ChapterTwo Latest

1 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed
Components of x-ray equipment
X-rays used for x-ray examinations are produced by

the x-ray machine that consists of different
component.
Important components of an x-ray set are:
Main supply voltage
Control console and Autotransformer
Filament and high tension circuit
High tension source
Exposure timers and switches
x-ray tube

How do you generate an x-ray?

Cont'
The integrated function of all components is to undertake

three fundamental processes essential for x-ray
productions
There are three basic processes for x-ray production
Thermionic emission process
Acceleration process
Deceleration process

How do you generate an x-ray?
To generate x-rays, we must have three things.

We need to have a source of electrons,
a means of accelerating the electrons at high speeds,
and
a target material to receive the impact of the electrons
and interact with them.

Cont*
• The cathode contains a small filament much the same

as in a light bulb.
• Current is passed through the filament which heats it.
The heat causes electrons to be stripped off.
• The high voltage causes these “free” electrons to be
pulled toward a target material (usually made of
tungsten) located in the anode.
• The electrons impact against the target. This impact
causes an energy exchange which causes x-rays to be
created.

Cont'
The main supply is essential to

To heat the filament
To accelerate electrons
The main supply must be connected with the x-
ray tube via
The filament circuit
The high tension circuit

Cont'
Autotransformer
major kV
selector to high voltage
Timer transformer
Circuit
primary
minor kV
Line
selector
to filament
transformer
primary
mA
regulator
Line
Compensation Autotransformer does line compensation &
kVp selection

X-Ray Console and Primary Circuits

Cont'
Important circuits of any x-ray sets are

The filament circuit
High tension circuit

Filament circuit
Modifies the incoming line power to produce the

thermionic emission from the filament wire of the x-
ray tube
The incoming line must be modified to 3-5 amperes
and 6-12 volts
Current control device regulates the amperage
supplied to the filament in the tube
Adjusted by RTs at the console
– To equivalent of mA ratings of 50,100,200,300, 400

Cont'
Filament circuit supply is drawn directly from the

main circuit supply
The current is then sent to a step down transformer
that modifies the amperage that will be sent to the
filament itself
All of the radiographer-operated controls are on the
low voltage side of the circuit to prevent operators
from high voltage shock hazards

mA
Circuits

High tension circuit
this circuit has two transformers

– A step up transformer
– An auto transformer
Accelerate electrons across the x-ray tube
Modifies incoming current to produce x-rays
Boosts voltage to range necessary produce
x-rays.

kV
Circuit

Radiographic exposure factors
Exposure Factors influence and determine the

quantity and quality of the x-radiation to which the
patient is exposed.
Radiation quantity- refers to the radiation
intensity referred to as mR or mR/ mAs.
Radiation Quality- refers to the beam
penetrability and measured in HVL.

Cont'
The radiographic exposure factors are under the

control of technologists and consists of
Penetration power of the beam (KV)
Intensity of the beam (MA)
Exposure Time ( S)

Cont..

KV
kV determines the ability for the beam to penetrate

the tissue
Penetrating power of x-ray tube is varied by changing
the high voltage.
Raising kv makes the electrons travel fast and the x-
rays produced are more penetrating
Does kV increase a beam intensity?

Effects of KV
Controls radiographic contrast

has more effect than any other factor on image
receptor exposure. why?
Controls density
influences the beam quantity.
Controls the production of scatter radiation, fog and
contrast
Influences staff and patient dose
What are effects of higher and lower KVp?

Cont'
Major kV
Selects the kVp by factors of 10
Minor kV
Selects the kVp by factors of 1
A combination of major and minor kV gives the
appropriate kVp readout for an exposure

Kilovoltage peak
It refers to the highest kilovoltage reached in

each cycle of pulsating voltage
a measure of the electrical force or presser
behind a current
potential difference is force exerted on
electrons

Cont'.
The peak value of a sine wave is the maximum

voltage (or current) it reaches.
Peak voltages occur at two different points in the
cycle.
One peak is positive, the other is negative.
The positive peak occurs at 90º and the negative peak
at 270º.
The positive and negative have equal amplitudes.

Cont'.
When kvp increases image contrast

decreases
It is the prime factor in the control of image
contrast
If affects the occurrence of photoelectric
effect.
As it increases the PEE drops and more
scattered radiation will be produced

Cont'
The greatest number of photoelectric

interaction is achieved when kvp is low and
tissue atomic number is high.
It causes high Compton to photoelectric ratio.

Over and under exposure by kV
When penetrating x-rays are increased,

Radiographic contrast will be lost
What is the problem if contrast is lost?

Too dark too light
Out of focus good image

Control of Density.
Without penetration, No x-ray image production

Without penetration, no densities on the film.
Penetration is a quality of x-ray beams & controlled
by kvp.
penetration is the opposite of attenuation
The higher kvp, the higher the penetration of the
beam
X-ray energies are inversely related to their ware
length

Use of Higher voltage
Anatomical details in all tissue thickness are

rendered as translucent densities.
Greater image sharpness may be obtained because
shorter exposures may be employed with smaller
focal spot.
The radiation does to pts is reduced as kv
increases
It causes x-ray tubes to last longer
It increases efficiency of the tube.

Select kVp based on:
Type of exam (ex. Chest vs. ribs)

Desired level of penetration
Desired film contrast
Minimizing patient dose

Patient’s Body Habitus (size)
Influences technique & density on image

Milliamperage ( MA)
It is a current passing through x-ray filament circuit

1 Ampere = 1 C/s = 6.3 x 1018 electrons/sec.
The mA selected for the exposure determines the number
of x-rays produced.
A change in mA does not affect kinetic energy of the
electrons therefore only the quantity is changed.
The numbers of x-rays are directly proportional to the mA

Effects of Milliamperage
Higher milliamperage heats the filament

Higher Temperature of the filament boiled off
more electrons
The no of x-rays produced are directly
proportional to the no of e’s
The higher the milliamperage, the more intense
is the electron beam.

Cont'
When RT increase MA, the electrons flow from cathode

to anode increases.
The Intensity of x-ray beam is directly proportional to the
milliamperage set
Patient dose is also directly proportional to the mA with a
fixed exposure time
More expensive three phase machines will have a higher
maximum mA.

Cont'
X-ray tube current is controlled through a

separate circuit called the filament circuit

Exposure Time (S)
It is the amount of time over which the beam is on

and the exposure is occurring
Long exposure time allows more electrons to flow
towards the anode and more x-rays are produced
Duration of exposure can vary from machine to
machine
Duration of exposure can vary from generator to
generator

Effects of Exposure Time (S)
Affects patient dose

Affects image sharpness
Affects life expectancy of the tube

Milliampere seconds (MAS)
MAs are one way to measure electrostatic charge.

It determines the total number of electrons.
Only the quantity of the photons is affected by
changes in the mAs
Patient dose is therefore a function of mAs
indicate the total intensity of the entire exposure.

Cont'.
MAs controls radiation:

– quantity
– optical density
– patient dose

kV
mA
- e-
+
X-rays
Filament
45
(heats up on prep.) 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed
Target
Reciprocity law
Any combination of mA and time that will give the

same mAs should provide the same optical density
on the film. This relationship is referred to as the
reciprocity law
The reaction of a photographic emulsion to light is
equal to the product of the intensity of the light and
the duration of exposure. This is known as
reciprocity law.

Relation between mA and time.
Rule1:
The MA required for a given radiographic density is
inversely proportional to the length of exposure when
the remaining factors are constant.
Original MA = New time

New MA original time

Cont'
E.g.
Assume that 10 MA and an exposure time of 0.5 sec
was employed in making a radiograph. It is desired to
decrease the exposure time to 0.05sec. What
milliamperage would need to assure a comparable
radiographic density?

Cont'.
NB
MA and time are inversely proportional to each other
milliamperage and exposure time have no direct
effect upon
– image sharpness,
– Magnification
– distortion

Console
The Console is the part of the machine that the

operator controls the operation of the x-ray
machine.
All machine console are a little different but there
are always similarities. The console is where we
control x-ray tube current and voltage.

The Console Controls
The console will have controls for:

– mA and time or mAs
– kVp
– Focal Spot
– Line Voltage Compensation
– Automatic Exposure Control

Line Voltage Compensation
Older machine have a meter to monitor the line

voltage attached to the autotransformer.
The operator can adjust the taps on the
transformer to account for low or high incoming
voltage.

Cont'
More modern units automatically adjusts for the

incoming power so a meter is not provided.
Often over looked by the operator.
Results in improper exposure.

Line voltage compensator
Autotransformer
major kV
selector to high voltage
Timer transformer
Circuit
primary
minor kV
Line
selector
to filament
transformer
primary
mA
regulator
Line
Compensation Autotransformer does line compensation &
kVp selection

Line Voltage Compensation
Cont'.
• Compensation may be
– automatic
• most new & high end equipment
– manual
• user must make adjustment
Line
Line
Compensation

Autotransformer
An autotransformer is actually the kVp selector and is

located in the control panel.
The autotransformer is designed to supply voltage of
varying magnitude to several different circuits of the x-ray
machine including both the filament circuit and high
voltage circuits.
It is a type of transformer which has one winding only
The Autotransformer with its single winding works on the
principle of self-induction

Cont'
Transform voltage from one value to another

voltage valve.
be used very successfully to step voltages both
up and down from main supply.

Cont'.
In Comparison with two winding transformers,

auto transformers are
– Smaller in size
– Economical of copper wire
– Cost less.

Voltage Control
The kV control on a x-ray system is similar to the ma

control in that it includes some type of metered display
(kilovolt meter) and a rheostat in the circuit.
The voltage being supplied to the anode is referred to as
the tube voltage, and is primarily measured in kilovolts.
Variations in the tube voltage affects the energy of the
radiation; penetrating power varies with the voltage.
KVP selectors can be placed in the circuit b/n the
autotransformer and step-up transformer.

Cont'
Increasing the tube voltage increases the speed

of the electrons interacting with the target.
energy of radiation is a function of the
wavelength. Increasing the energy results in a
shorter wavelength x-ray photon with greater
penetrating power.

On control console of the x-ray set, there must
be indication of the kv valves which are being
used
Q How does RT know what kV is applied to the
x-ray tube?
– Each settings of the selector are marked with
kilovoltage valve.
– Pre-reading kilovolt meter.

It is a voltmeter which indicates the kilovoltage
obtainable form the different kilovoltage selector.
It indicates the kilovoltage before it is reduced by
the kilovoltage drop.

Current Control
The ma control on an x-ray system commonly includes

some type of a panel meter or digital display (millimeter)
which is a rheostat connected to the circuit that allows
adjustment in tube current.
Adjusting the current being applied to the filament results
in variations in the radiation intensity.
When the tube current is varied, the number of electrons
being supplied to the anode (target) varies.

RT can control the x-ray tube current w/c is used
for the exposure.
X-ray equipment does provide indication of the
tube current during the exposure this is done by
means of a meter called milliampere meter.

It records the current passing through the x-ray
tube.
It measures the current following towards the x-
ray tube.

Cont'
mA selection
•Allows selection from available
discrete mA stations.
•Applies correct voltage to primary of
filament transformer.
Line
to filament
10 mA transformer
25 mA
50 mA mA primary
100 mA
200 mA stabilizer
300 mA
400 mA
Line
Compensation

The milliampere is a moving coil. This instrument
is accurate easy to read b/c it has a liner scale.
It cannot read alternating current and it must be
energized by current which passes through it in
one direction only.
It reads a value which is to average of the valve
in the cycle.

It is a metre and records milliampere seconds
and not milliamperage. It indicates the products
of the current flowing and the time for which it
follows.
The current is altered by altering the no of
electrons which are emitted from its heated
filament.

The milliamperes indications tell the RT that:
The x-ray tube has passed current
The exposure has taken place
The x-ray set is operating properly.

Cont'
The following indications on a milliampere or

milliampere seconds meter gives clues to a
knowledgeable RT about faults in x-ray tube.
No reading on the metre No current has
passed through tube.
Intermittent failures in the tube current so that
it comes and goes.

Cont'
High tube current above to expected one causes

noise.
When MA has very high value, the mater needle flies
hard a cross to scale and bend against the slop at the
end.
Low reading suggests that there is a faulty filament
boost for the x-ray tube so that it’s temperature is less
to produce x-ray

Location of selectors
The meters themselves are located on the

control panel, but their connections are in the
high-voltage circuit.
KVP selectors can be placed in the circuit b/n the
autotransformer and step-up transformer.
The connection for the MA meter must be in the
secondary coil of high voltage transformer to
record current flow accurately.

Cont'
The switch that opens and closes the high

voltage circuit is located between the
autotransformer and high voltage
transformer.
The switch begins and terminates the x-ray
exposure

Distance
Affects the exposure of the image receptor according to
the inverse square law.
The ISL states that the intensity of the radiation from a
point source varies inversely as the square of the
distance from the source, providing there is no absorption
or scattering by the medium.
Affects the intensity of the x-ray beam at the film

Effects of FFD
The influence of FFD on the radiographic image

reveals three important properties on:
radiographic image
the size of the image
The sharpness of the image

Effects of FFD on sharpness of image.
When FFD increases, penumbra at the edge

decreases & sharpness increases
Penumbra causes image unsharpness
What do we mean by umbra and penumbra?
greater FFD requires more MAS.
Which exposure factor should be used to
compensate reduction of intensity due to greater
FFD? MA or S? S

Effects of FFD on the size of the image
Effects of Magnification
Longer FFD reduces the size of both umbra and
penumbra by minimizing the magnifications of an
image.
shorter FFD increases the size of both umbra and
penumbra by increasing the magnifications of an
image.
What do we mean by umbra and penumbra?

Effects of FFD on Density
FFD influences intensity

Intensity directly influences radiographic density.
the relationship between distance & density
follows the “inverse square law”

Cont'
Original density = ( New FFD) 2

New density (Original FFD) 2
or
Original MAS =(New FFD) 2

New MAS (Original FFD) 2

Rule 1
The exposure time required for radiographic density is

directly proportional to the square of FFD
Original time = (Original FFD) 2

New time (New FFD) 2

Cont'
Eg. Assume that an exposure time is 10 sec

and FFD of 30 inches have been used and it is
desired to decrease the FFD to 24 inches.
What exposure time would be required?

Rule 2
The MA required for a radiographic density is directly

proportional to the square of FFD.
E.g. Assume that 50 MA and an FFD of 36 inches have
been used & it is desired to increase the FFD to 72
inches. What milliamperage would be required?

Rule 3
The MAS required to produce radiographic density is

proportional to the square of the FFD
Original MAS = (Original FFD)2

New MAS (New FFD)2

Object Film Distance
It is crucial factors in controlling radiographic image

quality.
When the object is placed on radiographic film, all the
image qualities are optimized.
The greater the OFD, the greater the penumbra and
therefore the greater the unsharpness.

Effects of FOD on Magnification
When FOD is shorter, the enlargement is minimal

Greater FOD reduce image density. Why?
M= FFD
FFD-FOD

Penumbra and Object-Image Distance

Basic terms
Density: The degree of blackness or whiteness of the film.

Contrast: the ratio of differences between two adjacent
densities on the film
Grayscale : opposite of contrast
Noise :any unwanted, useless information recorded on the
film which obscures the visibility of the desired image
It includes & Artifact

Cont'
Fog A form of noise caused to randomly

scattered radiation which carries no useful signal
or image.
Blur. The lack of sharpness or the presence of
penumbra in an image.
Umbra :Complete shadow of an object
Penumbra :partial shadow of an object

Fog or Noise

ANY QUESTIONS?


ChapterTwo Latest

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

ChapterTwo Latest

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed

Components of x-ray equipment

X-rays used for x-ray examinations are produced by

2 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed

4 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed

The integrated function of all components is to undertake

5 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed

To generate x-rays, we must have three things.

6 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed

• The cathode contains a small filament much the same

8 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed

The main supply is essential to

9 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed

10 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed

11 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed

Important circuits of any x-ray sets are

12 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed

Modifies the incoming line power to produce the

13 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed

Filament circuit supply is drawn directly from the

14 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed

15 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed

this circuit has two transformers

16 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed

17 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed

Exposure Factors influence and determine the

19 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed

The radiographic exposure factors are under the

20 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed

21 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed

kV determines the ability for the beam to penetrate

22 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed

Controls radiographic contrast

23 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed

24 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed

It refers to the highest kilovoltage reached in

25 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed

The peak value of a sine wave is the maximum

26 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed

When kvp increases image contrast

27 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed

The greatest number of photoelectric

28 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed

When penetrating x-rays are increased,

29 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed

Out of focus good image

Without penetration, No x-ray image production

31 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed

Anatomical details in all tissue thickness are

32 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed

Type of exam (ex. Chest vs. ribs)

33 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed

Influences technique & density on image

It is a current passing through x-ray filament circuit

35 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed

Higher milliamperage heats the filament

36 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed

When RT increase MA, the electrons flow from cathode

37 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed

X-ray tube current is controlled through a

38 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed

It is the amount of time over which the beam is on

39 28-Apr-16 Prepared by Ahmed Mohammed

Affects patient dose