AN ATOM

In chemistry, an atom is the basic unit of matter and the fundamental building block of
elements. It is the smallest particle of an element that retains the chemical properties of that
element. Atoms are composed of three subatomic particles:
1. Protons: Positively charged particles found in the nucleus of an atom. Each proton
carries a positive electrical charge of +1. Page |
2. Neutrons: Neutral particles also located in the nucleus of an atom. Neutrons have no 1
electrical charge and provide stability to the nucleus.
3. Electrons: Negatively charged particles that orbit around the nucleus in specific
energy levels or electron shells. Electrons balance the positive charge of the protons
and determine the chemical behavior of the atom.

The number of protons in an atom determines the atomic number of the atom and also
defines the element. For example, an atom with one proton is hydrogen (atomic number 1),
while an atom with six protons is carbon (atomic number 6). The sum of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus gives the atom's mass number (Atomic Mass).

Atoms are typically electrically neutral, meaning they have an equal number of protons and
electrons. However, atoms can gain or lose electrons, becoming ions with a net positive or
negative charge.

Atoms can combine with one another to form molecules through chemical bonding.
Example sodium combined with chlorine to form sodium chloride , Different elements can
bond together in various ways, such as sharing electrons (covalent bonding) or transferring
electrons (ionic /electrovalent bonding).

Example 1:
An atom with atomic number 92 and neutron 143 in its nucleus. What will
be the atomic mass and the number of electrons of the atom?
Solution:
Remember Mass Number = Atomic mass = Protons + Neutrons
Atomic number is the same as protons and electrons; therefore Atomic
Mass of the atom is Atomic number + Neutron = 235
And the number of electrons = Number of Protons = 92.

ISOTOPY

Isotopy, also known as isotopic substitution, refers to the phenomenon where atoms of the
same element have different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei. Isotopes are variants of an
element that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

important points about isotopy include:

1. Isotopes: Isotopes of an element share the same atomic number, which corresponds to
the number of protons in the nucleus, but they have different mass numbers due to the
varying number of neutrons. For example, carbon-12 (12C), carbon-13 (13C), and
carbon-14 (14C) are three isotopes of carbon.
2. Natural Abundance: Isotopes occur naturally and can be found in varying
proportions. The abundance of different isotopes is expressed as a percentage or a
decimal fraction. For example, carbon-12 is the most abundant carbon isotope, with a
 natural abundance of about 98.9%, while carbon-13 and carbon-14 have much lower
natural abundances.
3. Properties and Behavior: Isotopes of an element have similar chemical properties
and behaviors because they have the same number of protons and electrons, which
determine the element's chemical characteristics. However, isotopes can exhibit slight
differences in physical properties, such as atomic mass, density, and nuclear stability, Page |
due to the different number of neutrons. 2
4. Isotopic Notation: Isotopes are commonly represented using isotopic notation, which
indicates the element's symbol, mass number, and atomic number. The mass number
is written as a superscript to the left of the element's symbol, while the atomic number
is written as a subscript to the left of the element's symbol. For example, carbon-12 is
written as 12C, carbon-13 as 13C, and carbon-14 as 14C.
5. Applications (Uses of Isotopes): Isotopes have various applications in different
fields. (1) In chemistry, isotopic labeling is used to track the movement of atoms and
molecules in chemical reactions. (2) In physics and nuclear science, isotopes are used
for research, energy production, and medical imaging. (3) Additionally, isotopes are
employed in radiometric dating methods to determine the age of rocks, fossils, and
archaeological artifacts.

Some examples of isotopes in different elements:

1. Hydrogen:
o Protium (1H): The most common isotope of hydrogen, consisting of a single
proton and no neutrons.
o Deuterium (2H): An isotope of hydrogen with one neutron in addition to a
proton. It is often used as a tracer in chemical reactions and nuclear magnetic
resonance (NMR) spectroscopy.
o Tritium (3H): An unstable isotope of hydrogen with two neutrons and a proton.
It is radioactive and used in various research and industrial applications,
including as a marker in biological studies and in self-luminous exit signs.
2. Carbon:
o Carbon-12 (12C): The most abundant and stable isotope of carbon, with six
protons and six neutrons.
o Carbon-13 (13C): A stable isotope of carbon with six protons and seven
neutrons. It is used in carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonance (13C NMR)
spectroscopy to analyze the structure and composition of organic compounds.
o Carbon-14 (14C): A radioactive isotope of carbon with six protons and eight
neutrons. It is used in radiocarbon dating to determine the age of organic
materials and in archaeological and geological research.
3. Oxygen:
o Oxygen-16 (16O): The most abundant and stable isotope of oxygen, with eight
protons and eight neutrons.
o Oxygen-17 (17O): A stable isotope of oxygen with eight protons and nine
neutrons. It is used in various research applications, including studies of oxygen
transport in biological systems and investigations of Earth's climate history.
 o Oxygen-18 (18O): A stable isotope of oxygen with eight protons and ten
neutrons. It is used in studies of water sources, paleoclimatology, and metabolic
processes.
4. Uranium:
o Uranium-238 (238U): The most common isotope of uranium, with 92 protons
and 146 neutrons. It is the primary fissile isotope used in nuclear reactors and Page |
3
has a long half-life.
o Uranium-235 (235U): A less abundant isotope of uranium, with 92 protons and
143 neutrons. It is also fissile and used in nuclear reactors and the production of
nuclear weapons.
5. Chlorine:
o Chlorine-35 (35Cl): The most common and stable isotope of chlorine, with 17
protons and 18 neutrons.
o Chlorine-37 (37Cl): A stable isotope of chlorine with 17 protons and 20
neutrons. It is used in various applications, including studies of isotopic
composition, tracer experiments, and as a precursor for radiopharmaceuticals.

Calculations involving Isotope

Example 2:
39 40
An element Y with atomic number 18 exists in two isotopic forms Y and Y in the
ratio 3:2 respectively. Calculate the relative atomic mass of Y.
Solution

Since the ratio is 3:2. The first step is to add up the ratio.

Hence we have 3+2 = 5. For isotope with mass 39, we have

3/5 x 39 = 23.4

And the isotope with mass 40 it becomes

2/5 x 40 = 16.0

Adding the two gives 23.4 +16.0 = 39.4

Hence the relative atomic mass of Y is 39.4.

Example 3:

Calculate the average atomic mass of copper with the following data

Cu Mass % Abundance

63 62.9298 69.09

65 64.9278 30.91

Solution
69.09/100 x 62.9298 = 0.6909 x 62.9298 = 43.4782

30.91/100 x 64.9278 = 0.3091 x 64.9278 = 20.0692

Therefore the average atomic mass = 43.4782 + 20.0692

=63.5474 Page |
4

Electronic configuration

This refers to the arrangement of electrons in the shells (orbitals or energy

levels) of an atom. It is mainly of two types vis as vis (i) on the basis of the
structure of the atom and the spdf notation. On the basis of the structure we used
the 2,8,8,2 arrangement for the first twenty elements.

The second types of electronic configuration is the orbital Electronic

configuration

In this configuration, electrons are arranged on the shells of an atom in form of

s,p,d,f. and the basic principle of quantum mechanics follows that only specified
energy levels are possible for electrons in an atom. The energy levels are
numbered starting with the lowest as 1, the next higher as 2 and the next as 3 and
so on using the principle of 2n2 . The number of energy is known as the principle
quantum number and is represented by n. Where n =1 the number of electron is
2. Where n =2 the number of electron is 8. And so on.

RULES WHICH GOVERN ELECTRON FILLING INTO ORBITALS

Aufbua principle : Here electrons enter into orbitals in order of increasing

energy. This means that the electrons are fed into orbitals starting at the lowest
energy level before filing the higher energy levels. This principle can easily be
obtained using the illustration below

Pauli Exclusion Principles: This principle states that it is impossible for two
electrons with the same spin quantum number to be in the same orbital.

Hund’s Rule: This rule states that electrons occupy each orbital singly first
before pairing takes place in an orbital. That is electrons will fill a set of
degenerate orbitals singly by keeping their spins parallel.

Order of Energy Level

1s
2s 2p

3s 3p 3d

4s 4p 4d 4f

5s 5p 5d 5f Page |
5
6s 6p 6d 6f

7s 7p 7d 7f

Example. Write the electronic configuration of Mg, Cl and Fe with atomic

numbers 12, 17 and 26 respectively.

Mg12 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2

Cl17 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P5

Fe26 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P6 4S2 3d6

THE CONCEPT OF ELECTRON SHELLS

In an atom, electrons occupy specific energy levels or regions around the nucleus, known
as electron shells or energy levels. The concept of electron shells helps us understand the
organization of electrons and their distribution within an atom.

Some points about electron shells include:

1. Energy Levels: Electron shells are often represented by numbers or letters (e.g., 1, 2,
3 or K, L, M, N). The shells farther from the nucleus have higher energy levels. The
energy of an electron increases as it moves away from the nucleus.
2. Shell Capacity: Each electron shell has a maximum capacity for the number of
electrons it can hold. The capacity depends on the shell and follows a general pattern:
the first shell can hold up to 2 electrons, the second shell can hold up to 8 electrons,
the third shell can hold up to 18 electrons, and so on. However, after the third shell,
the capacity becomes more complex due to variations in electron sub-shells and
orbital shapes.
3. Shell Filling Order: Electrons fill the electron shells in a specific order according to
the aufbau principle, which states that electrons occupy the lowest energy level
available before moving to higher levels. This order follows the sequence of shells
and sub-shells, with some exceptions due to electron-electron repulsion and other
factors.
4. Valence Shell: The outermost electron shell of an atom is called the valence shell.
The electrons in the valence shell are known as valence electrons. Valence electrons
play a significant role in determining the chemical properties and reactivity of an
atom. Atoms with complete valence shells (reaching the maximum capacity) tend to
be stable and less likely to form chemical bonds.
5. Electron Shell Transitions: When an atom absorbs energy, such as through the
absorption of light, electrons can move to higher energy levels or shells. This is
known as an excited state. Subsequently, the electrons may release the absorbed
energy and return to their original, lower energy levels, emitting the excess energy as
light of specific wavelengths. This phenomenon is the basis for fluorescence and the
emission spectra observed in spectroscopy.
Work Exercise
. Copy and complete the table below;
Element Mass Number Atomic No. of Electrons Electronic
Number Configuration
Page |
Chlorine 35 17 18
6
Sodium 23 12 1s22s22p63s1

Molecular Mass

Molecular formula may be of an element or of a compound. Molecular formula of

a compound is normally used for determining the molecular mass of that
substance. If a substance is composed of molecule (for example : CO 2, H2O or
NH3), it is easy to calculate the molecular mass. Molecular mass is the sum of
atomic masses of all the atoms present in that molecule. Thus the molecular mass
is the sum of atomic masses of all the atoms present in that molecule. The
molecular mass of CO2 is obtained as C =1×12.0 , = 12.0 . 2( O2 ) = 2 × 16.0 . =
32.0 . Mass of CO2 = 44.0 . Hence, we write molecular mass of CO2 = 44.0.
Similarly, we obtain molecular mass of NH3 as follows: N 1×14.0 = 14.0 3( H3)×
1.08 = 3.24 . Mass of NH3 = 17.24 . Molecular mass of ammonia, NH3 = 17.24.
For substances which are not molecular in nature, we talk of formula mass. For
example, sodium chloride (denoted by formula, NaCl) is an ionic substance. For
this, we will calculate formula mass, similar to molecular mass. In case of sodium
chloride, NaCl; Formula mass = mass of 1 Na atom + mass of 1 Cl atom = 23 u +
35.5 . = 58.5 .
Worked Examples:

1. Calculate the Relative molar mass of the following;

a. Ca(OH)2 b. Na2CO3 c. H2SO4 d. NaOH
2. Calculating the percentage composition of oxygen in a – d above.
3. What is the percentage by mass of oxygen in C6H5COOH
(H = 1, C = 12, O = 16, Ca = 40, Na = 23, S = 32, C = 12)

Empirical Formula and Molecular formula.

Empirical formula of a compound is the simplest possible formula giving the ratio of atoms
in a molecule of the compound. It tells which elements are present and the simplest whole
number.

Worked Example;
1. A compound contains 7.75% hydrogen, 37.21 carbon and 55.04% chlorine. Find the
empirical formula of the compound. (H=1, C=12, Cl=35.5)
Solution
Symbol of element C H Cl
Percentage by mass 37.21% 7.75% 55.04%
Divide by RAM 37.21/12 7.75/1 =7.75 55.04/35.5 =
 =3.10 1.55
Divide by smallest 3.10/1.55 = 2 7.75/1.55 = 5 1.55/1.55= 1
ratio

There C= 2, H = 5 and Cl= 1

The Empirical Formula is C2H5Cl Page |
7

Question1: Calculate the Empirical formula of an organic compound which contains 81.8%
carbon and 18.2% hydrogen. (C=12, H=1)

Molecular formula
Molecular formula of a compound is the formula which expresses the actual number of
moles of atoms in a compound. It is the true formula of a molecule.
Example, Calculate the molecular formula of a compound whose empirical formula is CH 2O
and molar mass is 180. (H=1, C=12, O=16)

Solution
(CH2O)n = 180

(12+2+ 16)n = 180

30n = 180

30n/30 =180/30

N=6

Therefore, (CH2O)6 = C6H12O6.