
oiling and the use of novel exothermic treatments.
may include surfactants, solvents and gels.
 Exothermic Treatments
 is designed to generate heat within a pipeline to melt and aid in
the removal of paraffin wax deposits.

11
 28-03-2023

METHODS TO FACILITATE CRUDE TRANSPORTATION

 Thermal Pre-Treatment Or Crude Conditioning  Production Chemicals:

Pour Point Depressant
 Pumping Of Hot Crude / Insulating Pipeline 

 Paraffin Inhibitor/ Wax Inhibitor

 Pumping Of Hot Crude AND Heat Tracing Pipeline  Asphaltenes Dispersant
 Dilution And Blending  Hydrate Inhibitor
 Use Of Water To Give An Emulsion  Scale Inhibitor
 Use Of Water To Form A Layer Between The Crude  Drag Reducer
And The Pipeline.  Defoamer/ Antifoam

12
 28-03-2023

What is corrosion
2

Corrosion - deterioration of a material,

CORROSION OF PIPELINES


usually a metal, because of a reaction

with its environment.
 Corrosion occurs by an electrochemical
process.
 Basically an anode (negative electrode),
By
a cathode (positive electrode), an
electrolyte (environment), and a circuit
Dr. Jitendra S Sangwai
connecting the anode and the cathode
Professor
are required for corrosion to occur.
Department of Chemical Engineering
IIT Madras  Dissolution of metal occurs at the anode
Chennai - 600036 where the corrosion current enters the
electrolyte and flows to the cathode.

The process
3 4

 If the corrosion of carbon steel is considered in very  Various reactions can occur at the cathode.
simple terms it can be explained as follows.  The cathodic reaction under ordinary atmospheric
 The steel is not homogeneous and at the initiation of or immersed conditions results in the production of
corrosion anodic and cathodic sites are formed on hydroxyl ions and the two reactions can be written
the surface of the alloy. as follows:
 In the presence of an electrolyte, small corrosion
cells are set up on the surface and at the anodic
areas iron goes into solution as ferrous ions, i.e. the
steel corrodes.

1
 28-03-2023

RATE AND FORM OF CORROSION Corrosion types

5 6

 Since the surface area of the metal must be taken into

account, the rate must be expressed as a weight loss per
unit area per unit time and typical units are (mg.dm-2d-1)
(Milligrams Per Square Decimeter Per Day (mdd), and
gm.m-2 d-1 (gmd).
 Corrosion may also be expressed as a depth of the
penetration, which can be obtained by dividing the
above units by the metal's density, expressed as mmy-1
or μm/year, or by the older more widely used units iny- 1
(ipy) or mil/y
 ( 1 mil = 10-3 in)

GENERAL ATTACK/uniform attack LOCALISED CORROSION

7 8

 This form of corrosion is the most common and is typified by steel rusting in  Metals corrode because of their thermodynamic
air.
instability in a particular environment and the
mechanisms involve the existence of anodic and
cathodic sites on the metal surface.
 Corrosion is not generally linear with time and usually—in air— it  Corrosion becomes localised at a number of anodic
decreases areas, while the general surface being
predominately cathodic.

2
 28-03-2023

Pitting Pitting
9 10

 Pitting is a form of localised attack in which small areas of the  In sea water the
surface are corroded with penetration of the alloy at these molybdenum-containing
areas. stainless steels such as
 Usually the depth of penetration into the alloy is greater than Type 316 are more
the nominal diameter of the surface corrosion. resistant to pitting than
the chromium-nickel
alloys, e.g. Type 304.
 Nickel alloys such as
'Hastelloy', and titanium Perforation of tube with millscale
are also resistant to
pitting under most
conditions.

Crevice corrosion SELECTIVE LEACHING

11 12

 Crevice Corrosion: Crevice  This form of attack is

Corrosion refers to the localized attack sometimes called de-alloying,
on a metal surface or immediately
adjacent to the gap or crevice between which explains its nature.
two joining surfaces.  Alloys are composed of
 This type of corrosion arises when a different metals and, with
crevice is formed between two surfaces certain of them, under specific
with the inside of the crevice being conditions selective leaching of
anodic to the external surface.
one metal can occur. For ex.,
 The process is basically the same for
alloys with passive films, e.g. stainless
the selective removal of iron
steel, where the high chloride in the from cast iron, known as
crevice (it can be up to 10 times that in graphitisation.
the bulk solution) and the hydrogen ions
lead to rapid breakdown of the
protective film.

3
 28-03-2023

INTERGRANULAR CORROSION VELOCITY EFFECTS ON CORROSION

13 14

 In certain environmental conditions  Erosion-corrosion

grain boundaries are much more  Erosion-corrosion can lead to the
active areas than the matrix. removal of protective films from the
surface of alloys and even removal of
 In such cases preferential corrosion the metal itself if abrasive particles are
may occur at the grain boundaries, entrained in the water.
leading to intergranular or  Impingement attack:
intercrystalline corrosion.  As its name implies, this form of attack
 Materials under extremely low occurs when solutions impinge at a
temperature or high temperature fairly high velocity on metal surfaces.
applications.
 Cavitation damage

STRESS CORROSION CRACKING FRETTING CORROSION

15 16

 Fretting corrosion is
 The general corrosion of the damage that
structural metals leads to the loss
of cross-section so eventually
occurs at the interface
they may fail under a load that of two closely fitting
they could originally sustain. surfaces when they
are subjected to slight
relative movement or
 Protective coatings are applied to steels to control the loss of metal and slip.
hence prevent mechanical failures. There are, however, situations where
the simultaneous effects of a tensile stress and corrosion are greater
than the sum of these factors acting separately.
 Their effect is described as stress corrosion cracking and can lead to
rapid failure of an alloy, unlike a structural failure arising from ordinary
corrosion over a long period.

4
 28-03-2023

BIMETALLIC CORROSION (Galvanic Corrosion) CORROSION CONTROL

17 18

 Galvanic corrosion is the degradation of one (i) Use of coatings.

metal near a joint or juncture that occurs
when two electrochemically dissimilar metals (ii) Selection of materials that will resist a particular
are in electrical contact in an electrolytic
environment. For ex. when copper is in
environment.
contact with steel in a saltwater environment. (iii) Cathodic protection.
(iv) Control or treatment of the environment.

Cathodic protection
19 20

 When different metals and alloys are joined together in an

electrolyte, one of them generally corrodes at a higher rate while the
other is protected.
 Steel generally corrodes at a greater rate under these circumstances
but when joined to certain metals, notably aluminium, magnesium and
zinc, steel is protected, and the coupled metal corrodes at an
increased rate.
 In practice, a large steel structure can be protected by attaching
blocks of such metals to it.
 The steel and the anode materials must, of course, be immersed in an
electrolyte of suitable conductivity. Similar results can be obtained by
impressing a current so that the steel potential is less than 0.56 V
compared with a standard hydrogen electrode.

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 28-03-2023

Galvanic series
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Energy Sources
Shale gaS and gaS Crude oil Nonconventional
Natural Gas Coal
hydrateS: Solar, wind, tidal, biomass

unconventional natural
gaS reSourceS Conventional Unconventional World’s Total Oil Reserve*
Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai  Easily producible  Shale gas and oil
Department of Chemical Engineering  Mostly onshore  Coal bed methane
Indian Institute of Technology Madras  Matured reservoirs  Waxy and Heavy oil
 Gas hydrates
Chennai, India – 600 036  Global estimate of 100 ×
1015 m3 of gas;
recoverable 3 × 1013 m3 of
gas; 15% recovery would
support 200 years)1 *Oilfield review, 2006
Enhanced Oil Recovery  India: 1.9 × 1015 m3 of gas2
1Boswell
and Collett, Energy Env. Sci. 2011.
Makogon et al., J. Petro. Sci. Engg. 2007.
2Collett
et al., DGH, India. 2008.

Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai

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Gas Hydrates: Opportunity for New Technologies

 Natural Gas Hydrates

Energy Source

 Flow Assurance
 Source of Energy
 Transportation and Storage of
Natural Gas
GAS HYDRATE AS ENERGY RESOURCE  Gas separation
 CO2 sequestration
 Desalination
Assurance

 Hydrate Potential of Indian

Basins
Flow

 Andaman, K-G Basin, Mahanadi

Basin
*Petrobras

Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai

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Distribution of Gas Hydrate Reserves

Global estimate of 100 × 1015 m3 of

gas;

recoverable 3 × 1013 m3 of gas; 15%

recovery would support 200 years)1

India: 1.9 × 1015 m3 of gas2

1Boswell
and Collett, Energy Env. Sci. 2011.
Makogon et al., J. Petro. Sci. Engg. 2007.
2Collett
et al., DGH, India. 2008.
Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai

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Hydrate Samples Gas Hydrate Structures

46 H20
molecules, 2
types of
cages, small
(2 no.s) and
Gas hydrate can occur as nodules, laminae, or veins within sediment. large (6 no.s)

136 H20
molecules, 2
types of
cages

34 H20 GH stores 163 m3

molecules, 3 of gas in a 1 m3 of
types of gas hydrate at std.
pentagonal dodecahedron
cages condition.

Sloan, Nature. 2003.

Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai

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Phase diagram of gas hydrates Gas Hydrates: Production Methodologies

Destabilization of the phase

Hydrate stability zone
stability is the key to gas CO2
CO2 injection CH4
production from gas
hydrates.
Chemical inhibition
Thermal
stimulation Temperature induced
Pressure induced
depressurization Chemical injection CO2
CO2 Replacement

Lw - Liquid Water; H - Hydrate; V - Vapor

Koh and Sloan, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2009.

Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai

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Shale Gas: Production Methodologies

Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai

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Shale Gas: Production Methodologies
Shale Gas Reserves in India
 Shale gas is natural gas produced from shale.
 Shale gas is one of a number of “unconventional” sources of natural
gas. • In January 2011, ONGC has discovered the
 Shale gas is found in certain types of shales at about 2,000-7,000 feet country's first shale gas reserve at Durgapur in
Burdwan district of West Bengal.
deep and has low permeability (Shale ~ 0.0001- 0.000001 md)
 George P. Mitchell is regarded as the father of the shale gas industry.
• The gas reserves are spread over 12,000
 According to the IEA, shale gas could increase technically recoverable square km in the Durgapur-Ranigunj area - is
natural gas resources by almost 50% the world's third shale gas find.

• As per the initial studies, many shale

sequences in well explored basins are found to
be promising like Damodar, Cambay, and
Krishna Godavari and Cauvery basins.

• According to ONGC estimates, India's shale

gas reserves range between 600 and 2,000
trillion cubic feet.

Hindustan Times, Jan 25, 2011

Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai

Hydraulic Fracturing for shale gas Why Fracturing ?

production
 To bypass near-wellbore damage and return a well to its
 Also called “fracking” “natural” productivity / injectivity

 A process of initiating, and subsequently propagating a  To extend a conductive path deep into a formation and thus
fracture in a rock layer, by injecting the pressurized increase productivity / injectivity beyond the natural level
fluid
 To produce hydrocarbon from
 The fracturing is done from a wellbore drilled into  Tight formation (gas)
reservoir rock formations, in order to increase the
extraction and ultimate recovery rates of oil and natural  Shales (gas)
gas

Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai

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 Objective How to fracture?
 Fluid is pumped/ forced into the
• Enhance
reservoir under high pressure
hydrocarbon
Bypassing damaged zone production  Formation collapses
 Subsequently proppants
• Increase (synthetic sand) pumped keeps
recoverable the fracture open
reserves
 Bigger area for fluid flow results
• Develop into improved productivity
Prefrac: Radial flow pattern
uneconomical
Post frac : Area greatly
increased / marginal
reserves

Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai

Types of proppants The Hydraulic Fracturing Process

Pump Pad, Slurry, & Flush (Repeat as Necessary), and Recover
 Low Strength Proppant
4. Proppant particles are mixed into additional fracturing fluid and the resulting
 Brady, Ottawa, Jordan, slurry is pumped into the reservoir, propping open the created fracture(s) so that
they will remain open and permeable after pump pressure is relieved.
Indigenous sand,
Carbo-Lite, Econoprop
 Intermediate Strength Proppant
 Carboprop, InterProp, Versaprop
 Resin Coated Proppant
+
 High Strength Proppant
 Superprop, Ultraprop, Proppant Fracturing
CarboHSP, Sintered Bauxite Fluid
Proppant is typically comprised of size-graded, rounded and nearly spherical sand, but may also be man-made particles.

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Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai

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 Pumps Blender

The Hydraulic Fracturing Process Process

Pump Pad, Slurry, & Flush (Repeat as Necessary), and Recover

Pad fluid • Creation of highly conductive

5. At the end of placing the slurry, a tubular volume of clean “Flush fluid” is path in the reservoir
pumped to Sand slurry Well • Fracture connects far
clear tubulars of proppant and the pumps are shut down reservoir with wellbore
Displacing fluid • Allows untapped hydrocarbon
to flow into the well
6. Well pressure is then bled off to allow the fracture(s) to close on the proppant. 20-100m
Propped Frac

Shale
7. The final step in a fracturing treatment is to recover the injected fluid by

Reservoir
flowing the well (load recovery.)

Shale
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Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai

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Hydraulic Fracturing Hydraulic Fracturing: How it works

(Underground source of drinking water)

Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai

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Gas-to-Liquid Technology

• Gas to liquid technology (GTL) is an refinery process, used to convert

Natural gas into longer chain hydrocarbons like gasoline, diesel,
kerosene.

• Gas to liquid technology is capable of converting gas to clean and

useful liquid hydrocarbons.

Gas-to-Liquid Technology • Typical output yield of GTL process is about 70% ultra clean diesel,
25% naphtha and 4-5% of LPG and waxes.

• The diesel produced by GTL process is crystal clear in color, of high

combustion quality, and virtually sulfur free and the sulfur content of
the GTL diesel <1 ppm (wt.) compared with 50 ppm of the conventional
diesel.

• The aromatics in the synthesis diesel are < 1% (vol.) compared with
35% (vol.) in the conventional diesel. The cetane number of the GTL
diesel is >70 while that of the ordinary diesel is < 45

Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai

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Conventional Diesel GTL Diesel Gas-to-Liquid Technology Process: Fischer Tropsch process
• Invented in 1923 by two German scientist Franz Fischer and Hanz
Tropsch.

• Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis is a set of chemical reactions that

changes a mixture of carbon monoxide gas and hydrogen gas into
liquid hydrocarbons (like gasoline or kerosene).

• F-T process is important as it it might be a way to make fuel for

cars and trucks that doesn't pollute as much as fossil fuels.

• The process to convert natural gas into liquids is divided into 3

stages:
• syngas generation
• syngas conversion
• hydro processing

• {CH4 + O2} → (2n+1)H2 + nCO → CnH(2n+2) + nH2O

Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai

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Gas-to-Liquid Technology Process: Fischer Tropsch process

• Operational temperature : 150 – 300 oC

• Operational pressure : 1 atm – 40 atm

• Rate enhancers : catalyst are used, commonly used are

cobalt and iron.

• Catalysts are sensitive to poisoning by sulphur

containing compounds.

• The sensitivity of catalyst to sulphur is more for cobalt

based catalyst than iron based catalyst.

Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai

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Gas-to-Liquid Technology Process: Commercial use Gas-to-Liquid Technology Process: Commercial use
• On 1 February 2008, an
Airbus A380 flew a three- • Pearl GTL
hour test flight between
Britain and France, using • World’s largest GTL plant
a mix of 60% standard jet by shell global in Qatar.
kerosene and 40% gas to
liquids fuel supplied by
Shell. • The first commercial
shipment from the Pearl
• 12 October 2009, a Qatar GTL was made on 13
Airways Airbus A340-600 June 2011.
conducted the world's
first commercial
passenger flight using a
mixture of kerosene and
synthetic GTL fuel in its
flight from London's
Gatwick Airport to Doha

Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai

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Gas-to-Solid Technology for Future: Gas hydrates Gas-to-Solid Technology for Future: Gas hydrates
Better solution: Semiclathrate/Clathrate Hydrates
• Natural Gas Hydrates (NGH) are
clathrates of natural gases in which the
guest molecules of natural gases are • Semiclathrate hydrates belong to the family of
trapped inside the three dimensional the gas hydrates only, but have a different lattice
lattice structure made by the host structure as compared to the gas hydrates.
water molecules.
Methane Hydrate
(https://dco.gl.ciw.edu/gordon-research-
• The natural gas hydrates are formed conference-natural-gas-hydrate-systems) • This structural difference arises because
under the presence of high pressure semiclathrate hydrates are formed when the gas
and low temperature conditions. hydrate system contains some thermodynamic
promoter like Tetra-n-butyl-Ammonium Bromide
• These typically stores 180 ft3 of gas in a (TBAB), Tetra-n-butyl- Ammonium Chloride
1 ft3 of gas hydrate volumes. (TBAC), Tetra-n-butyl- Ammonium Fluoride
(TBAF), Tetrahydrofuran (THF).
• Typically require not much lower
temperature than LNG to form. Structure of Semiclathrate Hydrates
Shimada et al. (2003)
Structure of Natural Gas Hydrates
(https://dco.gl.ciw.edu/gordon-research-conference- New Hydrate Promoters are being researched!!!
natural-gas-hydrate-systems)
Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai

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Hydrate formation towards lower pressure and higher temperature

Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai