CHEMICAL PLANT DESIGN AND DRAWING

JADAVPUR UNIVERSITY
Group – II
Sec on A1

Name Roll No
SAYANTAN CHOUDHURY 002010301027

RIK DULEY 002010301030

RUKSANA PARVIN 002010301031

SK WAMMED ALI 002010301033

REETI HANSDA 002010301034

SK TANJIM MOHAMMAD 002010301036

SHUBHRAJIT MONDAL 002010301037

SUDIPTA DAS 002010301040

DIPENDU GUPTA 002010301042

EKBAL HOSSAIN 002010301044

SOUNAK AGARWALA 002010301057

TAPABRATA PAUL 002010301077

ANUBHAB SAHA 002010301078

AKASH NANDAN 002010301079

1. Problem Statement
Our aim is to design a chemical process plant for the production of petrochemicals from crude
oil. The goal is to create a facility that meets the growing demand for petrochemical products
in India.

2. Introduction
In this section, we’ll provide an overview of the project and specify what we’ll be designing.
Key components of petroleum refining include the following points.
2.1. Crude Oil Refining
Crude oil, that black gold extracted from deep within the Earth’s crust, is our starting point. Its
complex mixture of hydrocarbons holds immense potential. Our task is to refine this raw
material into valuable petrochemical feedstocks.

2.2. Petrochemical Products

Our focus will lie on five pivotal petrochemicals, each a building block for modern life:
Ethylene: The cornerstone of plastics, synthetic fibres, and countless chemicals.

Propylene: A versatile compound driving polypropylene production widely used in packaging,

textiles, and automotive parts.
Benzene: Most essential compound for plastics, synthetic rubber, and pharmaceuticals.

Xylene: Used in plastics, resins, and textiles.

Petrol (Gasoline): Petrol is the lifeblood of our transportation systems. It powers cars,
motorcycles, and light trucks, allowing us to commute efficiently.

Diesel: Diesel fuels heavy-duty vehicles, including trucks, buses, trains, and construction
equipment. It’s the muscle behind transporting goods and building infrastructure. Diesel
engines are known for their torque and fuel efficiency. They’re particularly suitable for long-
haul transportation.

2.3. Competitive Landscape

2.3.1. Global Petrochemicals Market Competitors
BASF SE: A major player in the global petrochemicals market, BASF is known for its diverse
portfolio of chemicals and plastics. They invest heavily in research and development, aiming
to stay at the forefront of innovation.
BP Plc: BP has a significant presence in the petrochemicals industry. Their focus on
sustainability and commitment to reducing emissions aligns with industry trends.
Chevron Phillips Chemical Company LLC: Chevron Phillips is a leading producer of olefins
and polyolefins. They operate globally and have a strong foothold in the market.
2.3.2. India’s Petrochemical Industry Competitors
Reliance Industries Limited (RIL): RIL is a major player in India’s petrochemicals sector.
Their Jamnagar refinery complex houses one of the world’s largest integrated petrochemical
facilities. RIL’s scale, technological capabilities, and diversified product range contribute to
their dominance.
Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL): IOCL is a state-owned enterprise with a substantial
share in India’s petrochemicals market. Their extensive distribution network and strategic
investments position them as a key competitor.
LyondellBasell Industries Holdings B.V.: Although not Indian, LyondellBasell operates in
India and globally. Their expertise in polyolefins and specialty chemicals makes them a
formidable competitor.
Justifications and Insights:
Market Share: RIL holds a significant market share due to its integrated refining and
petrochemicals operations. IOCL’s extensive reach across India contributes to its competitive
position.
Technological Edge: Companies like BASF and LyondellBasell invest heavily in R&D,
allowing them to develop cutting-edge technologies and maintain a competitive edge.
Sustainability: BP and other players emphasize sustainability, which resonates with evolving
consumer preferences and regulatory requirements.
Supply Chain Integration: Chevron Phillips’ integrated supply chain and product
diversification enhance their competitiveness.
The petrochemicals industry faces intense competition globally, with players vying for market
share, technological leadership, and sustainability. India’s industry, while growing robustly,
must address supply–demand challenges and strategically position itself to capture both
domestic and global markets.

3. Market Research
3.1. Market Demand
Ethylene: Ethylene is in high demand due to its role in plastics, synthetic fibres, and chemicals.
Polyethylene (PE), derived from ethylene, dominates the plastics market. PE consumption is
driven by packaging, construction, and consumer goods. India ethylene market stood at
approximately 7.4 million tonnes in FY2023. It is anticipated to grow at a healthy CAGR of
6.12% by FY2030. Increasing demand for ethylene in manufacturing polyethylene (used for
plastic films in packaging) will drive growth.
Propylene: Polypropylene is widely used in packaging, textiles, automotive parts, and
consumer goods. India’s booming consumer market drives polypropylene demand. The India
propylene market reached 6.3 million tonnes in FY2022. It is expected to grow at a steady
CAGR of 6.01% until FY2035. Rising demand for polypropylene (used in flexible food
packaging and other plastic commodities) will drive propylene demand.
Benzene: Benzene is a versatile aromatic hydrocarbon. It’s essential for styrene production
(used in plastics and rubber) and other downstream chemicals. The India benzene market was
valued at 860.20 thousand tonnes in 2023. It is projected to exhibit robust growth, with a
CAGR of 3.90% through 2029. Benzene is used in various sectors, including consumer goods,
transportation, construction, and medical applications.
Xylene: Xylene contributes to polyester fibres, PET bottles, and other plastics. Its role in the
textile industry is often overlooked but critical. The India xylene market is projected to register
a CAGR of less than 5% during the forecast period. Xylene is used as a solvent, especially in
the production of synthetic fibres, rubber, dyes, detergents, and plastics.
Petrol (Gasoline): As of January 2024, the retail selling price (RSP) of petrol in Delhi is Rs.
96.72 per litre. India’s petrol demand growth has been robust, driven by increasing vehicle
ownership and economic activities. Nayara Energy predicts that India’s petrol demand will
grow at an annual rate of 4.7% to reach 5.5 million barrels per day (bpd) by fiscal year 2025.
Subsequently, it is expected to grow at 4% per year to reach 6.6 million bpd through 2030.
Diesel: As of January 2024, the RSP of diesel in Delhi is Rs. 89.62 per litre. Diesel remains
crucial for freight transport, industrial machinery, and backup power. India’s diesel demand
growth is projected to reach 2,46,000 barrels per day (bpd) in 2023. This revision is higher by
14,000 bpd due to robust sales reported in Asia’s second-largest economy.

3.2. Import and Export Trends

Ethylene: India imports ethylene primarily for its petrochemical industry. In 2020-21, ethylene
imports stood at approximately 1.2 million metric tons. Exports are relatively limited, as India
focuses on domestic consumption and value addition.
Propylene: India imports propylene to meet its growing demand for polypropylene (PP). In
2020-21, propylene imports were around 0.6 million metric tons. Exports are minimal, as PP
production remains a priority.
Benzene: India imports benzene for its applications in plastics, synthetic rubber, and
pharmaceuticals. In 2020-21, benzene imports reached approximately 0.5 million metric tons.
Exports are limited, as domestic consumption prevails.
Xylene: India imports xylene for its applications in plastics, resins, and textiles. In 2020-21,
xylene imports stood at approximately 0.4 million metric tons. Exports are limited, as domestic
consumption prevails.
Petrol (Gasoline): India imports crude oil, which is then refined to produce petrol. In FY 2022,
India’s petrol imports were valued at over 12 trillion Indian rupees. The country’s petrol
demand has soared due to increasing vehicle ownership and economic activities. Petrol exports
have been relatively limited, as domestic consumption remains high. India focuses on value
addition within the country rather than exporting large quantities of petrol.
Diesel: India imports crude oil, which is refined to produce diesel. In FY 2022, India’s diesel
imports reached approximately 2,46,000 barrels per day (bpd). Diesel remains crucial for
freight transport, industrial machinery, and backup power. Diesel exports are minimal, as
domestic demand prevails. India prioritizes meeting its own energy needs over exporting
diesel.

4. Location Selection for the Plant

In the realm of project planning, a pivotal aspect to deliberate upon is the judicious selection
of the plant's locale. The geographic positioning of the plant holds the potential to profoundly
influence the project's profitability and future expansibility. Without meticulous consideration
of various factors critical for an optimal plant location, the competitive advantages inherent in
the process may be nullified, or worse, rendering the plant non- operational.
Deciding on a fitting location entails a comprehensive evaluation of the accessibility of:
a) Raw Materials: Ensuring the convenient availability of requisite raw materials.
b) Sales Factors: Deliberating on market dynamics and transportation logistics.
c) Power Supply: Scrutinizing the capacity of local private or governmental power stations.
d) Fuel Supply: Guaranteeing an unfaltering and uninterrupted fuel supply.
e) Water Supply: Confirming a continual water supply from local conduits or rivers.
f) Labour Availability: Verifying that the local populace possesses the requisite skills for
gainful employment.
g) Utilities: Facilitating the straightforward transport of essential utilities.
4.1. Raw Materials Availability
Vishakhapatnam Port: The Visakhapatnam Port (also known as Vizag Port) is one of the major
ports in India. It handles a significant volume of crude oil imports. Vizag Port is well-connected
to oil-producing regions such as the Middle East and Africa. It facilitates efficient crude oil
transportation. The nearby refineries in the region (such as HPCL Visakh Refinery and
Gangavaram Port Refinery) can supply naphtha and ethylene. These refineries process crude
oil into various petrochemical feedstocks. Vishakhapatnam Port is one of the 12 major ports in
India and the only major port in Andhra Pradesh. It handles about 16% of India’s total seaborne
trade and about 11% of India’s total crude oil imports. It has a dedicated oil terminal with a
capacity of 24 MTPA and a single point mooring facility for very large crude carriers. It also
has a pipeline network that connects it to refineries and petrochemical plants in the region,
such as the HPCL Visakh Refinery and the LG Polymers India plant.

4.2. Market Proximity

Vishakhapatnam’s strategic location on the east coast provides access to both domestic and
international markets.
Vishakhapatnam Port has several advantages for the petrochemicals industry, such as:
Strategic location: It is located on the east coast of India, close to the oil-producing regions of
the Middle East and Africa. It also serves as a gateway to the fast-growing markets of Southeast
Asia and China.
Modern infrastructure: It has state-of-the-art facilities for handling, storing, and transporting
crude oil and petrochemicals. It has invested in automation, digitalization, and green initiatives
to improve its efficiency, safety, and environmental performance.
Competitive tariffs: It offers competitive tariffs for crude oil and petrochemicals handling,
compared to other major ports in India. It also provides incentives and discounts for long-term
contracts and higher volumes.
Growing Industrial Base: The city’s industrial base is expanding, attracting investments and
skilled labour.
Fig: Our selected plant location at Vishakhapatnam
4.3. Power Supply
Reliable Grid: Andhra Pradesh has a reliable power grid. The state government has been
investing in power infrastructure to meet industrial demands. The state government has assured
the plant of 24x7 quality industrial power supply, with the lowest transmission and distribution
losses in the country. The state has also planned to increase its renewable energy capacity to
18 GW by 2021-22, which will help reduce the carbon footprint of the plant and support the
sustainability goals1.
4.4. Fuel Supply
Proximity to Fuel Sources: Visakhapatnam is home to several refineries and oil terminals, such
as the Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited (HPCL) refinery, the Indian Oil Corporation
Limited terminal, and the Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited terminal. These facilities
provide a reliable and cost-effective source of fuel for the petrochemicals plant, as well as for
other industries in the region. The proximity to fuel sources also reduces the risk of supply
disruptions due to geopolitical or environmental factors.
Transport Logistics: Visakhapatnam has a well-developed transport infrastructure, including
road, rail, sea, and air connectivity. The city is connected to major national highways, such as
NH-16 and NH-26, which facilitate the movement of fuel and other goods within and outside
the state4. The city also has a railway network that links it to other major cities and ports in
India. The port also has a dedicated liquid cargo terminal for handling petroleum, oil, and
lubricants. The Visakhapatnam International Airport is another important transport hub,
offering domestic and international flights to various destinations. The transport logistics in
Visakhapatnam enable the efficient and timely delivery of fuel to the petrochemicals plant, as
well as the export of petrochemicals products to other markets.
4.5. Water Supply
Consistent Water Availability: Vishakhapatnam has a consistent water supply from local
sources and the Godavari River. The city receives an average annual rainfall of 1034 mm,
which replenishes the groundwater and surface water resources. The city also has access to the
Godavari River, which is one of the largest rivers in India and provides water for irrigation,
drinking, and industrial purposes. The Vishakhapatnam Industrial Water Supply Project
(VIWSP) was launched in 1997 to supply water from the Godavari River to the industrial areas
of Vishakhapatnam, including the Atchutapuram Industrial Park, where the new plant will be
located3. The VIWSP has a capacity of 23.5 million gallons per day (MGD) and can be
expanded to 63 MGD in the future.
Water Quality: Ensuring water quality meets process requirements is essential. The water
quality of the Godavari River is generally good, with low levels of salinity, turbidity, and
dissolved solids. However, the water quality may vary depending on the season, rainfall, and
upstream activities. Therefore, the water supply for the new plant will need to undergo
appropriate treatment and monitoring to ensure that it meets the standards for sulphuric acid
production.
4.6. Less Competition
Vishakhapatnam is a major port city and industrial hub in Andhra Pradesh, with a population
of about 2 million people. Vishakhapatnam is also home to several public and private sector
enterprises, such as Hindustan Petroleum, Rashtriya Ispat Nigam, Bharat Heavy Electricals,
and Hindustan Shipyard. These companies provide a strong industrial base and a potential
market for petrochemicals and other products.
Compared to Mumbai or Gujarat, which are the leading petrochemicals hubs in India,
Vishakhapatnam has less competition and more opportunities for growth. Mumbai and Gujarat
have a high concentration of petrochemicals players, both domestic and foreign, which creates
intense price and quality competition. Vishakhapatnam, on the other hand, has fewer players
and more untapped demand, especially in the eastern and southern regions of India.
Setting up a plant in Vishakhapatnam can also help in reducing the dependence on imports of
petrochemicals, which account for about 10 percent of the total demand in India. By producing
locally, the plant can cater to the domestic market as well as export to neighbouring countries,
such as Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar. This can help in improving the trade balance
and enhancing the self-reliance of the country.
FINAL PROCESS SELECTION OF THE PLANT
The Atmospheric Vacuum Unit (AVU) processes crude oil to produce a range of straight-run
dis llate products plus vacuum residue intended for further processing within the refinery.
The AVU comprises of three main dis lla on sec ons which are designed as a single,
integrated plant:
• Crude Dis lla on Unit (CDU)
• Naphtha Stabiliza on Unit (NSU)
• Vacuum Dis lla on Unit (VDU)
Primary separa on of crude oil is achieved in the crude dis lla on sec on (CDU). This sec on
incorporates desal ng to reduce the salt content of the crude oil. The main products from the
CDU are:
o A naphtha stream which passes to the naphtha stabiliza on sec on for further
processing.
o Kerosene which is normally routed to the Kerosene Trea ng Unit, however provision
is made to route a por on to the Diesel Hydrotrea ng Unit in case of high Sulphur
content.
o Atmospheric gas oils (light and heavy) which are combined and routed to the Diesel
Hydrotrea ng Unit. Atmospheric residue which is sent forward to the vacuum
dis lla on sec on.
The naphtha and lighter materials from the CDU pass to the Naphtha Stabiliza on Unit (NSU)
where they are separated into products, namely:
o Sour fuel gas which is sent to fuel gas via amine trea ng.
o LPG which is first treated to remove H2S and mercaptans in a separate SR LPG Treater
unit before it is returned to the NSU sec on for spli ng into separate Propane and
Butane products.
o The Butane frac on is routed as feedstock to the Alkyla on unit and/or to LPG
blending and storage. The Propane frac on is routed to LPG blending and storage.
o Stabilized naphtha is sent to hydrotrea ng and/or product blending.
The vacuum dis lla on sec on recovers addi onal dis llate materials from the atmospheric
residue feed by dis lla on under vacuum. The main products are:
o Vacuum diesel which is sent to Diesel Hydrotrea ng and/or to refinery fuel oil
blending.
o Vacuum gas oil which is sent to the VGO Hydrotreater.
o Heavy vacuum gas oil which is normally combined with VGO and sent to VGO
o Hydrotreater but may be routed to the Delayed Coker in case of high asphaltene
content.
o Vacuum residue, the bo om product, of which the majority is sent to the Delayed
Coker Unit a er sa sfying the requirement for high-Sulphur fuel oil (HSFO) supply to
for the u lity boilers.
The fuel gas trea ng sec on in the AVU receives sour waste gases from the AVU and the
Naphtha Hydrotreater Unit treat them with amine solvent to remove hydrogen sulphide (H2S)
in order to produce sweet gas for blending into the refinery’s fuel gas distribu on system.
Straight Run LPG Trea ng Unit
The Saturated LPG Trea ng Unit receives straight-run LPG from the AVU plus LPG from the
VGO Hydrotreater. These combined streams are processed to remove H2S and mercaptans in
an amine wash and caus c Merox system. The treated LPG is then returned to the AVU for
spli ng into separate Propane and Butane frac ons.
Kerosene (ATF) Treatment Unit
The Kerosene Treater Unit (KTU) processes straight-run kerosene from the AVU to produce a
sweet kerosene product. The unit employs extrac ve mercaptan oxida on technology.
Diesel Hydrotreater Unit (DHDT)
The Diesel Hydrotreater Unit (DHDT) processes straight-run gas oil (diesel) streams from the
AVU plus the Coker Light Gas Oil (CLGO) product from the Delayed Coker unit and a por on
of the Heavy Cut Naphtha (HCN) and Light Cycle Oil (LCO) from the FCC Unit in order to
produce an ultra-low-Sulphur diesel product. The primary product, High Speed Diesel (HSD)
with max. 10 ppm wt. Sulphur content is routed to diesel product storage and blending. The
unit also produces naphtha which is routed to the Naphtha Hydrotreater Unit.
VGO Hydrotrea ng Unit (VGO HDT)
The VGO Hydrotrea ng Unit (VGO HDT) pre-treats the vacuum gas oil feed to the downstream
Fluid Cataly c Cracker Unit (FCC) in order to reduce the Sulphur content of VGO sufficiently
to sa sfy downstream product quality requirements and to minimise the Sulphur dioxide
content of flue gases emi ed to atmosphere from the FCC regenerator. The feed to the VGO
HDT comprises straight-run VGO from the AVU and Coker Heavy Gas Oil (CHGO) from the
Delayed Coker Unit. The primary product from the VGO HDT is hydrotreated VGO containing
less than 1,000 ppm wt (max) Sulphur; this stream is fed directly to the FCC unit for
conversion. A secondary product is a hydrotreated diesel cut (Sulphur content 10 ppm wt.
max.) which is routed to diesel product storage and blending.
Other by-products from the VGO HDT include:
 Off-gases – routed to the refinery fuel gas system.
 MP hydrogen-rich gas – ini ally routed to Fuel gas system. Later this shall be routed
to Hydrogen Compression and Distribu on System (HCDS) PSA for recovery.
 LPG – routed to the SR LPG Treater Unit.
 Stabilised naphtha – routed to naphtha and gasoline product storage and blending.
Fluid Cataly c Cracking Unit (FCC)
The Fluid Cataly c Cracking Unit (FCC) converts vacuum gas oil feedstocks into more valuable
lighter oil products and petrochemical feedstocks. The design of the unit is primarily tailored
to maximise the yields of ethylene and propylene for use as feedstocks to downstream
petrochemical produc on units. The unit will ini ally operate in gasoline mode un l the
deferred petrochemical units are installed. The main feedstock is hydrotreated vacuum gas oil
received directly from the VGO HDT. The unit also processes light naphtha stream produced
in the Delayed Coker unit. The FCC produces the following main products:
 Off-gas – this stream is rich in Ethylene. It is treated for the removal of H2S and CO2
within the FCC Unit.
  Unsaturated LPG – this sour stream contains a high propor on of propylene. It is first
routed for treatment to remove of H2S and Sulphur compounds in the FCC LPG Treater
Unit before being sent as feedstock to the Propylene Recovery Unit.
 Light Cut Naphtha – the LCN stream is a high-octane gasoline blending component.
It is sent to the Light Cut Naphtha Trea ng Unit for sweetening prior to rundown to
gasoline storage and blending.
 Medium cut naphtha – the MCN stream is routed to the Naphtha Hydrotreater Unit.
 The FCC also produces a number of other products:
 Heavy Cut Naphtha – HCN is routed to the Diesel Hydrotrea ng Unit
 Light Cycle Oil – LCO is routed either to refinery’s internal fuel oil system or as
feedstock to the Diesel Hydrotrea ng Unit.
 Clarified Oil – this material is routed to the refinery’s internal fuel oil system, or as
feedstock to the Delayed Coker Unit.
Alkyla on and Butane Isomerisa on
This sec on comprises two separate process units: a Sulphuric Acid Alkyla on Unit and a
Butane Isomerisa on Unit. The Alkyla on process is designed to produce a high-octane
gasoline blending component, Alkylate which will be used to raise the octane number of the
refinery’s product gasoline pool. The unit incorporates a Di-olefin Satura on (DIOS) sec on
also. The main feed stocks to the unit are:
 Sweet saturated C4 (primarily n-Butane and Isobutane) from the AVU.
 Sweet saturated LPG (primarily Propane, n-Butane and Isobutane) from the CCR
Pla ormer Unit.
 Sweet unsaturated C4 (primarily butylenes) from the Propylene Recovery Unit.
The Alkyla on process is catalysed by Sulphuric acid and achieves the chemical combina on
of Isobutane with the C4 olefins (Butylenes) to form Iso-octane rich Alkylate product. Because
the LPG feed streams contain insufficient Isobutane to alkylate all the available olefins in the
unsaturated LPG feed, a separate Butane Isomerisa on Unit is included in the process
scheme; this converts nButane to Isobutane and hence sa sfies the Isobutane demand. The
primary product from the Alkyla on and Butane Isomerisa on Unit is stabilised, high-octane
(96 RON) ‘Alkylate’ which is routed to storage and/or to gasoline blending. Propane & Butane
are recovered as by-product stream and sent to LPG product blending and storage.
FCC LPG Trea ng Unit
Unsaturated, sour LPG produced within the FCC unit requires treatment to remove hydrogen
sulphide (H2S), and mercaptan (RSH) contaminants before it can be passed forward to the
Propylene Recovery Unit (PRU). Ini ally, LPG from DCU will also be treated in FCC LPG trea ng
Unit. The FCC LPG Treatment Unit uses successive caus c washes in a classical ‘sweetening’
process to remove these Sulphur bearing contaminants from the LPG. The sweet LPG product
is then routed to the PRU and/or LPG blending and storage.
FCC Light Naphtha Trea ng Unit
FCC light cut naphtha requires treatment to remove mercaptans before it can be sent for
blending into the gasoline pool, therefore a FCC Light Naphtha Trea ng unit is provided to
sweeten the naphtha.
Sulphuric Acid Regenera on Unit (SARU)
Concentrated Sulphuric acid is used as a catalyst within the Alkyla on Unit. The acid is slowly
degraded in the alkyla on process so a con nuous purge of spent acid is removed and sent
for regenera on in an on-site regenera on facility. The Sulphuric Acid Regenera on Unit
processes the spent acid to produce a regenerated acid stream which is returned to the
Alkyla on unit. The process involves thermal decomposi on of the spent acid to Sulphur
dioxide, then conversion to Sulphur trioxide and back into Sulphuric acid.
Delayed Coker Unit (DCU)
The Delayed Coker Unit (DCU) upgrades vacuum residue feedstock received from the AVU to
produce a range of cracked, dis llate oil products which, a er further refining in downstream
units, are suitable for blending into final products and/or as petrochemical feedstocks.
Delayed coking is a thermal cracking process and excess carbon is rejected in the form of
petroleum coke which is produced in significant quan es. The feed stream to the DCU is
vacuum residue produced in the vacuum dis lla on sec on of the AVU. In addi on, to enable
the refinery to process heavy crude oils with a high asphaltene/ metals content, provision is
made for the heaviest side cut (HVGO) from the vacuum dis lla on column to be blended in
to the DCU feed. This provides the refinery with a convenient means of limi ng the asphaltene
and/or metals content of the VGO feedstock sent forward to the VGO Hydrotreater within
acceptable limits; the impact on the DCU opera on is insignificant.
The DCU produces a range of cracked dis llate products which are routed as follows:
 Fuel Gas – this is sweetened within the DCU and then routed to the refinery fuel gas
system.
 Coker LPG – this is routed via the Coker LPG Trea ng Unit to the Propylene Recovery,
Polypropylene Unit. This steam will be ini ally routed to the FCC LPG Treater un l the
deferred Coker LPG Treater is installed.
 Coker Light Naphtha – this is routed to the FCC unit.
 Coker Heavy Naphtha – this is sent as feedstock to the Naphtha Hydrotreater Unit. 
Light Coker Gas Oil / Coker Diesel – LCGO is routed as feedstock to the Diesel
Hydrotreater Unit.
 Heavy Coker Gas Oil – HCGO is routed as feedstock to the VGO Hydrotreater Unit.
The other main product from the DCU is petroleum coke. This is conveyed to a coke storage
and handling area prior to despatch to external customers.
Hydrogen Genera on Unit (HGU)
The Hydrogen Genera on Unit (HGU) u lises steam-methane reforming of hydrocarbon
feedstock to produce a hydrogen-rich gas product which is purified in a Pressure Swing
Adsorp on (PSA) to yield hydrogen with a minimum purity of 99.9 mole % hydrogen. The HGU
operates in turndown mode during normal refinery opera on because the majority of the
hydrogen demand is sa sfied by hydrogen produc on from the Pla ormer. Maximum
demand for hydrogen from the HGU occurs during a shutdown scenario in which the CCR
Pla ormer is shutdown, but the Diesel Hydrotreater, VGO Hydrotreater, NHT and
Polypropylene Units con nue in opera on at 50% turndown. The HGU is designed to process
naphtha and LPG feedstocks. During normal opera on, however, it is an cipated that HGU
feedstock will comprise a blend of sweet light naphtha from the Naphtha Hydrotreater with
raffinate stream from the Sulfolane Extrac on process in the Aroma cs complex. The raffinate
will not be available ll the installa on of Paraxylene Complex. Hydrogen products from the
Pla ormer and HGU are routed to a centralized Hydrogen Compression and Distribu on
System (HCDS) which serves the refinery.
Hydrogen Compression and Distribu on System (HCDS) – Unit 056
Hydrogen gas used within the refinery is derived from two main sources:
 CCR Pla ormer Unit (which provides a base load supply during normal opera on)
 Hydrogen Genera on Unit (which supplies the balance to sa sfy total demand)
Both of these streams are routed to the Hydrogen Compression and Distribu on System
(HCDS). HCDS also receives hydrogen-rich off-gases from VGO Hydrotreater units; these
streams contain sufficient hydrogen to warrant recovery The various purified hydrogen
streams (min. purity 99.9 mole %) are then combined and distributed to all hydrogen
consuming units within the refinery. Three distribu on pressure levels (LP/MP/HP) are
provided to align with user requirements: the two higher pressure levels are achieved via a
two-stage compression system. The hydrogen distribu on pressures are set to eliminate the
need for separate hydrogen make-up compressor systems within any of the consuming units.
Sour Water Stripper Units (SWS)
Sour waters produced within the refinery complex are treated to remove contaminant
hydrogen sulphide and ammonia in the Sour Water Stripper units. The sour gases (hydrogen
sulphide and ammonia) recovered from the sour water streams are routed to the Sulphur
Recovery Unit for recovery of elemental Sulphur.
SWS Train 1 process phenolic sour waters received from the FCC, DCU and AVU, plus some
other minor streams. Most of these streams will be contaminated with traces of phenols,
cyanides and other contaminants (which are by-products of thermal cracking reac ons) and
it is preferred to reuse stripped water from these sources as AVU Desalter wash water since
this provides an opportunity for phenols and cyanides to be absorbed into crude oil which
helps to minimise the duty of the effluent treatment plant. Re-use of such contaminated
stripped water from Train 1 as wash water within the hydroprocessing units is prohibited.
SWS Train 2 process ‘clean’ sour waters from the hydroprocessing units and other units which
do not involve thermal cracking reac ons. These sour waters are rela vely ‘clean’ – they
contain minimal other contaminants and, a er stripping, are suitable for par al recycle for
use as wash water within the hydroprocessing units. The two sour water stripper units will
operate in segregated mode. However, an emergency crossover connec on is provided to
allow a limited degree of load sharing in case one unit is required to shut down for emergency
maintenance.
Amine Regenera on Units (ARU)
Lean amine solvent (DEA) is used in absorber columns within the refinery to remove hydrogen
sulphide from off-gases and LPG streams in various process units. The rich amine solvent is
returned to a centralised amine regenera on system where hydrogen sulphide gas is
recovered and routed to Sulphur recovery and regenerated lean solvent is recycled to users.
The Amine Regenera on system is configured as two separate trains in order to segregate the
amine solvent which has contacted ‘cracked’ streams origina ng in the FCC and Coker (Train
1) from amine which is used within the main hydroprocessing units (Train 2). The two amine
regenera on units will operate in segregated mode; no interconnec ons are provided.
Sulphur Recovery Units (SRU) and Tail Gas Trea ng (TGT)
The Sulphur Recovery Unit (SRU) takes acid gas feeds from the ARU and SWS units, plus a
Sulphur dioxide-rich stream from the FGD unit, and converts H2S and SO2 into elemental
Sulphur using a modified version of the classic Claus Sulphur recovery technology. The SRU is
also equipped with Sulphur degassing systems and amine-based Tail Gas Trea ng (TGT) units
in order to achieve a very high percentage recovery of Sulphur present in the acid gas feeds;
this is required in order to sa sfy environmental regula ons governing emissions of Sulphur
dioxide (SO2). Tail gas incinera on is used to convert residual traces of H2S in the tail gas into
SO2. Ammonia present in the acid gas feed from the SWS is destroyed in the burners of the
SRU. Feed streams to the SRU are acid gases from the Amine Regenera on Units, and sour
gases from the Sour Water Stripper units, plus Sulphur dioxide from the Flue Gas
Desulphurisa on unit. Sulphur product is despatched in liquid form.
The Aroma cs Complex comprises the following process units.
 Naphtha Hydrotreater (including naphtha frac ona on)
 CCR Pla ormer
 CCR Regenerator sec on
Incoming naphtha feeds (full range naphtha from the AVU plus naphtha streams from the FCC
and Coker are pre-treated in the Naphtha Hydrotreater and then frac onated into three
separate hydrotreated naphtha products. The light and medium cuts are sent to HGU while
the heavy cut is fed to the CCR Pla ormer.
Propylene Recovery Unit (PRU)
The Propylene Recovery Unit (PRU) receives unsaturated propylene-containing LPG
feedstocks from upstream units. The propylene content is first extracted and purified to yield
propylene product suitable for manufacture of polypropylene. The LPG feed streams
containing propylene are derived from the FCC, the DCU and the Ethylene Recovery unit. The
FCC and DCU feed streams are pre-treated for removal of H2S, COS and mercaptans, etc. in
upstream LPG Trea ng units. The PRU produces a number of by-products:
 Propane which is routed to LPG product storage.
 Unsaturated C4 which is routed to Alkyla on Unit and/or to LPG product storage.
Petrochemical Process Units
Poly Propylene Unit (PP)
Propylene fed into the pre polymeriza on reactor where pre polymeriza on reac on starts in
the presence of catalyst. Polypropylene is made from the polymeriza on of propylene from
PRU (Propylene Recovery Unit) in the presence of a catalyst system. Polymeriza on condi ons
(temperature, pressure and reactant concentra ons) are set by the polymer grade to be
produced.
The product is discharged from the blending silos and pneuma cally recycled to the silo by
means of conveying air compressor or to the bagging lines. From the homogenizing silos, the
PP pellets are pneuma cally transported to the bagging silos. From the bagging silos, the PP
product is finally bagged in the bagging units. The bagged product is further palle zed in the
palle zing units.
The following is the overall PFD of the en re Petrochemical Plant:

Fig: Process Flow Diagram (PFD) of the en re Petrochemical Plant

Fig: Some Design Parameters of the en re Petrochemical Plant

Fig: Produc on Capacity of the Plant

Fig: Hazardous Substances produced/generated in the Plant

CRUDE DISTILLATION UNIT (CDU)
The crude dis lla on unit (CDU) is also called primary or mother unit of refinery. The func on
of this unit is to receive crude oil and treat them by frac onal dis lla on and recover their
components.
Composi on of Crude Oil:
Crude oil is basically an oily liquid which is reddish brown or black in colour. It is composed of
hydrocarbons and its deriva ves containing sulphur, nitrogen, oxygen and metals (nickel,
vanadium).
Crude oil contains around 82% -87% carbon, 11%-15% hydrogen and oxygen, nitrogen,
sulphur and other metals (Ni, V, etc.) cons tute the remaining. It is prac cally impossible to
determine exactly the composi on of a par cular grade of petroleum. So, petroleum is
analyzed usually to ascertain their gap composi on.
Main Cons tuents of Petroleum Hydrocarbons:
1. Paraffinic hydrocarbons (alkanes)
2. Naphthenic hydrocarbons (cycloalkanes)
3. Benzene hydrocarbons (arenes)
4. Unsaturated hydrocarbons (olefins)
5. Oxygen containing compounds
 Naphthenic acids
 Phenols
 Tar-asphaltene
6. Sulphur compounds
7. Nitrogen compounds
8. Mineral substances
PROCESS DESCRIPTION:
Crude from the ba ery limit, is pumped at 15.8 Kg/cm2 by pump. It passes through a
preheated train where it is heated to 130 °C and enters the desalter. In desalter, demulsified
mixed crude is mixed with hot water through a mixing valve. Thus, the salt in crude, dissolves
in water and separated from the crude. The remaining salted water droplets are removed in
the presence of electric field. The effluent water is used to preheat the incoming wash water
before being sent to desalter wash water vessel. The desalter pressure is maintained at about
13 to 15 Kg/cm2.
From desalter, the crude enters the Pre-topping column from top for pre-frac ona on. From
this column (IBP- 110°C), TBP cut is drawn out from the top as light gasoline to stabilized feed
surge drum. Some minor thermal cracking reac ons may occur due to high-temperature
condi ons. One example is the thermal cracking of larger hydrocarbons into smaller ones,
represented as:
CnH2n+2 → Cn−1H2n + CH4
The rest of the topped crude is pumped by pump to atmospheric furnace via a train of
exchangers at about 265°C. The furnace is ver cal cylindrical type that has two passes with
bo om firing having convec on and radia on sec on. The topped crude enters on flow
control to each of the two passes of the furnace. Crude is heated to 365 °C, gets par ally
vaporized and goes to Flash zone of Main Frac ona ng column. In the main frac ona ng
column, crude is separated into different products of different cuts. The overhead of the
column is collected in main frac ona ng column reflux drum. The hydrocarbons from V-1 are
pumped by pump as heavy gasoline to NSF feed surge drum. From column (CL-2), three cuts
are drawn: SR Kero-I, SR Kero-II and SRGO. These are routed to stripper, CL-3A, CL-3B and CL-
3C respec vely. A er that each product pumped out from stripper bo om through exchanger
and cooler to respec ve storage tank at around 40C. The bo om por on of CL-2 pumped out
by pump P-9/9 as reduced crude oil (RCO) through exchanger and cooler to storage tank at
around 90C or it can be directly used as feed as DCU at around 110C. The unstabilized Naphtha
or light Gasoline from stabilizer feed surge drum (V-005) is routed to stabilizer (C-003) through
a train of exchanger at around 125C. From top, LPG is recovered and is pumped out by pump
P-008 to the storage vessel. The bo om comes out as stabilized Naphtha which is routed to
Spli er-1.
Heavy gasoline from NSF feed surge drum and stabilized naphtha from stabilizer are sent to
spli er-I (C-001) through a train of exchangers. The top product at around 40-120 °C, is
pumped out as Light Naphtha (LN). From bo om, a part of the product is heated in furnace
and circulated again in column and the remaining part goes to spli er-II (C-002). In C-002, the
top product at around 100-160 °C, is drawn as Reformed Naphtha (RN) and is sent to storage
tank. From bo om, a part of the product is heated in furnace F-002 and circulated again in
column and the rest is pumped out as Heavy Naphtha (HN). Heavy naphtha is mixed with
Kero-II and SRGO (straight run gas oil) and goes to gas oil tank.
For the recovery of valuable fuel gases (hydrocarbon mix) from flare header line by
implemented a small unit Flare Gas Recovery System (FGRS). The flare gas coming from nozzle
N1 ex. Main flare header of 36" out drum enters the compressors at a temperature of about
45C. inside the compressors it is compressed up to 4.5 kg/cm3g and a temperature of 46C.
During the compression gas/liquid mix runs into gas/liquid separator 07-FR4D-01. The
compressed gas leaves the separator from the top nozzle at 6.5kg/cm2 to the fuel gas heads,
hydrocarbon condensate goes to slop and condensed de-mineralized water goes to OWS.

Fig: Process Flow Diagram (PFD) of Crude Distillation Unit (CDU)

The Crude Dis lla on Unit (CDU) is the primary refinery unit, receiving crude oil and
performing frac onal dis lla on to recover its components. The crude, ini ally
pumped at 15.8 Kg/cm2, undergoes prehea ng, desal ng, and pre-frac ona on in a
topping column. The topped crude then enters an atmospheric furnace, reaching 365
°C, before proceeding to the Flash zone of the Main Frac ona ng column. Various cuts,
including heavy gasoline and reduced crude oil, are drawn and processed through
strippers and stabilizers. Naphtha and heavy gasoline are further separated in spli ers,
and a Flare Gas Recovery System (FGRS) is implemented for valuable fuel gas recovery
from the flare header.

Fig: Piping & Instrumenta on Diagram (P&ID) of Crude Dis lla on Unit (CDU)
The Crude Dis lla on Unit (CDU) begins with crude oil pumped at 15.8 Kg/cm2,
undergoing prehea ng to 130 °C and desal ng in a desalter maintained at 13-15
Kg/cm2. Pre-frac ona on in a topping column (IBP-110 °C) separates light gasoline.
The topped crude, heated to 365 °C in an atmospheric furnace, enters the Flash zone
of the Main Frac ona ng column. From column CL-2, SR Kero-I, SR Kero-II, and SRGO
are drawn and sent to strippers before storage. Reduced Crude Oil (RCO) is either
stored or used as DCU feed at 110 °C. Stabilized Naphtha undergoes LPG recovery, with
the bo om going to Spli er-1. Heavy gasoline and stabilized naphtha from Spli er-1
are processed in Spli er-II. A Flare Gas Recovery System (FGRS) recovers hydrocarbon
mix from the flare header, compressed to 4.5 kg/cm3g and separated into gas and
liquid. The compressed gas is directed to fuel gas heads, while the liquid, including de-
mineralized water, is appropriately managed.
Heat and Material Balances:
Aspen HYSYS Simula on

Fig: Aspen HYSYS Simula on of Crude Dis lla on Unit (CDU)

Fig: Mass flow rate, Mole Frac ons and Volume Flow rates of each outlet stream of CDU
Summary:
Condenser/Top Stage Performance:
Name Value Units
Temperature 176.588 F
Pressure 15.7 psia
Heavy Duty -86612.7 kJ/sec

Reboiler/Bo om Stage Performance:

Name Value Units
Temperature 707.641 F
Pressure 24.7 psia
Heavy Duty 0 kJ/sec

DELAYED COKING UNIT (DCU)

Delayed coking unit is a secondary processing unit designed and installed to process
the low value heavy stock to upgrade it to more valuable lighter and middle dis llate
with petroleum coke as one of the products. The feed to be processed in the unit is
Reduced Crude Oil (RCO) obtained from bo om of the frac ona ng column of the CDU
and the processed used is Thermal Cracking.
The product separated out by frac ona on of the cracked material are coker gases,
coker gasoline (CG), coker kerosene (CK), coker gas oil (CGO), coker fuel oil (CFO),
Residual fuel oil (RFO) and Raw Petroleum coke (RPC). Coker gasoline is disposed as
part of feed to INDMAX unit. While coker kerosene and coker gas oil is fed to Hydro
Trea ng Unit to remove Sulphur. RPC is disposed as finished product and coker gases
as feed for LRU conveyor belt carry the coke from coking chamber to coke yard and
disposed with the help of EOT crane.
The unit is called Delayed Coking Unit as the process envisages produc on of coke by
allowing high residence me (24 hours) for liquid phase cracking in the reac on
chambers operated in alternated days with a gap of 24 hours.
THEORY OF COKING:
Heavier hydrocarbon (Reduced crude) is subject to high temperature (around 495°C)
to crack the heavier ends for producing the lighter ends. At this temperature the larger
hydrocarbon molecules of high boiling ranges are thermally decomposed to smaller
low boiling molecules thereby producing lower boiling molecules thereby producing
lower boiling light and middle dis llate such as Gas, Gasoline, Kerosene, Gas oil and at
the same rate. Some of the molecules which are reac ve, combine with one another
giving even larger molecules than those present in the original stock forming Residual
Fuel Oil and petroleum coke. The phenomenon under which the above changes in the
molecular structure of the hydrocarbons take place, is known as Thermal Cracking.

CHEMICAL REACTIONS:
There are three types of chemical reac on processes which occur con nuously
without any dis nct steps in the coking process:
o Dehydrogena on-The ini al reac on is carboniza on involves the loss of
hydrogen atom from an aroma c hydrocarbon and forma on of aroma c free
radical intermediate.
o Rearrangement Reac ons: Thermal rearrangement usually leads to forma on
of more stabilized aroma c ring system which forms building block of graphite
growth.
o Polymeriza on of aroma c radicals: Aroma c free radicals polymerized in the
process of coking reac on. The process is ini ated in the liquid phase and
con nued in different steps.
Brief Descrip on:
The feedstock is pumped by coker feed pumps from coker feed tanks located outside
the Ba ery limit, to the feed surge drum. Provision to receive hot short residue and
remaining streams from the unit, in the feed surge drum is kept.
The feed from the feed surge drum is pumped to Main Frac onator, under its level
control, by feed pumps. The feed is preheated in preheat exchanger using Kerosene
product, Light Diesel Oil (LDO) product and LDO circula ng reflux (CR) respec vely. The
temperature at the outlet of the preheat train is about 240C.
The preheated fresh feed is fed to the Main Frac onator bo om surge sec on. The
mixed stream offered and recycled in the weight ra o of 100:70 is fed to the two coker
furnaces by their respec ve frac onator’s bo om pumps.
The frac onators bo om material (fresh feed + recycle) at temperature of 315C-320C
is fed to the two passes of each Coker Furnaces. Turbulising water is added to each
pass a er the flow control valves. The water vaporizes and the effec ve volumetric
flow inside the tube increases so as to move the adherent HC liquid film in the tube
walls faster. This minimizes coke forma on and increases heater run length.
The outlet of the convec on sec on of the furnace goes to the top sec on of radia on
zone and finally comes out from the bo om most tube of radia on sec on. The fuel
firing in the heater is controlled by its outlet temperature. Either fuel gas or fuel oil can
be selected for control via selector switch. Fuel oil is atomized by Moderate Pressure
(MP) steam under differen al pressure control.
Each furnace has two coke chambers (a cylindrical, insulated vessel). The feed inlet to
the coke chambers is from the bo om. The heated charge stock enters the bo om of
the coke chamber which is under the normal coking mode through the 4 way switch
valves The vapours from the coke chambers are led from the top vapour outlet line to
the quench column.
Steam and water connec ons have been provided at the inlet of the coke chamber for
steam hea ng, pressure tes ng, steam stripping and water cooling in the coke
chamber during rou ne opera ons. An foam injec on facili es are provided at the
top of the coke chamber. It helps in preven ng/minimizing the boil over inside the
coke chamber.
The flow from the furnace is alternated between the two coke chambers, to allow
removal of coke from one drum while the other is on-steam. Coking reac on con nues
to occur in the coke chamber and the sensible heat of the incoming transfer fluid from
the furnace supplies the required reac on heat for coking in the coke chambers. Thus,
the unvaporised por on of the furnace effluent se les out in the coke chamber where
the combined effect of reten on me and temperature causes the forma on of coke.
The vapours pass on from the top of the chamber to the downstream quench column,
LDO quench has been provided immediately at the vapour outlet line of the coke
chamber to quench the vapours and minimize the coking and fouling in the overhead
vapour line. The bo om outlet line has two streams, routed to respec ve circuits.
Delayed Coker Drum cycle length varies from unit to unit. However, typically it is kept
within 16 to 24 hours.
Products Of Delayed Coking:
Delayed coker produces desirable liquid products (naphtha and gas oil) and by-
products and by-products coker gas and solid coke.
Coker off-gas goes to the gas plate where C3 and C4 are recovered as LPG and the
lighter end can be used as fuel gas in the refinery.
Naphtha contains high olefins content and this stream is usually sent to hydrotreater
for stabiliza on.
Light Coker Gas Oil (LCGO) is sent to diesel hydrotreater for produc on of diesel Typical
end point of this stream is around point of this stream is around 370C. Heavy Coker
Gas Oil (HCGO) is sent to FCC/RFCC for produc on of valuable dis llate products.
Typical end point of this stream is around 538C.
Fig: Schema c of Delayed Coker Unit (DCU)

The Delayed Coking Unit (DCU) processes Reduced Crude Oil (RCO) through thermal
cracking, conver ng heavier hydrocarbons at around 495°C. Chemical reac ons
involve dehydrogena on, rearrangement, and polymeriza on, leading to the
forma on of coker gases, gasoline, kerosene, gas oil, fuel oil, residual fuel oil, and raw
petroleum coke. The unit operates in alternated 24-hour cycles, allowing high
residence me for coking reac ons. Key steps include prehea ng, furnace hea ng,
coking in two alterna ng chambers, and quenching. DCU products include valuable
liquid dis llates and by-products like coker gas and solid coke. The schema c diagram
illustrates the complex process of upgrading heavy stock to lighter dis llates and
petroleum coke.
Fig: Process Flow Diagram (PFD) of Delayed Coker Unit (DCU)

Opera ng at approximately 495°C, the unit employs three essen al chemical

reac ons: dehydrogena on, rearrangement, and polymeriza on. In a 24-hour
cycle, the feed undergoes prehea ng, followed by two passes through coker
furnaces. Each furnace contains two cylindrical coke chambers, facilita ng
con nuous coking reac ons. The process produces valuable liquid dis llates
including coker gases, gasoline, kerosene, and gas oil, along with by-products
such as fuel oil, residual fuel oil, and raw petroleum coke. Key parameters
include cycle length (typically 16 to 24 hours) and endpoint temperatures for
specific product streams (e.g., 538°C for Heavy Coker Gas Oil). The schema c
diagram intricately details the thermal cracking process and its essen al
equipment.
 Fig: Piping & Instrumenta on Diagram (P&ID) of Delayed Coker Unit (DCU)
The Delayed Coking Unit (DCU) P&ID showcases a technically intricate system. Feed,
Reduced Crude Oil (RCO), is processed through coker feed pumps and preheated using
Kerosene, Light Diesel Oil (LDO), and LDO circula ng reflux. The coking process,
opera ng at 495°C, involves two coker furnaces and cylindrical coke chambers,
alterna ng in 24-hour cycles. Key specifica ons include temperature control (315-
320°C), water addi on for turbulence reduc on, and fuel choice (gas or oil). Products
include Coker Gases, Coker Gasoline, Coker Kerosene, Coker Gas Oil, Coker Fuel Oil,
Residual Fuel Oil, and Raw Petroleum Coke. The unit's efficiency is enhanced by LDO
quenching and a carefully regulated quench column.

Heat and Material Balances:

Aspen HYSYS Simula on

Fig: Aspen HYSYS Simula on of Delayed Coker Unit (DCU)

Simula on Results and Input/Output Data:
Recycled Off-Gas:

Feed:
Furnace:

Drum:

Introduc on to Hydrotreatment:
This is a cataly c process with the intent to remove impuri es from crude oil frac ons, mainly
heteroatoms (sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen), metal compounds (nickel, vanadium) and promote the
satura on of polynuclear aroma cs (PNA) and/or olefins. The concentra on of theses
impuri es 2 increases with the boiling point of the crude oil frac ons. The hydrotreatment is
not considered a conversion unit, since there is prac cally no breaking of carbon-carbon
bonds (cracking). In a refinery the hydrotreatment is applied in different categories:
 Pre-treatment, step where it is proceeded the hydrotreatment of feed to conversion
processes, such as cataly c reforming and hydrocracking;
 Post-treatment, finishing step to obtain specifica ons of transporta on fuels within
regulated standards. In refinery industry, the removal of impuri es of crude oil frac on
are of extreme relevance
 Improve product proper es (color, stability, odor);
 Catalyst protec on of downstream units;
 Accomplish environmental targets imposed;
 Reduc on or elimina on of corrosion during refining.
The hydrotreatment take place in a wide range of opera ng condi ons. The process
severity/condi ons are adjusted depending on the proper es of the feed and the composi on
of the intended products. Normally the hydrotreatment is associated to the process of sulfur
removal, designated as hydrodesulfuriza on. Sulfur is one of the undesirable compound of
crude oil and the higher its content in this, the higher it will also be in petroleum products.
The combus on product of this organic compound, sulfur oxides (SOx), are hazardous
atmospheric pollutants responsible for acid rain and also by respiratory failure in humans. In
rela on to the use of transporta on fuels, the presence of this sulfur compound acts as a
poison to the catalyst in the exhaust control systems of the fuel engines. In the context of
refining entails problems of deac va on of the catalyst in process units downstream or even
in terms of corrosion in the equipment.

Hydro-Processing

In the most elementary sense, every refinery splits its crude stock into several frac ons and
upgrades these frac ons by various processes in order to make them more suitable for their
final applica on. Below figure shows a typical refinery block flow diagram complete with the
finished product slate and where the vacuum gas oil hydro-trea ng fits in the scheme. Hydro-
processing can occur on almost any feed–frac on, either to improve the finished product 7
proper es or to pre-treat the feed prior to some other processing step. Many refineries will
have only a few of these processes.
Hydro-processing improves the quality of a petroleum frac on by reac ng it with hydrogen in
the presence of a catalyst. The benefits of hydro-processing include 8 decreased pollu on
tendencies, improved odor, color, gum forming tendencies and storage stability. These
benefits are the result of removing the sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen, metals, olefinic or diolefinic
compounds, or by satura ng the aroma c rings. Petroleum frac ons generally treated are
hydrogen plant treat gas, naphthas (straight run, cracked, etc), kerosene, jet fuel, hea ng oils,
dis llate fuels, cataly c cracking feed, lube oils, waxes, shale oils, tar sands products, and
others. The two major objec ves of hydro-processing are to meet product purity
specifica ons (usually pollu on) and to remove impuri es that act as poisons for other
refining processes (octane reforming, hydro-cracking).

Vacuum Gas Oils

With the increased processing of heavier crudes and the upgrading of bitumen, there are
more vacuum gas oils that require hydro-trea ng. Gas oils have final boiling points up to
1050°F. These may be used as industrial or home hea ng oils or as feedstocks for hydro-
cracking or cat cracking processes for conversion to motor fuel products. Hea ng oils and
motor fuel products need to be hydrotreated to remove sulfur and nitrogen impuri es. Gas
oils are also pre-treated prior to being used as feedstocks for fluid cataly c cracking (FCC) or
hydrocracking. FCC pre-trea ng, accomplished in a VGO hydrotreater, reduces vanadium and
nickel which would otherwise poison FCC catalysts. Nickel lay down on the FCC catalyst results
in reac ons that increase gas and coke produc on, while vanadium contributes to the
destruc on of zeoli c structures on regenera on of FCC catalyst. In addi on, sulfur and
nitrogen removal reduces FCC stack gas emissions of SOx and NOx pollutants. Typically
feedstocks to FCC units require 1% or less sulfur and minimum metals. Since the FCC unit
provides the largest upgrade in value to a crude stream, the VGO hydrotreater must remove
a mul tude of components, including sulfur, and metals (vanadium and nickel) to reduce FCC
catalyst deac va on.

Hydrotrea ng Processes
The cataly c reformer, which was introduced in the for es due to the development of the
con nuously regenera ve catalyst, produced hydrogen from the dehydrogena on reac ons.
Refiners began to use this hydrogen for dis llate hydro-trea ng. They treated naphtha for
gasoline, light dis llate for kerosene and jet fuel, and heavier dis llate used for hea ng oil and
diesel fuel. The primary objec ve was desulfuriza on but there was a degree of ring
satura on that improved kerosene smoke point and diesel Cetane Number (two indicators of
quality of the crude product). In addi on, hydrogen was employed to hydro-finish certain lube
stocks to eliminate acid and caus c treatment as well as improve product quality. Removal of
contaminants that destroy downstream catalysts is now a standard feature. As more demands
are placed on hydro-trea ng, the variety of hydrogen sources is widening. Over two dozen
hydro-trea ng processes are offered by licensors, however the basic hydro- trea ng scheme,
below figure, provided by most licensed processes scheme is essen ally the same.
The procedure is to pump a heated feedstock and hydrogen through a fixed bed of catalyst.
Mul ple flash drums (hydrogen separator) provide a recycle hydrogen stream. A stripping
column produce a liquid desulfurized product, and waste streams (sour water and light
hydrocarbons). From various references6-9, and personal surveys, typical cri cal opera ng
condi ons for hydrotreaters are: Opera ng pressure from about 300 to 2200 psig (2065-
15170 kPa) Hydrogen to oil ra o may vary from 300 to 5000 SCF per barrel of oil (53 – 890
sm3 /m3 of oil) Bed temperature is typically between 500°F and 800°F (260 – 430o C) Space
velocity may range from 0.5 to 15 hr-1 LHSV.

Vacuum Gas Oil Hydrotrea ng Process Descrip on

Vacuum gas oil (VGO) hydrotreaters perform a vital role in refining opera ons. The two main
func ons of the VGO hydrotreater are to: 1. Remove sulfur in the crude by reac ng the crude
with hydrogen over a catalyst to meet end product specifica ons 2. Accumulate poisons
(metals) on the catalyst to prevent metals from rapidly reducing the effec veness of
downstream cataly c opera ons (i.e. FCC units). These two func ons of the VGO hydrotreater
are not complementary, since the accumula on of the poisons on the catalyst reduces the
ability of the catalyst to meet sulfur removal objec ves. The VGO hydrotreater’s compe ng
goals tend to make the unit expensive to operate due to short run-lengths (2-3 years)7
resul ng in frequent cost-intensive shutdowns. Also adding to the cost of the VGO
hydrotreater, this unit requires a rela vely pure (>75%, preferred over 90%)7 hydrogen stream
either produced from steam methane reforming or recovered from refinery hydrogen rich
streams. Desulfuriza on of gas oil can be achieved with a rela vely modest decomposi on of
the crude oil at about 300 psig. Pressures as high as 1,500 psig can be employed to achieve
the required sulfur removal for very heavy crudes, which is the focus of this study.
Above figure shows a typical process flow diagram of a vacuum gas oil hydrotreater. The unit
will normally require two reactors of two beds, to provide a greater catalyst volume than in
straight desulfuriza on service in order to obtain the necessary sulphur removal and metal
removal for a reasonable liquid hourly space velocity 7-9. Figure shows that a feed is mixed
with recycled and makeup hydrogen. The mixture is then heated in a furnace and fed to the
first reactor. The temperature rise from ini al hydrogena on in the top bed of the first reactor
is such that a liquid quench is required immediately a er. The quench is supplied from a low-
pressure separator, and is typical of a treated full range gas oil product.
Effluent from the second reactor is separated in two stages. The high-pressure separator
provides a recycle hydrogen gas stream, while the low-pressure 13 separator light ends go to
the hydrogen sulphide recovery unit. The liquid from the high-pressure separator feeds the
low-pressure separator and the low-pressure separator liquid is the feed to the stripper which
produces a light ends overhead product and a light dis llate bo oms product. The stripper
bo oms product is then sent to FCC. The ini al feed temperature is expected to be about
650oF. All desulfuriza on reac ons are endothermic but only mildly so. On the other hand,
hydrogena on is highly exothermic and care must be taken to avoid runaways, a topic of some
importance and complexity. A cascade process control scheme is typically used to control the
reactor temperature. The hydrogen flow to the reactor is the manipulated variable to control
temperature in the primary control loop but it is prone to disturbances, (primarily changes in
hydrogen recycle and make-up flow). A secondary feedback loop controls the hydrogen flow
and is required to mi gate the disturbances from the hydrogen delivery system. The opera ng
pressure of this system is about 1,200 psig (8275 kPa) at the first reactor inlet. For a given
catalyst ac vity, the hydrogen par al pressure can be related to the amount of sulfur freed
for conversion to hydrogen sulfide. The opera on at 1,200 psig will also lead to 25% ring
satura on, which will result in somewhat less than 95% sulfur removal.
P&ID of Vacuum Gas Oil Hydrotreater Unit:
Hydrotrea ng Process Variables
The efficiency of the hydro-desulfuriza on process is measured by the degree of sulfur
removal or, in other words, by the yields of sulfur-free products. However, there are several
process variables that need special a en on as any one of these variables can have a
significant influence on the dura on and effec veness of the hydrodesulfuriza on process.
The major process variables are: reac on temperature, hydrogen to oil ra o, reactor pressure
(hydrogen par al pressure) and liquid hourly space velocity7,10,12. If these variables are not
properly adjusted to process disturbances, the following problems may be exacerbated:
1. Poor selec vity: Some frac ons of the feedstock will be cracked to undesirable low
molecular weight (light hydrocarbon) products and conversion will be lower.
2. Rapid catalyst aging: Catalysts can sinter, losing surface area, ac vity and shortening
run me length.
3. Hot Spots: When local reactor temperatures are well above 750°F (400°C ) thermal
cracking occurs.
Thermal cracking produces olefins, which add hydrogen, releasing heat. This increases the
temperatures further, and thermal cracking rates con nue to increase. These hot spots can
easily reach temperatures higher than the safe upper limits for the reactor walls, and results
can be catastrophic (vessel failure).
Temperature:
Rates of all reac ons in hydrotrea ng increase with increasing temperature. Increasing
temperature will increase hydrogena on but hastens the deteriora on in the number of
ac ve catalyst sites. Through the run, temperature control is used to offset the decline in
catalyst ac vity. The maximum temperature is usually limited by process equipment design
where most hydrotrea ng reactors have a metallurgical limit of some 800°F. Except for very
high, pressure hydrogen opera ons, coke deac va on due to thermal cracking would prohibit
opera on above 800°F in any case.
Pressure:
Reactor pressures in hydrotrea ng vary depending on the requirements of the feed.
Increasing pressure increases hydrogen par al pressure and retards coking deac va on. This
is of greater concern with heavier stocks, higher con-carbon stocks and cracked or coked
stocks. Both sulfur and nitrogen removal is aided by higher hydrogen pressure. Aroma cs
satura on is highly correlated with hydrogen pressure.
Hydrogen to Oil ra o:
In order to insure adequate hydrogen pressure at the reactor outlet, hydrogen in excess of
the chemical requirements must be charged to the reactor. Usual prac se is to have two to
three mes the hydrogen required for reac ons to assure efficient reactor performance. High
concentra ons are required to prevent coke lay down on catalyst and poisoning the catalyst.
This is par cularly true for the heavier crudes containing traces of resins and asphaltenes that
are subject to coking. The overall effect of increasing the H2:Oil ra o (or hydrogen par al
pressure) is to increase the extent of the conversion through an increase in catalyst ac vity.
As with the temperature variable, there are also limita ons to increasing the H2:Oil ra o. Use
of excessively high H2:Oil ra o may only serve to saturate the catalyst, and any further
increase will only slightly affect the conversion.
Liquid Hourly Space Velocity (LHSV):
Liquid hourly space velocity (LHSV) is defined as volume of oil per volume of catalyst per hour.
As used in refinery opera ons it is normally calculated as cubic feet of oil per cubic foot of
catalyst per hour. In all hydrotrea ng reac ons an increase in LHSV (oil feed rate) results in
decreases in desulfuriza on, denitrogena on, aroma c satura on and other hydrogena on
reac ons 5,7,12. A sample calcula on of space velocity is as follows: A gas oil hydrotreater
holds 240,000 Ibs of catlayst and has a through put of 56,000 barrels per day. The catalyst is
loaded at 42 lbs/ 3 . There are 5.73 3 per 42 gallon barrel.
The reciprocal of LHSV provides the residence me. In other words, since the catalyst volume
for the trickle bed reactor is constant, LHSV will vary directly with the feed rate. To maintain
a fixed rate of hydrodesulfuriza on, decreased LHSV (or increased feed rate) is usually
compensated for by increasing the reac on temperature.

Hydrotrea ng Reac ons

Oil frac ons by their nature contain a large number of organosulfur, organonitrogen and
aroma c species. The concentra on and reac vity of the species vary widely from crude to
crude. Unfortunately, oil frac ons can seldom be fully characterised and doing so does not
provide any be er insight into processing the crude. This makes analysing the hydrotreater
performance rela ve easy since the focus is on the reduc on of total sulphur, not on the
individual sulphur-bearing species. However, understanding the reac ons of key sulphur
components is necessary for a successful representa on of the process. The analysis of the
bulk crude stream can be based on the approxima on that the number of species in an oil
frac on is so large that the mixture can be treated as a con nuum. Petroleum proper es are
o en measured as a con nuous func on of boiling point, and this feature is available in all
simula on so ware.

Catalyst Deac va on
Feed proper es and opera ng condi ons (severity of the reac on) determine the catalyst life
in hydrodesulfuriza on. Catalyst deac va on is mainly due to metal deposits and coke
accumula on on and within the catalyst pellet. It is characterized by an ini al rapid decline in
ac vity (Start of Run – SOR), followed by a gradual loss in ac vity during the middle-of-run
(MOR) opera on, and finally a fast and sudden ac vity reduc on during the end-of-run (EOR)
opera on. Figure 2.6, shows a qualita ve illustra on of how foulant material adds to the
catalyst and what impact that has on catalyst ac vity. Line b shows the coke profile, where
most of the coke deposit occurs early in the opera on. Line c shows the metal profile which
is mostly a consistent lay down of material. Line a shows the reduc on in catalyst ac vity
(typically the percentage of catalyst life remaining). Lines b and c when added together, can
account for the shape of the catalyst ac vity line.
The significant drop off in performance at the end can be a ributed to two factors:
1. Increase in dehydrogena on reac ons– temperature above a certain value, generally 750oF,
starts aroma cs crossover, coupled with the accumula on of metals on catalyst results in
dehydrogena on reac ons compe ng with the desired hydrogena on reac ons for sulfur
removal
2. Pore-mouth plugging of Catalyst – Coke and metal accumula on gets to a point where the
catalyst surface for reac on is greatly reduced since the reactants are blocked from most of
the internal catalyst surface area. In prac ce, the temperature of the reactors should be
increased gradually during the opera on in order to compensate for the effect of decreased
reac on rates due to catalyst deac va on, and to maintain the sulfur content of the product
within a specified range. Nevertheless, this increase in temperature is not indefinite. It ilimited
to a maximum allowable opera ng bed temperature where the catalyst is assumed to be
completely deac vated.

Fluid Cataly c Cracking (FCC)

This process plays a crucial role in petroleum refineries, transforming heavy hydrocarbon
frac ons into valuable products like gasoline, alkene gases, and other petroleum deriva ves.
• Here’s a detailed descrip on of how FCC works:
1. Feedstock Selec on:
1. The FCC process typically begins with heavy gas oil (HGO), which is a por on
of crude oil with an ini al boiling point temperature of 340°C (644°F) or
higher.
2. HGO is also known as “heavy vacuum gas oil” (HVGO).
2. Contact with Catalyst:
1. The HGO feedstock is heated to a high temperature and moderate pressure.
2. It is then placed in contact with a hot, powdered catalyst within the FCC
reactor.
3. The catalyst par cles are fluidized (suspended in a gas or vapor) to enhance
their reac vity.
3. Cracking Process:
1. The long-chain molecules of the high-boiling-point hydrocarbon liquids in the
HGO are broken down into short-chain molecules.
2. These short-chain molecules are collected as a vapor.
3. The catalyst facilitates the cracking reac ons, conver ng heavy hydrocarbons
into lighter ones.
4. Coke Forma on and Regenera on:
1. During the cracking process, coke deposits on the catalyst surface due to
cracking reac ons.
 2. The coked catalyst is then sent to the regenerator unit to burn off the coke
using air.
3. The heat released during coke burning provides the energy needed for
cracking, improving thermal efficiency.
5. Product Separa on:
1. The cracking products (crackate) are separated from the catalyst par cles.
2. These products include:
1. Cracked gasoline with a high octane number.
2. Light olefins (alkenes).
3. Cycle oils.
4. Slurry oil.
6. FCC Unit Configura ons: FCC units can have two configura ons:
1. Stacked: Reactor and catalyst regenerator are in separate vessels,
with the reactor above the regenerator.
2. Side-by-side: Reactor and regenerator are in separate vessels.
2. Licensor companies offer various FCC designs, each available under a license
for construc on and opera on.
Economic Significance:
1. FCC corrects the imbalance between market demand for gasoline and excess
heavy products from crude oil dis lla on.
2. Approximately one-third of the crude oil refined worldwide is processed in an
FCC unit to produce high-octane gasoline and fuel oils
Currently, crude oils are ge ng scarcer and more expensive, and the need for light oil is
con nually rising. Oil deep processing, especially under cost-effec ve energy management, is
essen al. The FCC unit is a significant deep processing procedure for crude oil, a high energy-
consuming component of a fuel-based refinery, and is undergoing extraordinary development
[1]. The FCC is the modern refinery’s mainstay on a global scale. Its purpose was to transform
heavy hydrocarbon petroleum compounds into a variety of more usable products, including
petrol, intermediate dis llates, and light olefins [2]. The product from the FCC reac on is then
separated into rich gas, unsaturated gasoline, light diesel oil, re-refined oil, and oil slurry
based on the various boiling point ranges of the dis llates, while also making sure that the
dry point, freezing point, and flash point of light diesel oil are acceptable [3]. Compressed-rich
gas (H2, CO, CO2, C1–6 components) and crude gasoline are dis llate from the top of the main
frac ona on tower are commonly co-processed in ASS. Prior to ASS, a two-stage turbine was
used to compress the rich gas to the required pressure for the subsequent opera on. In
par cular, the dry gas (C2 components) and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG, C3–4 components)
are separated from the compressed rich gas, while the stabilized gasoline is upgraded from
crude gasoline in this process [4]. The ASS comprises four columns: absorber, desorber, re
absorber, and stabilizer [5,6]. As the ASS consists of four recycles with substan al flow rates,
the interac on between the various process parameters is intense. As an illustra on, the
absorber and desorber interact closely because they feed each other. Specifically, the rich
absorp on oil from the absorp on tower is the liquid feed for the desorp on tower. Likewise,
the desorbed gas from the desorp on tower is recycled as the gas feed to the absorp on
tower, as shown in Figure 1. this process [4]. The ASS comprises four columns: absorber,
desorber, reabsorber, and stabilizer [5,6]. As the ASS consists of four recycles with substan al
flow rates, the interac on between the various process parameters is intense. As an
illustra on, the absorber and desorber interact closely because they feed each other.
Specifically, the rich absorp on oil from the absorp on tower is the liquid feed for the
desorp on tower. Likewise, the de sorbed gas from the desorp on tower is recycled as the
gas feed to the absorp on tower, as shown in Figure 1. The system’s temperature and pressure
influence the absorp on and desorp on effects. There is a trade-off between desorbed gas
quan ty, dry gas quality, and LPG quality [7]. Chen et al. [8] introduced a novel GASP to
enhance the separa on process and greatly simplify the exis ng GASP flowsheet. They
analysed the solubility and vola lity of the C5–C11 hydrocarbons in their study and
introduced a new indicator to reflect the effec veness of addi onal absorbent streams. Pan
et al. [9] presented a rig orous dynamic simula on of the fluid cataly c cracking unit’s (FCCU)
absorp on-stabiliza on system. The system’s temperature and pressure influence the
absorp on and desorp on effects. There is a tradeoff between desorbed gas quan ty, dry gas
quality, and LPG quality [7]. Chen et al. [8] introduced a novel GASP to enhance the separa on
process and greatly simplify the exis ng GASP flowsheet. They analyzed the solubility and
vola lity of the C5–C11 hydrocarbons in their study and introduced a new indicator to reflect
the effec veness of addi onal absorbent streams. Pan et al. [9] presented a rigorous dynamic
simula on of the fluid cataly c cracking unit’s (FCCU) absorp on-stabiliza on system.

Fig: Block Flow Diagram of Fluidised Cataly c Cracking Unit (FCCU)

2. Process Descrip on:
2.1. Rich Gas Compression System
Note that the specifica ons are all derived from industrial data. The primary frac on ator is
responsible for separa ng wet gases, naphtha, light gas oil, heavy cycle oil, and slurry oil from
high-temperature superheated reac on vapor from the cataly c reactor. Separate wet gases
and naphtha into dry gas, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and gasoline using the GCS and the
ASS. The rich gas compressor’s duty is to increase the rich gas’s pressure from the
frac ona on process to the pressure required for the ASS to operate. The main factors
affec ng the energy consump on of the rich gas compressor are gas flow rate, compression
ra o, and the selec on of driving power. Compared with a single-stage compressor, a two-
stage compressor can save 15 kWh per ton of rich gas. The back-pressure steam turbine has
the lowest overall energy usage. The energy consump on ra o of the condensing steam
turbine, electric motor, and back-pressure steam turbine under the same compression load is
around 0.62:0.33:0.12 [17]. The rich gas compressor is driven by the back-pressure
compressor using medium-pressure steam (around 3.5 MPa). The reboiler of the stabiliza on
tower and desorp on tower in ASS can be heated using the low-pressure steam (around 1
MPa) emi ed from the compressor outlet. A two-stage centrifugal compressor is u lized in
the wet gas compressor. Typically, this type of compressor uses anelectric motor driven by
high-pressure steam or a mul stage turbine. The steam is frequently vented to a surface
condenser opera ng in a vacuum. In two-stage systems, the vapors from the compressor’s
first-stage discharge are o en par ally condensed and flashed in an inter-stage drum. In the
gas plant, the liquid hydrocarbon is pumped either to the high-pressure separator (HPS) or
right to the stripper. GCS consists of a two-stage compressor. The detailed compression
process is as follows: The rich gas (S1), separated from the main frac onator, enters a first-
stage compressor (C1) for compression. Then it is cooled by cooling water to 40 C for vapor-
liquid separa on in an interstage f lash (D1). The rich compressed gas enters the second-stage
compressor (C2) for further compression. Then it is wasted with acid water (S47) and cooled
by the dry air cooler (E1), as shown in Figure 2

Fig: Piping & Instrumenta on Diagram (P&ID) of Fluidised Cataly c Cracking Unit (FCCU)
2.2. Absorp on-Stabiliza on System
The absorber, desorber, reabsorber, and stabilizer cons tute the majority of the ASS, together
with corresponding heat exchangers and other auxiliary equipment. The primary The
absorber, desorber, reabsorber, and stabilizer cons tute the majority of the ASS, together
with corresponding heat exchangers and other auxiliary equipment. The primary goal of the
system is to separate the rich gas and unsaturated gasoline produced by the main frac onator
into dry gas (C1–C2), LPG (C3–C4), and stabilized gasoline with a suitable vapor pressure. goal
of the system is to separate the rich gas and unsaturated gasoline produced by the main
frac onator into dry gas (C1–C2), LPG (C3–C4), and stabilized gasoline with a suitable vapor
pressure. The detailed ASS is as follows: mixing the compressed rich gas (S47), the absorber
bo om oil (S13), and the desorbed gas from the desorber (S12) for gas-liquid balancing in a
gas-liquid balance tank (D1), and introducing the condensate oil (S11) at the bo om of the
tank into the desorber (T2); the top of the absorber (T1) discharges lean dry gas (S9), and The
detailed ASS is as follows: mixing the compressed rich gas (S47), the absorber bo om oil (S13),
and the desorbed gas from the desorber (S12) for gas-liquid balancing in a gas-liquid balance
tank (D1), and introducing the condensate oil (S11) at the bo om of the tank into the
desorber (T2); the top of the absorber (T1) discharges lean dry gas (S9), and the gas passes
through the de-ethanized gasoline (S14) and enters the stabilizer (T4), which evaporates light
components lighter than C4 from the de-ethanized gasoline, and LPG (S24) primarily
containing C3 and C4 is obtained at the top of the stabilizer. The bot tom product is the
stabilized gasoline (S21) with the qualified vapor pressure and is cooled to 40 °C. A por on of
the stabilized gasoline returns to the top of the absorber to serve as a supplementary
absorbent (S22), and the rest of the bo om product is discharged from the pump (P4) as
products. To increase the absorp on efficiency of the absorber, it is typ ically equipped with
intermediate coolers (E4 and E5) for heat extrac on in the middle of the tower to ensure low-
temperature absorp on. the gas passes through the de-ethanized gasoline (S14) and enters
the stabilizer (T4), which evaporates light components lighter than C4 from the de-ethanized
gasoline, and LPG (S24) primarily containing C3 and C4 is obtained at the top of the stabilizer.
The bo om product is the stabilized gasoline (S21) with the qualified vapor pressure and is
cooled to 40 C.Apor on of the stabilized gasoline returns to the top of the absorber to serve
as a supplementary absorbent (S22), and the rest of the bo om product is discharged from
the pump(P4) as products. To increase the absorp on efficiency of the absorber, it is typically
equipped with intermediate coolers (E4 and E5) for heat extrac on in the middle of the tower
to ensure low temperature absorp on.
3. Simula on and Op miza on:
We take a 725 kt/a rich gas processing flowsheet of an FCC refinery. Figure 3 illustrates the
overall Aspen Plus model . In this work, the Aspen Plus simulator is used to represent this
integrated system. For predic ng the thermodynamic proper es of all fluids, the Peng–
Robinson state equa on is chosen. Table A1 lists Data of streams on the rich gas compression
system and absorp on stabiliza on system in Appendix A. The op miza on module is u lized
for op miza on purposes.
 Fig: Simula on Diagram of Fluidised Cataly c Cracking Unit (FCCU) in Aspen plus

PROPYLENE RECOVERY UNIT (PRU)

Objec ve: To produce propylene from cracked LPG.
Feed: Cracked LPG from FCCU.
Propylene Recovery Unit is designed to produce Polymer grade propylene from cracked LPG,
which will be supplied from FCCU. It is a mixture of Propane, Propylene, Butane, Butylene
with some amounts of C₂ & C5 hydrocarbons.
Process Flow Sec ons:
For the purpose of descrip on unit has been divided into following major sec ons:
1) Feed surge drum and de-propanizer sec on i.e. separa on of C4s from C3s
2) COS Hydrolyser
3) De-ethanizer sec on i.e. separa on of low boiling hydrocarbons from C3s
4) Propane-Propylene spli er sec on.
5) H2S removal from propylene.
6) Water adsorp on sec on for propylene drying.
PROCESS DESCRIPTION:
The PRU is fed with cracked LPG from both old and new FCCUs, treated in the LPG Treatment
Unit (LTU). Designed for approximately 100,000 TPA of 95 wt. % pure chemical-grade
propylene, the PRU aims for a 95% recovery from the feed. The cracked LPG stream, a mix of
propane, propylene, butane, butylene, and some C2 and C5 hydrocarbons, undergoes sulfur
removal in the LTU before heading to the PRU. The LTU-treated LPG is received in a feed surge
drum set at 10.7 kg/cm2 (g). Its pressure is controlled by split range control, opening to fuel
gas/FCCU or allowing vapors from the Debutanizer reflux drum to maintain the set pressure.
Pumped by feed pumps to the Debutanizer column through a feed/bo om exchanger under
flow control with low-level override by feed surge drum level control, the cracked LPG has 55
trays with feed introduced on the 20th tray. The op mized column design and feed-forward
control scheme, analyzing ethane, propylene, and propane contents, manipulate inputs to the
Debutanizer re-boiler steam inlet flow controller.

Fig: Block Flow Diagram of Propylene Recovery Unit (PRU)

Allowing a controlled amount of C4's into the overhead product reduces condenser/re-boiler
du es and vapor flow. The overhead product, cooled in the condenser, is routed to the reflux
drum. Column pressure is controlled by a valve between the column and the condenser.
Reflux and overhead products are pumped to the column and De-ethaniser column,
respec vely, with reflux flow controlled by a cascaded flow controller and temperature
controller on the 49th tray. Reflux drum pressure is controlled by hot vapor bypass under PDIC
control for low pressure or by releasing vapors to the fuel gas system for high pressure. The
column's re-boiler, a ver cal thermo-syphon type, uses LP steam, with duty controlled by a
flow controller in the LP steam line, receiving input from the controller block based on ethane,
propylene, and propane contents and feed flow rate. Condensate is routed to the condensate
recovery system.

Fig: Piping & Instrumenta on Diagram (P&ID) of Propylene Recovery Unit (PRU)
The bo om product from column which is the lean LPG, exchanges heat with the feed in exchanger
and is then cooled to 40°C in the product cooler and routed to the LPG pool under flow control
cascaded with column bo om level control. Vapour product from reflux drum shall be routed to FCCUs
during normal opera on & fuel gas header when FCCUs are under shutdown. The overhead product
from column reflux drum is pumped to De-ethaniser column under flow control cascaded with De-
butanizer reflux drum level controller. The column shall have 58 trays and the feed shall be introduced
on 10th tray for Case 1 & Case 3. For Case 2, feed shall be fed onto 20th tray. The column is vital for
ensuring propylene product specifica ons, handling vapor exclusively from the reflux drum. This vapor
contains a substan al amount of C3s (124 kg/hr out of 291 kg/hr for design case, 636 kg/hr out of
1104 kg/hr, and 98 kg/hr out of 233 kg/hr for check cases) and is routed to the FCC Unit for further
recovery during normal opera on. In FCCU shutdowns, the vapor is directed to the Fuel Gas header.
The column's overhead pressure is controlled by a valve in the vapor product. Reflux is generated in
the heat exchanger, pumped to the reflux drum, and its flow is maintained by a cascaded flow
controller with a reflux drum level controller. The column's re-boiler is a ver cal thermo-syphon type
using LP steam as the hea ng medium. Re-boiler duty is controlled by a flow controller in the LP steam
line, receiving advance input from a controller block based on ethane, propylene, and propane
contents. A selector switch allows choosing between the calcula on block and tray 1 temperature
signal, crucial due to the high opera ng pressure close to cri cal pressure. Condensate is routed to
the condensate recovery system. The bo om product, mainly propane and propylene, is sent to the
Propane-Propylene spli er column under flow control, cascaded with a column bo om level
controller. During opera on, if adjustments to C1+C2 specifica ons are viable, bypassing the column
can save on energy consump on. The Propane-Propylene spli er column, with 116 trays, introduces
feed at the 50th tray. The overhead product is cooled in the condenser, routed to the reflux drum, and
pressure is controlled by a valve between the column and the condenser. Reflux and overhead
products are pumped for storage, with reflux flow maintained by a controller, and propylene
withdrawal under flow control with a reflux drum low level override. Reflux drum pressure is
controlled by hot vapor by-pass, under PDIC control for low pressure or releasing vapors to FCCUs
during normal opera on and the fuel gas header during FCCU shutdowns for high pressure. The re-
boilers for column are horizontal thermo-syphon type with LP steam as the hea ng medium. The re-
boiler duty is controlled by the flow controller located in the LP steam line cascaded with temperature
controller at 1st tray of Propane-Propylene spli er column. The condensate withdrawal from the
condensate pot is on level control cascaded with condensing pressure in the re-boiler. The condensate
is routed to the condensate recovery system. The bo om product from column is cooled to 40°C in
the propane cooler and routed to the LPG pool under flow control cascaded with column bo om level
control. The propylene product is pumped by product pumps through propylene treatment package
to exis ng mounded bullets for storage.

SIMULATED RESULTS:
The feed consists of unsaturated LPG from FCCU and delayed Coker units, which a er undergoing the
process yields 99.58% by volume pure polymer grade propylene. The expected purity was 99.5% by
Volume but the simula on result has shown a 0.08% by volume increase in the purity which is a sign
of successes in the designing aspect. The table given below shows the major product streams coming
out of the Propylene Recovery Unit.
 To LPG
To LPG Fuel Storage
Feed Storage Pool Gas Pool Propylene
(1) (3) (15) (19) (28)
Temperature
(°C) 64 106.43 52.15 59.74 40.04
Pressure
(kPa) 1961.33 1892.68 2834.12 2147.65 1667.13
Molar Flow
(kgmole/h) 1092.10 577.65 14.09 171.69 332.29
Mass Flow
(kg/h) 55115.82 33168.43 544.01 7570.58 13986.00
Liquid Volume
Flow
(m3/h) 98.52 55.92 1.15 14.91 26.85
Heat Flow
(kJ/h) -5.7 X 107 -3.7 X 105 -2.6 X 107 -1.8 X 107 -2.0 X 107
COMPOSITION wt% wt% wt% wt% wt%
H2O 0.0004 0 0 0 0
H2S 0 0 0.000012 0 0
Ethane 0.003795 0 0.297123 0 0
Propane 0.150104 0.000235 0.057457 0.956425 0.00414
CO2 0 0 0.000006 0 0
Nitrogen 0 0 0.000006 0 0
n-Hexane 0 0 0 0 0
E-Mercaptan 0.000008 0.000015 0 0 0
M-Acetylene 0 0 0 0.000002 0
Propylene 0.315073 0.000059 0.643988 0.037856 0.995859
i-Butane 0.08716 0.163492 0 0.002051 0
n-Butane 0.096472 0.182364 0 0.000038 0
n-Pentane 0.00084 0.001588 0 0 0
1-Butene 0.094279 0.177474 0 0.001279 0
COS 0 0 0 0 0
i-Pentane 0.019664 0.037176 0 0 0
cis2-Butene 0.058311 0.110239 0 0.000004 0
tr2-Butene 0.085019 0.160714 0 0.000034 0
Propadiene 0 0 0 0 0
13-Butadiene 0.00112 0.002111 0 0.000011 0
i-Butene 0.087737 0.164536 0 0.0023 0
NaOH 0 0 0 0 0
Ethylene 0.000018 0 0.001407 0 0
 FCCU
4

4
FCCU

Fig: Simula on Diagram of Propylene Recovery Unit (PRU) in Aspen Hysys

SR LPG Treatment
There are three grades of propane, differing in consistency, and all having different purposes.
All grades of propane come from the same raw materials (crude oil or natural gas). The
crea on of differing grades of propane is during the refining or processing of the gas at the
refinery. Before going into the grades, let’s discuss about the basics of LPG.
A brief overview of what LPG is:
LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) is a homogenous mixture of Butane and Propane primarily. It
is a clean fuel, and some of the proper es that make it widely used and preferable are:
 Low boiling point- LPG (propane) boils at -42°C or –44°F, becoming gas vapor. LPG
stays liquid because it is under pressure in a gas cylinder.

 Highly inflammable - LPG forms a flammable mixture with air in concentra ons of
between 2% and 10%. It is a fire and explosion hazard if stored or used incorrectly.

 High calorific value - LPG has a high calorific value of 11,900 Kcal/Kg
resulting in optimal efficiency heat output.

 Colourless and Odourless - LPG is naturally colourless and odourless, and an

odorant called ethyl mercaptan is added to assist in detec ng leaks.

 High volumetric expansion - LPG expansion is 270 mes the volume of gas to the
volume of liquid. So, 1L of liquid LPG (propane) expands to equal 270L
of gaseous LPG expansion.
 Fig: Block Flow Diagram of LPG Recovery

Now, let us discuss Refinery and Straight Run grade LPG processes-
Propane quality refers to the difference between how propane is refined and
processed, precisely the proportion of propylene, butanes, and ethane. Refineries produce
three grades of commercial propane, all refined from the same raw materials but differing in
propane consistency and purpose.
Refinery grade LPG is obtained through the fractional distillation process, and it has high
Sulphur Content and Unsaturated hydrocarbons. SR grade LPG is directly extracted
from "Natural Gas" fields and has negligible Sulphur Content and almost zero
Unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Looking at some of the most important metrics of SR vs Refinery grade LPG:
SULPHUR RECOVERY UNIT
INTRODUCTION
Sulphur Recovery Unit has been designed to recover Sulphur from the gas steam coming
from various units. The major goal is to keep the environment safe from sulphureous
hazards. It was established in 2004 as a part of Hydrotreater Project by Indian Oil
Corporation Limited, with a capacity of producing 5MT / day.
The gaseous waste streams from several processes, including wastewater treatment, oil
refineries, and natural gas plants, contain hydrogen sulphide. These streams typically also
contain trace amounts of Sulphur, ammonia, water vapor, hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide,
and other gases. Sour gases are waste gases that include ammonia, while acid gases do
not. Before burning these waste streams, Sulphur must be collected from them. The
famous Claus process, which uses the reaction between hydrogen sulphide and Sulphur
dioxide to produce elemental Sulphur and water vapor, is frequently used to recover
Sulphur from sour or acid gas.
Acid gas came from Ammine Regeneration Unit (ARU) and Sour gas from Sour Water
Stripper Unit (SWSU), which is then feed to the SRU for recovery of Sulphur. The liquid
sulphur is then cooled with water for solidification and transported to various industries.
The tail gas coming from SRU and the Sweep gas from Sulphur Pit, are fed to the Thermal
Incinerator to oxidize the residual hydrogen sulphide. The flue gas leaving the Incinerator
is discharged to atmosphere via a stack or chimney.

Acid Gas Stack gas

(CO2, H2S)

SRU
Sour Gas Elemental
(NH3, H2S) Sulphur
SRU BLOCK DIAGRAM

CLAUS CONVERTER
PRIMARY FEED GAS

THERMAL CONVERTER
(ARU) R1 R2 R3
MCC WHB

CONDENSER
(SWSU)
E1 E2 E3

Incinerator &
SULPHUR PIT
Vent Stack

PROCESS CHEMISTRY
A Sulphur plant is more of a chemical plant than a processing plant. It consists of three
main sections:
Sulphur Recovery Section:
The Sulphur recovery section mainly consists of Three different types of conversions:
 Thermal Conversion: occurs in MCC
 Cataly c Conversion: occurs in Cataly c Reactors (R1, R2, R3)
 Condensa on: occurs in Waste Heat Boiler and Condensers (E1, E2, E3)

Tail Gas Incinerator Section:

Tail gas from the Coalescer and Sweep gas from the pits mixes with excess air and fuel gas
and enters into the Incinerator. After complete combustion the flue gas leaves the
incinerator through vent stack.

Sulphur Degassing Section:

The liquid sulphur from Yard is recirculated to sulphur pit using a pump. It results in
agitation which enhances the Polysulphide transformation
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Primary Feed
Primary feed consists of acid and sour gas which comes from amine
regeneration unit and sour water stripper unit respectively.
Acid gas
Temperature 40oC
Battery limit Amine Recovery Unit
Major: H2S (97.6 w/w%)
Constituents
Minor: HC (2.09 w/w%), H2O (0.31 w/w%)
Mass flow rate 195.7 kg/hr
Molecular weight 33.4 kg/kmol
Ignition Temperature 950 oC
Pressure 0.8-0.9 kg/cm2(g)

Sour Gas
Temperature 88oC
Battery limit Sour Water Stripper Unit
Major: H2S (55.74 w/w%)
Constituents
Minor: NH3 (20.86 w/w%), H2O (23.4 w/w%)
Mass flow rate 70.5 kg/hr
Molecular weight 24.1 kg/kmol
Ignition Temperature 1200 oC
Pressure 0.7-0.75 kg/cm2(g)

Acid
Primary Feed Gas

gas
MCC

Sour
Gas
Both the feed gas enters the MCC via Knock out Drums. These knock out drums separates the acid
mist or liquid part from the gaseous parts. The knock out drums for acid and sour gas are 51A-V-
01 and 51A-V-02 respectively.

Main Combustion Chamber

Temperature: 1000-1350oC
Input: Acid gas, Sour gas, Fuel gas, Air
Turndown Ratio: 30%
CH4/ C2H6/ C3H8 + O2 ⇌ CO + H2O
H2S + 3/2 O2 ⇌ SO2 +H2O + Δ
Main Reaction:
2H2S + SO2 ⇌ 2H2O + n/2 Sn + Δ
2NH3 + 3/2 O2 ⇌ N2 + 3H2O + Δ
CO2 + H2S ⇌ COS + H2O
Side Reaction:
CO2 + 2H2S ⇌ CS2 + 2H2O
H2S : O2 2:1 (Stoichiometric Ratio)
Effluent gas: H2S, SO2, CO2, CO, N2 (majorly)

Acid gas and sour gas mixture is burnt with controlled quantity of air. All the combustible
materials are burnt. Air and fuel gas is supplied for the combustion. The effluent gas after the
combustion is passed on to the waste heat boiler.

Fuel gas

Acid gas
(ARU)
MCC Effluent gas

Sour gas
(SWSU)

Air Supply

Controlled combustion is necessary because:

 Excess oxygen results in forma on of SO3 which is an undesired product.
 If oxygen is less then incomplete combus on of fuel gas is carried out which results in
the forma on carbon which fouls the catalysts and results in poor quality of Sulphur
being formed.
Waste Heat Boiler
Fire tube type of boiler is used to recovery the heat which results in the condensation of Sulphur
vapours which are separated out and sent to the sulphur pits vial seal and look pot. Boiler feed
water enters at a temperature of 130OC and leaves the boiler in the form of low- pressure steam
and is collected in the header.
 LP Steam

Cooled gas

Effluent gas WHB

LIQ Sulphur

BFW
Fig 1.5

Catalytic Converter
Stages 3
Catalyst Used Activated Alumina / TiO2
Temperature 298 0C
Feed Gas SO2, H2S, CO2, CS2, COS, N2
Product S, H2O, CO2
Main Reaction 2H2S + SO2 ⇌ 2H2O + n/2 Sn + Δ
COS + H2O ⇌ CO2 + H2S
Side Reaction CS2 + 2H2O ⇌ CO2 + 2H2S

Effluent
Reactor
From WHB/ Main Reac on
Effluent H2S Effluent gas
Side Reac on

Sulphur (L)

Condenser
Effluent gases from each catalytic reactor enters in their respective condensers, where the
sulphur vapours are liquefied and then passed to the sulphur pit via seal and look pot, and the
gaseous part is recirculated. Boiler feed water enters into each condenser separately and then
leaves as low-pressure steam which is stored in the header. The exit gas stream from the last
condenser goes to the tail gas Coalescer where the suspended sulphur droplets areseparated
and send to the sulphur pit.
 LP steam

Reactors/
Coalescer

Effluent gas Condenser

Sulphur pit

BFW

Sulphur Pit
Liquid Sulphur from waste heat boiler, condenser and tail gas enters into the Sulphur pit after
passing through seal and look pot respectively. Sweep gas from the Sulphur pit is sent to
incinerator. Steam jacketing is provided in the Sulphur pit to prevent solidification of Sulphur.
This steam is supplied from header. It is then sent to Sulphur Yard for solidification.

Collection from WHB, Condenser, Coalescer

Reaction H2Sx → H2S + S(x-1)

(Polysulphide) (Sweep gas)
Temperature 130-140oC

Note: Pump is used for recirculation in pit, which increases agitation, thus it enhances the
above reaction.

Incinerator
Tail gas from the tail gas coalescer and sweep gas from the Sulphur yard is mixed with excess
amount of air and fuel gas and incinerated.

Temperature 600/750/950oC (Min/Nor/Max)

Input Fuel gas, Excess Air, Sweep gas, Tail gas

Output SO2 (20-50ppm), NOx (<50 ppm), H2S (<10ppm), CO2

Discharge Mode To atmosphere via stack

H2S concentration (max) 10 ppmv

SO2 concentration (max) Consistent with 4% recovered Sulphur
 PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAM (P&ID)

SIMULATION (ASPEN HYSYS V11)

<
AMINE REGENERATION UNIT
INTRODUCTION
Amine Regeneration Unit has been designed to liberate H2S from the off-gas steam
coming from various units. The major goal is to separate out Hydrocarbon and H 2S from
the off-gas stream. It was established in 2001 by Indian Oil Corporation Limited, with a
capacity of producing 0.1MTPA.
The objective of the Amine Regeneration Unit is to eliminate H2S and CO2 from the rich
amine streams which are returned from the various amine absorbers or treaters within
the refinery. The recovered acid gases are routed to the SRU for recovery of elemental
Sulphur. The regenerated lean solvent is recirculated back to the absorber for reuse in
AAU.

ARU receives off-gas from several units, most likely HDT, DCU, CRU, and INDMAX, in order
to separate HC and Acid gas. H2S from sour off-gases are removed by using 30-35wt %
methyl Di-ethanol-amine (MDEA) solvent.

OFF GAS

DCU HDT CRU

ARU

H2S, CO2 HC

SRU LRU
 ARU BLOCK DIAGRAM

INDMAX Sweet

Gas
OFF GAS (feed)
DCU

Amine Lean amine

Filter
Absorber

10%
CRU

Rich amine

Flash Drum Regenerator

HDT

Stripped Lean amine

Amine Regenerator

PROCESS CHEMISTRY
ARU is designed to liberate H2S by absorbing in n-MDEA. It consists of 3 sections:
Amine Absorption Section
Off-gas containing H2S is introduce into the absorber which is then absorbed in solvent.
A 30-35 w% Methyl Di-ethanol-amine (MDEA) is used as solvent. To reduce solvent
entrainment, a demister is utilized. The HC phase that produces foaming is removed from
the column using skimming pots.
Amine Regeneration Section
Rich Amine containing H2S is stripped in Regenerator and lean amine is recover, which is
then cooled and filtered for recirculation. It consists of several sections-
a. Amine Flashing
b. Rich Solvent Hea ng
c. Rich Solvent Stripping
d. Reflux Drum and Reflux Pump
e. Lean Solvent Cooler
Storage and Acid Drained System
Solvent storage system includes the MDEA Solvent Preparation Tank (51B-V-01), MDEA
Solvent Storage Tank (51B-T-01), Amine Sump Drum (51B-V-06), Solvent Make- up Pump
(51B-P-02), MDEA Solvent Storage Tank Pump (51B-P-03) and Amine Sump Drum Pump
(51B-P-06). Concentrated MDEA is unloaded into MDEA Solvent Preparation Tank (51B-
V-01) which is located underground for the process.
 PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Primary feed consists of off gas which comes from different units; most likely
Hydrotreater Unit (HDT), Delayed Coker Unit (DCU), Chemical Reforming Unit (CRU)
and INDMAX Unit.

Feed Characteristics

Circulating Amine 30-35 wt % n-MDEA

H2S Loading in mol H2S/ mol Lean amine 0.013
MDEA Rich amine 0.3
HC content in Acid gas 0.276 vol%
Mass flow rate (Kg/hr) DCU + INDMAX 4816
HDT 1734
H2S content (%vol) DCU + INDMAX 0.796
HDT 3.62
Temperature DCU + INDMAX 400C
HDT 460C
Pressure kg/cm2 (g) DCU + INDMAX 15
HDT 4.6

Amine Absorption Section

HDT off-gas Absorption Section
Sour off-gas from HDT enters into the HDT Knockout Drum (51B-V-04) at 40 °C to separate
out all the liquids that caused foaming problem in the column. It is then entered into the
Absorber (51B-C-01), where Lean amine is introduced for absorption. Gas is counter-
currently contacted with Lean amine which results in absorption of acid gas (rich in H2S).
Reach solvent containing absorbed H2S leaves the absorber to the Amine Regeneration
Unit. Treated gas is passes through a Demister (51B-V-02) to separate out any liquid and
sweet gas is sent to Fuel Gas Network from top of V-02.
DCU off-gas Absorption Section
Sour of-gas from DCU and INDMAX enters into the DCU Knockout Drum (51B-V-07) to separate
out all the liquids that caused foaming problem in the column. It is then entered into the Absorber
(51B-C-03), where Lean amine is introduced for absorption. Gas is counter-currently contacted
with Lean amine which results in absorption of acid gas (rich in H2S). Reach solvent containing
absorbed H2S leaves the absorber to the Amine Regeneration Unit. Treated gas is passes through
a Demister (51B-V-08) to separate out any liquid and sweet gas is sent to LPG Recovery Unit from
top of V-08.

Amine Regeneration Section

Amine Flashing
Rich amine from absorber is enters into the Amine Flash Drum (51B-V-09) whichseparate out
Hydrocarbon from the solution to prevent foaming and HC to from entering the Regenerator(51B-
V-09). The rich amine from the bottom is sent to Regenerator (51B-V-02) and liberated
hydrocarbons from the top to acid flare.

Rich Solvent Heating

Rich solvent from Amine Flash Drum (51B-V-09) is pumped by Rich Solvent Pump (51B- P07A/B)
to Regenerator through a heat exchanger (51B-E-01). The Rich amine is heatedfrom 55 °C to 95 °C
by cooling the Lean Solvent (129°C to 92°C) that comes from the bottom of the Regenerator.
Rich Solvent Stripping

Nearly all the H2S from the Rich Solvent is stripped in regenerator (51B-C-02), thus regenerating it
to Lean solvent. Preheated Rich Solvent enters the column at the top above Tray No. 22, where
H2S is first partially flashed before being separated from the solvent by steam and gases coming
from the MDEA Re-boiler (51B-E-02).

Regenerator Overhead Condenser, Reflux Drum and Reflux Pump

The Regenerator Overhead Condenser (51B-E-03) condenses the Regenerator Overhead Vapours,
which contain H2S, light HC, and water vapor. The resulting two- phase mixture is sent to the
reflux drum (51B-V-03), where acid gas and condensate are separated into two streams. Reflux
Pump (51B-P-05A/B) is used to pump thecondensed water to the top of Regenerator (51B-C-02)
in order to maintain solution strength. It also prevents the loss of vaporized amine along with the
acid gas from the column.
 Fig 2.8

2.4.3.1 Lean Solvent Cooler

Lean amine (n-MDEA) solution is taken out from the bottom of the Regenerator (51B- C-
02) and sent to heat exchanger (51B-E-01), where it is cooled (129°C to 92°C) by
transferring the heat to Rich solvent (55°C to 95°C) for heating. It is then sent to Lean
solvent cooler (51B-E-04) for further cooling (92°C to 52°C) process using cooling water.

E-05
Fig 2.9

2.4.3.2 Lean Solvent Pumps, MDEA Filters

Lean Solvent Pump (51B-P05A/B) transport the lean solvent from 51B-E-04 to the
absorber (51B-C-01). A 10% lean solvent side stream is passed through a MDEA filter
(51B-G-01A/B) designed to remove any particulates that may be present in the
circulating solvent. It is then sent to an MDEA carbon filter (51B-G-02) where surface
active contaminants such as heavy hydrocarbons, surfactants and oils are removed.
Further the stream is passes through a after filter (51B-G03A/B) for removal of any
activated carbon particles and recirculated at the suction.

Fig 2.10
Solvent Storage and Acid Drained Systems
Solvent storage system includes the MDEA Solvent Preparation Tank (51B-V-01), MDEA Solvent
Storage Tank (51B-T-01), Amine Sump Drum (51B-V-06), Solvent Make-up Pump (51B-P-02),
MDEA Solvent Storage Tank Pump (51B-P-03) and Amine Sump Drum Pump (51B-P-06).
Concentrated MDEA is unloaded into MDEA Solvent Preparation Tank (51B-V-01) which is
located underground for the process.
PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAM (P&ID)

1.2 SIMULATION (ASPEN HYSYS V11)

SOUR WATER STRIPPING UNIT
INTRODUCTION
Ammonia (NH3) and hydrogen sulphide (H2S) are the two main pollutants in the sour
water, which is gathered from the HDT, DCU, and INDMAX Units. After the revamp, the
SWS unit also receives sour water from ISOM, and CBD Blowdown pump intermittently,
IndeselectG unit during catalyst sulphating and CRU. Due to the unpleasant smell and
significant toxicity of these pollutants for living things, proper treatment of sour water is
crucial.

Fig 3.1

 The stripping is done with steam.

 The stripped water is sent to CDU.
 The entrained HC is sent to OWS.
 The sour gas is sent to SRU for sulphur recovery.
SWSU BLOCK DIAGRAM

PROCESS CHEMISTRY
The SWSU consists of four main parts:
a. A degassing drum
b. Stripping column
c. Closed Blowdown Drum
(CBD)Chemicals used: NaOH
 Reason: Some ammonium salts are not easily decomposed, like NH 4Cl. To
remove the residual ammonia, strong base is injected.
Reactions
 NH3 + H2S ⇋ NH4+ +HS-
 NH4+ + OH- ⇋ NH3 + H2O
DESIGN CAPACITY
\

Feed Characteristics

Product Characteristics
UNIT H2S MASS NH3 MASS H2O MASS MASS TEMP PRESSURE
FLOWRATE FLOWRATE FLOWRATE FLOWRATE
(Kg/hr) (Kg/hr) (Kg/hr) (Kg/hr) (OC) (Kg/cm2)

HDT 92.48 50.49 4238.94 4382 40 2

INDMAX 0.81 3.70 3487.84 3492.4 98 2

DCU 2.22 12.49 3978.89 3993.78 98 2

ISOM 0.2229 0.0236 14.54 14.6 40 2

CRU 0.0576 0.018 449.9244 450 40 2

TOTAL 95.58 66.72 12170.14 12332.9

PRESSURE TEMPERATURE
COMPOSITION
(Kg/cm2) (0C)
PH
Residual H2S Residual NH3 Stripped Sour gas Stripped Sour gas to
(max.) (max.) water to SRU water SRU

7 25 25 3 0.7-0.75 40 90
PROCESS DESCRIPTION

Degassing Drum

The sour water from various units is collected in the Degassing Drum(50-V-01). The
residence time in 50-V-01 is high enough to allow the separation of entrained
hydrocarbon liquids. The further the separation of Hydrocarbon, lesser is the amount in
the SRU feed gas. Theseentrained liquid hydrocarbons that overflow the internal weir, are
skimmed and drained to OWS. The stripper feed pumps 50-P-01A/B pump the sour water
from the drum to the counter current heat exchangers 50-E-01(N), where it enters
directly above tray no. 7 of the new stripper column 50-C-01. The HC vapours are sent to
acid gas flare.
Feed Preheater
Sour water enters the welded block plate counter flow heat exchanger at 35 0C and
leaves at 970C. This sour water is heated by stripped water which enters the heat
exchanger at 1220C and leaves at 590C.

Stripping Column

Operating Pressure at top 0.8 kg/cm2g

Overhead temperature (0C) 90
Bottom temperature (0C) 120
Height of the column 10 meters

There are total of 39 trays after the BS-IV. The top 6 trays are the high-capacity trays
whose function is to cool and then reduce water loss with stripped gas. Tray no. 7 to 39
acts as stripping section. Between tray number 6 and 7 an accumulator tray is installed.
E01 and E02 both are welded block type heat exchanger.
In order to release residual ammonia, a solution of 10% wt caustic is injected through
distributors located between trays no.30 and 31, no.33 and 34 or no.36 and 37 post
revamps.
Closed Blow Drown Pumps
All sour water drains coming from various equipment likes pipes and valves flow to the
CBD. The water flows due to gravitational effect. The overflown water is sent to degassing
drum through the pump P-05. The pump operation is intermitted and the level switch
LSHL-5601 provides the start/stop signals

SRU Control Function

Degassing Drum

Control Control Function

Name Valve
LIC-0301 LV-0301 To control the overflow of entrained liquid
HC to OWS
To avoid complete emptying of HC, and close
LSLL-0301 SOV-0301 control
valve LV-0301
LC-0302 FV-0401 Level controller
LC-0302 FV-0401 Spill back flow control valve
RO-0301 - Orifice restriction
Pressure indicator to detect abnormal high-
PI-0301 - pressure
values in the vessel

The control valve assembly is located close to the inlet to the stripping column to
minimise vaporisation when the feed is heated in the feed exchanger.
Stripping Column

Control name Control Valve Functio

n
PIC-0504 PV-0504A Column top pressure control
PIC-0504 PV-0504B Gas line to flare header control
PIC-0504 PV-0504C Gas line to SRU control
LT-0520A/B/C - Alarm to trip circulating water pumps
TV-0503 FC-0601A/B Stripper top tray temperature control
LC-0501 FI-0404 Stripper bottom water level control
FC-0502 FV-0502 Steam flow to reboiler control
FC-0401 FV-0401 Stripper feed flow control
PIC-0502 PV-0522 Pressure Control valve
TIC-0522 TV-0522 MP steam temperature inlet to Waste
Water Stripper Reboiler
FIC-0601A/B/C FV-0601 Minimum flow rate to circulating pumps
FIC-0603A FV-0603 Recycle flow controller
FIC-0406 FV-0406 Recycle flow rate controller
PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAM (P&ID)

SIMULATION (ASPEN HYSYS V11)

 SAFETY

General Safety
 Operators should wear a compressed air breathing apparatus or hose
masks connected to a clean air supply.
 Personnel should not enter an enclosed space without a belt with a lifeline.
 At loading or unloading catalyst, wearing of masks is recommended to
prevent inhala on of catalyst dust
Fire safety
 Equipment such as fire ex nguishers, snuffing steam lines, and water lines
should be immediately accessible.
 Hydrocarbon spills should be immediately washed to the oily water sewer.
 Hot works such as welding should not be carried out a er Unit start-up
First Aid Measures
 Remove the pa ent to fresh air or a well-ven lated room and loosen any
restric ng clothing.
 Contact the medical department, and call immediately a doctor, stressing the
nature of the accident.
 Skin absorp on is very slow; if suspected the skin should be thoroughly
washed with water.

HAZARD

H2S
Physical Property Colourless with unpleasant odor
Flammability Limit 4.2 – 45.5%
TLV 1.0 ppm
STEL 15 ppm

NH3
Physical Property Colourless gas with pungent odour
Lethal Dose 2000 ppm
TLV 25 ppm
STEL 35 ppm
 SO2

SO2
Physical Property Colorless gas with suffocating odor
Flammability Limit 30-50 ppm
TLV 0.25 ppm
STEL 5 ppm

SULPHUR

Sulphur
Physical Property Tasteless, odorless, Pale-yellow solid
Flammability Limit 190oC
Toxic Impurities H2S (150-300 ppm)
TLV 1 ppm
STEL 5 ppm

CAUSTIC SODA

Physical Property White crystalline solid, odorless

Flammability Limit Not flammable
TLV 0.002 ppm
STEL 0.01 ppm

MDEA

Physical Property Colourless liquid, ammonia like odour

Flammability Limit 1.4 - 8.8 %w
TLV 2300 ppm
STEL 4500 ppm
Alkylation Process
Alkylation is the process of producing gasoline range material light olefins (primarily
propylene and butylene) with isobutane in the presence of a highly acidic catalyst, either
sulfuric acid or hydrofluoric acid. The product (alkylate) contains a mixture of high-octane,
branched-chain paraffinic hydrocarbons.
Refinery gases produced from different units are collected and sent to the gas plant.
Olefins and isobutanes are separated and used as a feed to the alkylation plant to produce
gasoline which can be sent to the gasoline pool.

Alkylation Processes
Alkylation is catalyzed by a strong acid, either sulphuric (H2SO4) or hydrofluoric (HF). In
the absence of catalysts, alkylation between isobutene and olefin must be run under
severe conditions such as T = 500 °C (932 F) and P = 200–400 bars (2940–7080 psia).
In the presence of an acid catalyst, the reaction temperature will be lower than 50 °C
(122 F), and the pressure will be lower than 30 bars (441 psia). The major difference in
using either acid is that isobutane is quite insoluble in H2SO4 but reasonably soluble in
HF. This requires the use of high isobutane/olefin ratios to compensate for low solubility
in H2SO4. Furthermore, the reaction must occur at low temperature. The alkylation
process consists of running the hydrocarbons in liquid form (enough pressure is used to
ensure that) and at low temperature and with a high isobutane (iC4) to olefin (such as
C4) ratio. The reaction products are sent to an acid settler where the acid is recycled
back to the reactor. Products are then separated into gaseous LPG propane and n-butane
and the desired product of alkylate. A block diagram of the process is shown in Figure
below:

Process Flow: Sulfuric Acid Alkylation

In sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ) alkylation units, the feeds – propylene, butylene, amylene,
and fresh isobutane – enter the reactor and contact sulfuric acid with a
concentration of 85 to 95%. The reactor is divided into zones. Olefins are fed through
distributors to each zone, and sulfuric acid and isobutanes flow over baffles from
one zone to the next.
The reactor effluent goes to a settler, in which hydrocarbons separate from the acid.
The acid is returned to the reactor. The hydrocarbons are washed with caustic and sent
to fractionation. The fractionation section comprises a depropanizer, a deisobutanizer,
and a debutanizer. Alkylate from the deisobutanizer can go directly to motor-fuel
blending, or it can be reprocessed to produce aviation-grade gasoline. Isobutane is
recycled. A block diagram of the process is shown in Figure below.

Hydrofluoric Acid Alkylation

Figure below shows a process schematic for hydrofluoric acid (HF) alkylation. Olefins
and isobutane are dried and fed to a reactor, where the alkylation reaction takes place
over the HF catalyst. The reactor effluent flows to a settler, where the acid phase
separates from the hydrocarbon phase. The acid is drawn off and recycled. The
hydrocarbon phase goes to a deisobutanizer (DIB). The overhead stream, containing
propane, isobutane, and residual HF, goes to a depropanizer (DeC3). The DeC3 overhead
goes to an HF stripper. It is then treated with caustic and sent to storage. Isobutane from
the DIB main fractionator is recycled. The bottom stream from the debutanizer goes to
product blending.
AlkyClean Process
Lummus technology has developed a solid acid catalyst gasoline alkylation technology.
The AlkyClean process employs a zeolite catalyst coupled with a novel reactor
processing to yield a high quality alkylate product. The process shown in Figure below
consists of four main sections: feedstock pretreatment, reaction, catalyst regeneration
and product distillation. An olefin feed is preheated and fed with the isobutane recycle
to the reactor. The reactor operates at 50–90 °C (122–194 F) with liquid phase
conditions. Multiple reactors are used to allow for the catalyst regeneration cycle.
During regeneration, olefin addition is stopped and hydrogen is added to achieve a
low reactor concentration of dissolved hydrogen while maintaining liquid phase
alkylation reaction conditions. This minimizes energy consumption during the switching
of the operation. The swing reactor coupled with long catalyst life allows the refiner
to work without the need of taking the reactor off-line for moderate temperature
regeneration that restores the catalyst activity completely.
Effect of Operating Conditions
 Olefin Type
The presence of propylene or pentene with butane will lower the octane number and
increase the acid consumption. The octane number of alkylates produced from light
olefins is given in Table below:

 Isobutane Concentration
  Acid Strength
An optimum value of acid strength of 90 wt% H2SO4 is maintained by adding fresh
concentrated acid (98–99 wt%). As the strength of the acid decreases, the acid
consumption increases with the octane number decreases. The minimum acid
strength required to operate the system should not be lower than 85 wt%. To provide
a sufficient margin of safety, acid strength is kept around 90 wt%. The acid strength
decreases because of the formation of gums and other products resulting from the
reaction with other impurities. Thus, acid make- up has to be added.

 Degree of Agitation
When the hydrocarbons are dispersed in sulphuric acid, the speed of the impeller
determines the dispersed phase size (droplet diameter) and hence, the interfacial
contact area. The reaction rate of iC4 and C4 is quite fast, and the reaction is controlled
by mass transfer. Side reactions cause the formation of heavy alkylates as given by the
following equation

where [iC4] h is the concentration of iC4 in hydrocarbon phase, N is the impeller speed
(rpm), Ha is the fractional acid hold-up, (SV)o is the space olefin velocity (1/h),
RHeavy alkylate is the rate of formation of the undesirable heavy alkylate, and R iC8 is
the rate of formation of the target alkylateiC8 .

 Space Velocity
The olefin space velocity is defined as:

The residence time in the reactor is (1/(SV)o ) and is defined as the residence time of
the fresh feed and externally recycled isobutane in the reaction mixture. Since the
alkylation reaction is very fast, the residence time is not a limiting parameter. However,
as the space velocity increases, the octane number tends to decrease while acid
consumption tends to increase. Residence time for sulphuric acid is usually from 5 to 40
min, and for hydrofluoric acid, it is 5– 25 min.
 Reac on Temperature
The reaction thermodynamics and kinetics are favoured at low temperatures. Sulphuric
acid alkylation units are operated at 5–10 °C (40–50 F). Above 10 °C, oxidation and side
reactions are promoted, and the deteriorate-alkylate yield and quality while acid
consumption increases. It is impossible to run the reaction below 0 °C (32 F) because
acid viscosity will be too high and agitation becomes difficult.Above 21 °C (70 F), the
polymerization of olefin will occur, and thevoctane number of alkylate decrease. For HF
alkylation, the reaction temperature is less significant and is between 21 and 38 °C (70
and 100 F).
Naptha Hydrotrea ng Unit
Hydrotrea ng
Most products of crude and vacuum dis lla on in refineries contain a significant amount of sulpur that must
be removed prior to further processing or use. Hydrotrea ng or hydrodesulfuriza on refers to a set of
opera ons that remove sulphur and other impuri es. During hydrotrea ng, crude oil cuts are selec vely
reacted with hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst at rela vely high temperatures and moderate pressures.
The process converts undesirable aroma cs, olefins, nitrogen, metals, and organosulfur compounds into
stabilized products. Some hydrotreated cuts may require addi onal processing to meet final product
specifica ons.

Basic Outline of a Petroleum Refinery with Hydrotrea ng Units

Why is Hydrotreatment required?
Hydrotreatment processes reduce the impurity content of petroleum products, which increases the efficiency
of the fuels and reduces the produc on of harmful combus on byproducts such as NOx and SOx.
Hydrotreatment also helps to sa sfy final product specifica ons. Contaminants can affect the performance
of downstream unit opera ons, catalysts, or even engines.
Compounds removed by Hydrotrea ng
  Sulphur is the most cri cal compound to remove. It is present in nearly all crude oil feedstocks as
sulphur mercaptans, sulphides, disulfides, polysulfides, and thiophenes.
 Nitrogen is typically treated with hydrogen gas and transformed into ammonia gas.
 Oxygen is reacted with hydrogen and eliminated as water. Most oxygen in dis lla on cuts is not
present as oxygen gas, but bonded to hydrocarbons.
 Olefins are vola le and unstable, and they are not desirable in fuels. Olefins are transformed into
stable paraffinic hydrocarbons.
 Metals are removed because they can deposit on catalysts and in engines.

Basics of Hydrotrea ng Opera on

It is common to assume that the hydrotrea ng process is a single unit opera on that converts all of the raw
feed into a final desulfurized product. However, this is not the case; most hydrotreatment processes require
many unit opera ons, including a reactor, gas separators, separa on columns, and heat exchangers. The
process can be divided into three main processing blocks:
 heat exchange network
 reactor in which the actual hydrotrea ng takes place
 stripping where the desulfurized product stream is separated from the vola les, gases, and impuri es.
Each hydrotrea ng unit is tailored to the feedstock and end product. For instance, the process to hydrotreat
naphtha is not the same as the process for diesel fuels. The most common cuts that are hydrotreated in a
refinery include: light naphtha, heavy naphtha, jet fuel or kerosene, and diesel oils (e.g., light and heavy coker
diesel oil). This ar cle focuses on the two main cuts: naphtha and diesel oil.
Process Descrip on
The feed is first pressurized and mixed with the recycle and makeup hydrogen streams. The mixture is heated
to about 290–430°C before entering the fixed-bed reactor, which operates at about 7–180 bar. Higher
temperatures and pressures are used for processing heavier feedstocks, such as diesel oils. Overall, however,
hydrotreater temperatures are rela vely moderate, which avoids thermal cracking of molecules while being
high enough to enable reac on of the feedstock.
Inside the fixed-bed reactor, hydrogenolysis and mild hydrocracking reac ons take place to convert sulfur,
nitrogen, oxygen, and other contaminants to hydrogen sulphide, ammonia, water vapor, and other stabilized
byproducts (Figure 3). The catalyst used in the reactor is a crucial design considera on that greatly affects
the final products. If sulphur removal is the primary goal, cobalt-molybdenum catalysts are favored. If the
crude oil is rela vely low in sulphur, nitrogen removal becomes the priority and nickel-molybdenum catalysts
are chosen. Depending on the condi ons and composi on of the outlet streams, the byproducts are either
discarded, recycled, or sent for further treatment.
Most outlet streams undergo further treatment to lessen their environmental impact and/or recover the
material for use. Sour gas (which contains hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, and a significant amount of
hydrogen sulfide) is commonly sent to an amine gas trea ng unit that separates the hydrocarbon gases from
the hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide.
Hydrotrea ng of Naptha
Naphtha is a valuable product of petroleum refining, as it is one of the main cons tuents of the gasoline
blending pool. While there is no formal defini on of naphtha, it is commonly considered the C5–C12 cut,
which is divided into light and heavy naphtha. Light naphtha has an ini al boiling point (IBP) of about 30°C
and a final boiling point (FBP) of about 145°C. It contains most of the hydrocarbons between C4 and C6.
Heavy naphtha has an IBP and FBP of about 140°C and 205°C, respec vely. It contains most of the
hydrocarbons in the C6–C12 range.
High sulphur content is associated with cuts that are heavier than naphtha. However, removing the rela vely
small amount of sulphur in naphtha is beneficial for engine performance and opera onal longevity.

Schema c of Naptha Hydrotrea ng Unit

Processing of Naptha
Hea ng
The naphtha feed enters the hydrotreatment unit through a charge pump. It is first mixed with hydrogen gas
from either the cataly c reforming unit (CRU) or refinery hydrogen plant. The mixture is then heated to 340°C
while being contacted with the reactor’s effluent.
The charge heater has four passes with four gas burners. Heater tubes are constructed of Type 321 stainless
steel, which is the grade of choice for applica ons with temperatures up to around 900°C, because it
combines high strength and resistance to scaling with resistance to aqueous corrosion.
Reac on
A er prehea ng, the mixture is fed to a reactor with two catalyst beds. The desulfuriza on reac ons take
place over the cobalt-molybdenum bed and the nitrogen reac ons take place over the alumina bed. The
reactor temperature is held at a constant 315°C and a pressure of 370 psig.
The reactor effluent contains mostly the desulfurized naphtha, excess hydrogen, hydrogen sulphide,
ammonia, and light hydrocarbons (C1–C4) due to mild cracking. The reactor effluent is cooled and par ally
condensed through a feed/effluent heat exchanger and then cooled with air.
Separa on
The separa on process, or stripping sec on, uses a series of separators and columns to stabilize the naphtha.
The cooled stream from the reactor is sent to a pressurized flash separator at 290 psig. The light ends, mainly
hydrogen sulphide, ammonia, excess hydrogen gas, and light hydrocarbons, are separated from the bulk of
the desulfurized naphtha.
The liquid naphtha stream from the separator is then sent to the stripping unit. The stripping column is
heated to 340°C by a reboiler and held at a pressure of 205 psig. High temperature and pressure enable
removal of vola le material (light hydrocarbons), which would vaporize at final storage and use condi ons.
Inlets to the stripping column include desulfurized raw naphtha, recycled desulfurized stripped naphtha, and
the bo oms of the column. The outlet streams include mostly light gases (C1–C5 hydrocarbons) that are sent
for amine treatment to recover them as fuels.
The resul ng liquid naphtha is then cooled by air and sent out of the unit’s ba ery limits as stabilized
hydrotreated naphtha product.
Process Route Descrip on (for Simula on)
The feed from the refinery mainly raw Naphtha (NHTFEED) at a temperature of 63 °C and pressure of 3.5
kg/cm2 entered into a Surge Drum 151-W-1001.and the bo om entered into Pump 151-PA-1001 A/B. The
fluid was charged using the pump to a mixer 151-MX where it mixed with a fresh Hydrogen-Feed, gas stream
at high pressure and temperature of 67°C. This was pumped into an Exchanger of Combined Feed (151EE-
1001A-N) to be preheated by the products of the reactor from a temperature of 65 °C to 292°C. The
preheated stream temperature was increased by hea ng it to the desired reac on temperature of 334 °C by
Heater (151-FE-1001) and then entered into the Reactor 151-RB1001 in which the following reac ons;
hydrodesulphuriza on, hydro-denitrogena on, hydrodeoxida on and olefin satura on occurred with
respec ve following products of Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S), Ammonia (NH3), Steam (H2O) and Cyclohexane
(C6H12) obtained. The products of the exothermic reac ons at a temperature of 343°C were passed through
the tube side of the Exchanger of combined Feed (151EE-1001A-N) to pre-cool the product stream
simultaneously prehea ng the reactant incoming fluid stream. The product from the Exchanger of combined
feed was le at a temperature of 235 °C and was allowed to cool to a temperature of 75 °C in Products
Condensers 151-EA1001A-P. The condensed product was channeled to a Separator 151-W-1003. In which the
sour H2 gas (vapour phase) moves from the top of the separator and entered the Recycle Compressors 151-
KA-1001 A/B, from where a part of this gas is sent to CFE in which part of it is used as makeuphydrogen for
the reac ons. On the other hand, the liquid obtained from the bo om of Separator 151-W-1003 was
channeled to the Stripper 151- CC-1001 at a temperature of 49 °C, through a Pump (151- PA-1006 A/B). Off
gas and unstabilized LPG respec vely from the top and bo om of the Stripper receiver were sent to the SGC
unit. The treated naphtha from the bo om of Stripper 151-CC-1001 was sent to Spli er 151-CC-1002 to
divide the bo om product from the Stripper to give two products; Light Naphtha and Heavy Naphtha[1], [2].
Opera ng Data
Opera ng Data consist of Temperatures, Pressures, Stream Composi ons, and Flows. The data for the Piping
and Instrumenta on Diagram of the Naphtha Hydrotrea ng (NHT) Unit was obtained from the case model
[10]-[12]. The process simula on using Aspen HYSYS version 8.6 [16] was done using data extracted from the
laboratory model manual[10]-[12] of the model. The data comprises composi ons for the feed, stream
pressures, temperatures, mass flow rates and those required for piping and instrumenta on of Naphtha
Hydrotrea ng unit.
Process Simula on and Modelling
The processes taking place in the Naphtha Hydrotrea ng plant as shown in the flow sheet (PFD) include the
following standard unit opera on blocks and logical units (e.g. Heaters, Reactor, Heat-exchanger, Coolers,
Separators, Columns etc.). These were modelled and simulated using a sequen al process so ware - Aspen
HYSYS Version 8.6.
Exergy Calcula on
Microso Excel of the Microso Office Suite 2013 package was used to calculate the exergy entering and
exi ng, the irreversibility then the exergy efficiency of some selected components of the Naptha
Hydrotrea ng Unit. The Microso Excel of Microso Office was used for calcula ng the following parameters:
Inlet and Outlet streams temperatures, molar flow rate enthalpies and entropies, which were extracted from
the simula on of the streams entering and leaving the equipment. The temperature 25 °C, enthalpy and
entropy -28990KJ/Kg mole and 209.3KJ/Kg mole°C were used respec vely for the reference environment
proper es. Equa ons given by [17] were used to calculate performance parameters for the following selected
units Pumps (151-PA-1001AB and 151PA-1006AB), a Heat exchanger (151-EE-1001A-N), Reactor (151-RB-
1001AB), Compressor (151-KA-1001A/B), Separator (151-W-1003), Stripper and Spli er columns (151-CC-
1001 and 151-EE1006), Surge Knockout drum (151-W-1001), Heater (151- FE-1001A-N), Cooler (151-EA-
1001A-P)[2]. The obtained results were tabulated.
Heat Recovery
Major Exergy destruc on and heat recovery through flue gas and the use of Nano fluids in equipment were
considered using expressions given by [18], [19]. In comparison with es mates by [20]-[22] the cost-
effec veness was also obtained.
Process Flow Diagram
Results and Observa ons
Efficiency of the Unit
The results of exergy calcula ons of the Naphtha Hydrotrea ng (NHT) Unit are presented in the Tables below.
The inlet and outlet exergies with the irreversibility for each piece of equipment are shown in Table I. While
Table II is the Exergy efficiency of the equipment. The Reactor has 82.4 %, Heat Exchanger, 83.1 % and the
Compressor 90.9 % exergy efficiencies respec vely. It was noted that a large amount of the energy that
entered the heat exchanger was dissipated to heat within the process [2], [23].
Similarly, high exergy efficiency of 84.7 % was found in the Separator while efficiencies of 73.9 % and 92.9 %
were respec vely observed for Pumps 151-PA-1006 and 151-PA1001. Interes ngly, Heater 151-FE-101 had a
low efficiency of 30.2 % and recorded a high value of irreversibility. The high loss of heat in the furnace
indicates its inefficiency. The effect of this is deple on of fossil fuel due to an increase in the use of fuel for
more energy resul ng in an increase in carbon emission and contribu ng to the environmental pollu on
problem. Process modifica ons of the temperature of hot and cold stream in the Heater can be explored to
reduce the heat losses and low efficiency of this unit thereby improving the efficiency by increasing the heat
recovery in the preheat train [2], [23] The Spli er and Stripper columns had efficiencies of 85.0 % and 22.5
% respec vely. Exergy losses in columns could be associated with the separa on process occurring in the
column giving rise to high entropy. The process involves loss of momentum as a result of mass transfer and
thermal losses respec vely and pressure drop driving force due to mixing of fluids and temperature driving
force in the column [24].
Exergy Destruc on(loss)
Exergy destruc on (losses) occurred in the units mostly accrued from the resistance and fric on losses as a
result of the fluid flowing unit and making contact with the wall. This effect is small in the following units
Reactor, Compressor, Pumps and low-Pressure separator [2], [19]. However high exergy losses were observed
in the following equipment Stripper and Heater having a High irreversibility or destruc on of 11724008.13
and 1771113225.5 KJ/h respec vely, with the respec ve contribu on to irreversibility given as 32.7% and
51.9 % of the en re lost work as presented in Table III. The entropy genera on owing to temperature
varia ons and drop in pressure resulted in exergy losses which were a ributed to high lost work in the
stripper column. Low energy efficiencies are reportedly associated with frac onators [2], [23]. C. Results
Valida on The valida on of the results of this model was done by comparing the observa ons of similar
studies on the hydro treatment process with another Refining and Petrochemical Company NHT unit at
Kaduna; a refinery that has been running for years.[2]. The comparison is presented in Table 3, showing a
difference of 36.3 % and 31.5 % exergy efficiency respec vely in the Spli er and Heat exchanger, with that of
the current study being the be er of the two. Similarly, differences of 26.5 % and 0.9 % were observed in the
efficiencies of the Compressor and Stripper column respec vely, with those of the current study found to be
more efficient. Contras ngly, differences of 5.4 % and 1.9 % were observed in the efficiency of the Reactor
and Separator respec vely with that of the KRPC model found to be more efficient. The lesser efficiencies
observed inmost of the equipment of the NHU of KRPC compared to those of NHU in the present study can
be a ributed to the equipment age and inadequate maintenance of the earlier. The current model observed
91.28 % conversion in the desulphuriza on reac on, more than twice an observa on of 44.35 % reported by
a study that modelled the Hydrodesulphuriza on Unit of KRPC [2].
Major & Minor Equipment Designs
Design of CDU (Crude Dis lla on Unit)
Chemical Design
Overall CDU Simula on:

Components
a) Heat Exchanger 1 (Pre-mixing):
b) Mixer:

c) Heat Exchanger 2 (Post-mixing):

d) Separator (post-mixing):

e)LightEnds Separator
f) Heat Exchanger 3 (From Separator Outlet):

g) Frac ona ng Column:

g.i) Inlet to Dis lla on Column

g.ii) Outlet from Dis lla on Column

Kerosene
125.0 195.0
1.967
188.8 165.5

Off Gas Water
223.1 240.6
1.434 1.434
140.0 119.8

Atm Btm AGO

280.4 305.7
2.530 2.249
74.3 53.1

Diesel
340.2
2.108
43.6
Energy & Material Balances

T-100 (Dis lla on Column)

Total number of trays = 40 (above feed) +10 (below feed) =50

 Mechanical Design
Secondary Unit
3D Model of CDU

Fire Heater
Pump
Heat
Exchanger

Frac ona ng
Column Reboiler
Plate contractors
Plate contractors/ towers are vertical cylindrical columns in which a vertical stack of trays or plates
are installed across the column height as shown in Figure 7.1. The liquid enters at the top of the
column and flows across the tray and then through a downcomer (cross-flow mode) to the next
tray below. The gas/vapor from the lower tray flows in the upward direction through the
opening/holes in the tray to form a gas-liquid dispersion. In this way, the mass transfer between
the phases (gas/vapor-liquid) takes place across the tray and through the column in a stage-wise
manner.
Defini on of tray areas
The definition of tray areas and its nomenclature illustrated in Figures 7.2 &7.3 are followed throughout
the design procedure.
Total tower cross-sec on area (𝑨𝑻): The empty tower inside cross-sec onal area without trays or
downspouts.

Net area (𝑨𝑵) (also called free area):The total tower crosssectional area (𝐴𝑇)minus the area at the top of
the downcomer (𝐴𝐷𝑇 ). The net area symbolizes the smallest area available for vapor flow in the inter-tray
spacing.
Bubbling area or active area (𝑨𝑨): The total tower cross-sectional area minus sum of the downcomer top
area(𝐴𝐷𝑇 ) and downcomer seal area (𝐴𝐷𝐵 )and any other nonperforated areas on the tray. The bubbling
area represents the area available for vapor flow just above the tray floor.
Hole area (𝑨𝒉): The total area of the perforations on the tray. The hole area is the smallest area available
for vapor/gas passage.

Bubble cap plates

An enhanced gas-liquid contact can be achieved having bubble caps on the tray at very low liquid flow rates.
A bubble cap consists of a riser (also called chimney) fixed to the tray through a hole and a cap is mounted
over the riser (Figure 7.5). The gas flows up through the riser, directed downward by the cap through the
annular space between riser and cap. Finally, the gas is dispersed into the liquid. A number of slots in the
lower part of the cap help in gas bubble dispersion. Un-slotted types of cap designs are also common in
application. Bubble caps are especially suitable for higher turndown ratio. Turndown ratio is the ratio of
maximum operating vapor rate to the minimum allowable vapor rate, below which weeping starts.
Valve plates
Valve trays (or floating cap plate) are the modified design of sieve trays where relatively large plate
perforations are covered by movable caps/valves (Figure 7.6). Valves cover may be round or rectangular.
The very common hole diameter is 40 mm but upto 150 mmare also used. The valve lifts up as the vapor
flow rate increases and the valve sits overthe perforation at lower flow rate, thus stops the liquid from
weeping. Valve trays providegood vapor-liquid contact at low flow rates (high turndown ratio).

The sieve tray (also known as perforated plate) is a flat perforated metal sheet (Figure 7.7). The hole
diameter from 1.5 to 25 mm are very commonly used. The sieve tray layout is a typical square or equilateral
triangular pitch holes. The gas/vapor flows upward through the perforation and disperses into the flowing
liquid over the plate. Thereis no liquid seal in case of trays without downcomer and the liquid weeps (called
weeping) through the holes at low flow rates, reducing the efficiency of plate. For this reason, sieve tray
has the lowest turndown ratio. Sieve tray construction is simple and relatively cheap.
Selection of tray type
The comparative performances of three common types of trays are summarized in Table 7.1.
The capacity, efficiency, pressure drop and entrainment of sieve and valve trays are almost same.
Bubble cap trays have lower capacity and efficiency and but higher pressure drop and entrainment
compared to valve and sieve trays. The turndown ratio comes in the order of: bubble cap>valve>sieve.
However, valve trays have the best turndown ratio in case of refinery applications. Sieve trays are the least
expensive and suitable for almost all applications. Valve trays can be considered where higher turndown
ratio is needed. Bubble cap trays should be used at very low liquid flow rate which is not achievable using
sieve trays.

Tray Capacity Efficiency Pressure Entrainment Turndown Cost

type drop ratio
Bubble Medium Medium High ~3 times than Excellent 100-200 %
cap high high sieve tray more than sieve
tray
Valve High High Medium Medium 4 to 10.1 20-50%
t tohigh mor
overy high ethan sieve tray
Sieve High High Medium Medium 2.1 Cheapest of all
types

Flooding considera on
Excessive liquid buildup inside the column leads to column flooding condition. The nature of
flooding depends on the column operating pressure and the liquid to vapor flow ratio. It may be
downcomer backup, spray entrainment or froth entrainment type floodings. Higher tray pressure
drop due to excessive vapor flow rates holds up the liquid in the downcomer, increases the liquid
level on the plate and leads to downcomerflooding situation. The column flooding conditions sets
the upper limit of vapor velocityfor steady operation.
Sieve tray weeping
Weeping occurs at low vapor/gas flow rates. The upward vapor flow through the plate perforations
prevents the liquid from leaking through the tray perforation. At low vapor flow rates, liquid start
to leak/rain through the perforation (called weeping). When none of the liquid reaches the
downcomer at extreme weeping condition at very low vapor flow rate, it is called dumping. The
weeping tendency increases with increasing fractionalhole area and liquid flow rates.
The vapor velocity at the weep point (where liquid leakage through holes starts) is the minimum
value for stable operation.
Plate Design
Column sizing approxima on
The column sizing is a trial-and-error calculation procedure, starting with a tentative tray layout.
The calculation is then revised until an acceptable design is obtained subject to satisfying the tray
pressure drop, weeping, flooding and liquid entrainment limits. The column sizing is carried at the
tray where the anticipated column loading is the highest and lowest for each section. However,
the vapor flow rates have the highest impact on tower diameter. For an example, the sizing
calculation is performed on the top tray forthe above feed section and on the bottom tray for
below feed section, for a single feed distillation column with one top and one bottom product. The
tray spacing determines the column height. Lower tray spacing is desirable to minimize
construction cost by checking against the column performance criteria. The suggested tray
spacing (𝑇𝑡) with column diameter is appended below. The detailed column sizing calculations are
discussed in the solved example.
Tower diameter, m Tray spacing, mm
1 or less 500 (150 mm is minimum)
1-3 600
3-4 750
4-8 900
Provisional plate design
Column diameter
The column diameter is determined from the flooding correlation for a chosen plate spacing. The
superficial vapor/gas velocity (𝑈𝑛𝑓 ) at flooding through the net area relates to liquid and vapor
densities according to Fair’s correlation (refer to section7.3.1).𝐶𝑠𝑏𝑓 is an empirical constant,
depends on tray spacing and can be estimated against the flow parameter (𝐹𝐿𝐺) based on mass
flow rate of liquid (𝐿) and vapor (𝑉)
Typically, the design velocity (𝑈𝑛 ) through the net area is about 80 to 85% of 𝑈𝑛𝑓 for non-foaming
liquids and 75% or less for foaming liquid depending on allowable plate pressure drop and
entrainment. It is a common practice to have uniform tower diameter inall sections of the column
even though the vapor/gas and liquid loadings are expected to
be different to minimize the cost of construction. The uniformity in tower diameter may require
selecting different plate spacing in different sections of the tower.
Hole diameter, hole pitch and plate thickness
The plate hole diameters (𝑑ℎ ) from 3 to 12 mm are commonly used. The bigger sizes are susceptible
to weeping. The holes may be drilled or punched and the plate is fabricated from stainless steel
and other alloys than carbon steel. The center-to-center distance between two adjacent holes is
called hole pitch (𝐼𝑃). Perforations can be arranged in square or equilateral triangular arrays with
respect to the vapor/gas flow direction. The normal range of 𝐼𝑃 is from 2.5 to 5 times of 𝑑ℎ

Plate thickness (𝑡𝑡) typically varies from 0.2 to 1.2 times of the hole diameter and should be verified
by checking the allowable plate pressure drop
Weir height and weir length
The depth of liquid on the tray is maintained by installing a vertical flat plate, called weir. Higher weir height
(ℎ𝑤 ) increases the plate efficiency. But it increases plate pressure drop, entrainment rate and weeping
tendency. Weir heights from 40 to 90 mm are common in applications for the columns operating above the
atmospheric pressure. For vacuum operation, ℎ𝑤 =6 to 12 mm are recommended. The weir length (𝐿𝑤 )
determines the downcomer area. A weir length of 60 to 80% of tower diameter is normally used with
segmental downcomers. The dependency of 𝐿𝑤 on downcomer area is calculated

Calming zones
Two blank areas called calming zone, are provided between the inlet downcomer or inlet weir and the
perforation area, and also between the outlet weir and perforation area. Inlet calming zone helps in
reducing excessive weeping in this area because of high vertical velocity of the entering liquid in the
downward direction. Outlet calming zone allows disengagement of vapor before the liquid enters the
downcomer area. A calming zone between 50 to 100mm is suggested.
Estimation of physical properties
Column top pressure= 101325 Pa (1 atm)
Column pressure drop=1.25×103×14=16800 kPa
Pressure drop of 1.25kPa per tray is specified
Top section: Bottom section:
Column top pressure= 101325 Pa (1.0147 Column bottom pressure=101325 +16800
bar) and temperature= 56.3 °C = 118825 Pa (=1.19 bar)

𝜌𝑣 =
𝑃𝑀
=
101325 ×56.5
= 2.08 kg/m3 Boiling point of water at 118825 Pa (1.19
𝑅𝑇 329 .3×8.314 ×103
bar) = 105 °C (bottom contains 99 mole %
water)
𝜌𝑙 =744 kg/m3 (density of the mixture)

From the steam table at 118825 Pa and 105

(water density= 985 and acetone
°C: 𝜌𝑣 = 0.693; 𝜌𝑙 = 955 kg/m3
density=735 kg/m3 at 56.3 °C)

Average molecular weight of vapor:

Average molecular weight of
M=40.58
vapor:M=56.5
Average molecular weight of liquid: M=18.4
Average molecular weight of liquid: M=56
𝜎 =58×10-3 N/m
Surface tension, 𝜎 =20×10-3 N/m

Provisional Plate Design

Plate spacing
Plate spacing of 600 mm is considered for the first trial to calculate capacity parameter
(𝐶𝑠𝑏𝑓) for the estimation of maximum allowable vapor velocity through the net plate area.
The suggested plate spacing is 600 mm for column diameter>1.5 m.
Column diameter
1st trial is started with the following considerations:
o Design is performed for 80% flooding at maximum gas flow rate.
o Total downcomer top and bo om seal area is 10% of the net area.

Top section: Bottom section:

Flow parameter ( ) based on mass flow rate,

Capacity parameter ( ) m/s

=0.016
Gas velocity through the net area at flooding:
m/s

m/s
[ = liquid surface tension, mN/m]

The linear design gas velocity ( ) based on net area m/s

(80% flooding):
m/s
m/s
The maximum volumetric vapor flow rate
( ):

25158.8 m3/h=6.98 m3/s

57034.5 m3/h=15.84 m3/s
 Net area required:

Totals tower cross-sec on area:

2
2

(Total downcomer top and bo om seal area is

10% of the net area)

Colum (tower) diameter: Colum (tower) diameter:

2.34 m 2.36 m

Use the higher value of the tower diameter for the uniformity between sections, if the
difference is not greater than 20%. In this case, the bottom diameter is used both in top and
bottom sections. Higher area than the design area (here top section) can be taken care by
reducing the perforated area.

The nearest recommended shell (nominal diameter 2400 mm) fabricated from carbon steel or
stainless-steel sheet in IS 2844-1964: ID 2403 mm with minimum wall thickness: 8 mm for
carbon steel) and 6 mm for stainless steel.

Selection of liquid-flow arrangement

Liquid volumetric flow rate in the top sec on /s

Liquid volumetric flow rate in the top sec on /s

Therefore, single pass cross-flow sieve plate is chosen for this service

Provisional plate design

Column (tower) diameter (ID): 𝐷𝑇 ≈2.4 m

Column cross-sec on area: 𝐴𝑇 =0.785×𝐷𝑇2=4.52 m2

Downcomer area: 𝐴𝐷 =0.1𝐴𝑇 = 0.452 m2

Net area: 𝐴𝑁 =𝐴𝑇 −𝐴𝐷 = 4.068 m2

Weir Length ( ) = 0.73× = 1.752 m Weir height, = 40 mm is

considered.
 Ac ve area: 3.616 m2

For the first trial, consider hole diameter: =12 mm ( inch). The plate thickness=hole diameter is
selected for the first trial.
Checking for weepage
Top section Bottom section

6.571 kg/s
Maximum liquid flow rate ( kg/s

Minimum liquid flow rate ( ) (70% of =0.7×6.571=4.6kg/s

)=0.7×9.02=6.32 kg/s

18.7
Maximum weir crest,
mm liquid height
mm liquid height

14.7
Minimum weir crest,
mm liquid height

mm liquid height

= 30.2at 54.7
The constant ( ) of weep-point correla on= 30.3 at
40+21.5=61.5 mm using minimum liquid
flow rate

The minimum vapor velocity ( ) at the weep

minat the weep point:
point:
21.8 m/s
m/s

Actual minimum vapor velocity at minimum vapor flow

rate:
=22.7 m/s

m/s

Therefore, the minimum operating velocity both in top and bottom sections is of above the weep
point velocity.
Plate pressure drop
Top section Bottom section

Maximum vapor velocity: =14.3 m/s =32.4 m/s

Maximum dry plate pressure drop:

50.2 mm
37.5 mm liquid liquid
[The orifice coefficient, 0 0.88 at 15%
Residual head:

16.8 mm liquid
13 mm
liquid
Total plate pressure drop:
37.5 + (40+27.2)+16.8 122 mm liquid
50.2 + (40+18.7)+13 122 mm
liquid

The plate pressure drop of 1.25 kPa

Downcomer backup liquid and downcomer residence time:

Downcomer back:

Head loss in downcomer:

Downcomer liquid flow rate ( ) =maximum liquid flow rate is taken is
smaller of and .
3
30 10 1 752 0.0525 m2 (typically 10)

Here, 0 452 m2
Top section Bottom section

mm 2.9 mm

27 2 40 122 8 8 198 mm 18 7 40 122 2 9 184 mm

Downcomer residence me:
3 s.

12 s
3 s.

clear liquid back up

can be approximated)

plate spacing weir height mm

plate spacing weir height

Therefore, the plate spacing and downcomer residence time in both the sections meet the design
required design criteria.
Provisional Plate Design
Calming zones and hole pitch

Perforated area ( ): Ap =AA - Acz - AEZ

Where, = calming zone area (Figure 7.3).

= area occupied by edge strip (Figure 7.9)

=0.73; now, = 95°

Angle subtended by the chord (edge plate), = 180°-95° = 85°

The unperforated edge strip (edge plate) mean length from the geometry:

=3.49 m
Use 50 mm wide calming zones. The approximate mean length of zones:

=Weir length ( + Width of unperforated edge strip =1.752+50×10 -3=1.802 m

= 2(50×10-3× )= 0.18 m2

Therefore, perfora on area per tray ( 3.616- 0.18-0.175=

3.26 m2

Take total hole area 0 15 0 489 m2

2
0 785 0 489 m2 [hole diameter 12 mm]

Number of holes ( )= 4326

0 15. For equilateral triangular pitch:

This corresponds to hole-pitch to hole diameter ra o of ( 2 46. This is very close to the
normal range of 2.5 to 4.0 mes of hole diameter.
The es mated hole pitch ( )=is 29.5 mm.
Entrainment checking
Top section Bottom section
Actual vapor velocity ( ) based on net area ( )
3.9 m/s
selected provisionally:
% flooding=
m/s
100 77%

% flooding= 76 %
Ψ=0.18 at 0 016 and actual
The fractional entrainment, Ψ=0.09 at flooding velocity of 77 %

and actual flooding velocity of

76 %

Effect of Ψ on Murphree plate efficiency can be

0 53
es mated from

0 6 (Murphree vapor efficiency 60%) E

=Murphree vapor efficiency, corrected for liquid
entrainment

The actual flooding is below the design flooding value of 80%. Usually, Ψ<0.1 is desirable.
However, the optimum design value may be above this.
Distillation Column Specifications
Opera ng Pressure: 1.013 X 105 Pa (1 atm)

Internals Design
Column Diameter 1.5 m
Column Height 25.6 m
Tray Material Stainless Steel IS: 2002-1962
Number of Trays 50
Feed Tray Loca on 40TH from top
Tray Spacing 500 mm
Tray Thickness 12 mm
Hole Pitch 30.26 mm
Hole Diameter 12 mm
Hole Arrangement Equilateral Triangular
Down-comer Area 0.283 m2
Ac ve area of tray 1.264 m2
Weir Height 40 mm

Mechanical Design
Shell Material Stainless Steel IS: 2002-1962
Shell Thickness 6.5 mm
Shell Height 13.2 m
Shell Inner Diameter 1.9 m
Shell Outer Diameter 1.9124 m
Insula on Material Asbestos
Insula on Thickness 5 mm (Outside Shell)
Head Type Ellipsoidal (Major:Minor :: 2:1)
Head Material Stainless Steel IS: 2002-1962
Head Thickness 6.5 mm
Support Type Skirt type
Support Material Stainless Steel IS: 2002-1962
Gr St 42-W
Support Height 2m
Support Diameter 1.9 m
Support Thickness 8.5 mm
Support Angle (with ver cal) 0°
Support Bearing Plate Material Stainless Steel IS: 2002-1962
Gr St 42-W
Support Bearing Plate Width 100 mm
Support Bearing Plate Thickness 7 mm
Support Bearing Plate Gusset Not Required
Support Bearing Plate Bolt Not Required
Net Cash Flow Analysis for Business Feasibility

Other cost of spare equipment used in case of failure = $15,650,000

Total Cost of Equipment = $15650000 + $2804700 = $18,454,700

Total Capital Investment Cost

Total Capital Investment = Sum of fixed capital investment and Working Capital investment.
Fixed Capital Investment is the sum of Direct and Indirect Costs
I) Direct Costs: Material and labour involved in actual installa on of complete facility (70-85%
of fixed-capital investment)
a) Equipment + installa on + instrumenta on + piping + electrical + insula on+ pain ng
1. Purchased equipment cost (PEC): (25% of Fixed-capital investment) Consider purchased
equipment cost = $46,13,675
2. Installa on, including insula on and pain ng: (25-55% of purchased equipment cost)
Consider the Installa on cost = 30% of Purchased equipment cost = 30% of 18,454,700 = $
55,36,410
3. Instrumenta on and Controls, installed: (6-30% of Purchased equipment cost.)
Consider the installa on cost = 30% of Purchased equipment cost = 30% of 18,454,700 = $
55,36,410
4. Piping installed: (10-60% of Purchased equipment cost)
Consider the piping cost = 50% Purchased equipment cost = 0.50 x 18,454,700 = $ 92,27,350
5. Electrical, installed: (10-40% of Purchased equipment cost)
Consider Electrical cost = 25% of Purchased equipment cost = $ 46,13,675
B. Buildings, process and Auxiliary: (10-70% of Purchased equipment cost)
Consider Buildings, process and auxiliary cost = 40% of $18,454,700 = $73,81,880
C. Service facili es and yard improvements: (40-100% of Purchased equipment cost)
Considering the cost-of-service facili es = 60% of $18,454,700 = $11,072,820

D. Land: (1-2% of fixed capital investment or 4-8% of Purchased equipment cost)

Consider the cost of land = 6% $18,454,700 = $11,07,282
Therefore, Total Direct Cost = $46,13,675 + $55,36,410 + $55,36,410 + $92,27,350 +
$46,13,675 + $73,81,880 + $11,072,820 + $11,07,282 = $49.089502 Million
II) Indirect Costs: Expenses which are not directly involved with material and labour of actual
installa on of complete facility (15-30% of Fixed-capital investment)
A. Engineering and Supervision: (5-30% of direct costs)
Consider the cost of engineering and supervision = 10% of Direct costs = $49,08,950.2
B. Construc on Expense and Contractor's fee: (6-30% of direct costs) Consider the
construc on expense and contractor's fee = 10% of Direct costs = $49,08,950.2
C. Con ngency: (5-15% of direct costs)
Consider the con ngency cost = 12% of Direct Cost = 12% of $49.089502 M = $58,90,740.24
Thus, Total Indirect Cost=$49,08,950.2+$49,08,950.2+$58,90,740.24 = $15.7086406 Million
1. Fixed Capital Investment:
Fixed capital investment = Direct costs + Indirect costs
= $49.089502 Million + $15.7086406 Million
= $64.7981426 Million
2. Working Capital: (10-20% of Fixed-capital investment)
Consider the Working Capital = 15% of Fixed-Capital Investment = 15% of $64.7981426 Million
= $9.71972139 Million
3. Total Capital Investment (TCI):

Total Capital Investment (TCI) = Fixed Capital Investment + Working Capital

= $64.7981426 Million + $9.71972139 Million = 74.517864 million US$
4. ESTIMATION OF TOTAL PRODUCT COST:
Manufacturing Cost = Direct produc on cost + Fixed charges + Plant overhead cost.
A. Fixed Charges: (10-20% total product cost)
i. Deprecia on: (13% of FCI for machinery and equipment and 2-3% for Building Value for)
Consider deprecia on = 13% of FCI + 3% of Building Costs
Deprecia on = (0.13x$64.7981426 Million) + (0.03×$73,81,880) = $ 86,45,214.938
ii. Local Taxes: (1-4% of fixed capital investment)
Consider the local taxes = 1.94394428 million US$ = $4,649,496

iii. Insurances: (0.4-1% of fixed capital investment)

Consider the Insurance = 0.7% of fixed capital investment = 453 586.998 US$
iv. Rent: (8-12% of value of rented land and buildings) Consider rent 10% of value of rented
land and buildings
= 10% of ($73,81,880) = $73,81,88
Fixed Charges=$ 86,45,214.938+$4,649,496+$453,586.998+$738,188= $14,486,485.936
B. Direct Produc on Cost: (about 60% of total product cost)
Now we have Fixed charges 10-20% of total product charges = Consider the Fixed charges =
15% of total product cost
Total product cost = fixed charges/15% = $96.5765729 Million
i. Raw Materials: (10-50% of total product cost)
Consider the cost of raw materials 25% of total product cost Raw material cost 25% of
$96.5765729 Million = 24.1441432 million US$
ii. Opera ng Labour (OL): (10-20% of total product cost)
Consider the cost of opera ng labour = 12% of $96.5765729 Million= $11.5891887 Million
iii. Direct Supervisory and Clerical Labour (DS & CL) : (10-25% of OL) Consider the cost for
supervisory and clerical labour = 12% of OL
= 12% of $11.5891887 million = $1.39070264 million
iv. U li es: (10-20% of total product cost)
Consider the cost of U li es = 12% of total product cost = 0.12× $96.5765729 Million =
11.5891887 million US$

v. Maintenance and repairs (M & R): (2-10% of fixed capital investment) Consider the
maintenance and repair cost = 5% of fixed capital investment
= 0.05x154,983,213 = $7,749,160
vi. Opera ng Supplies: (10-20% of M & R or 0.5-1% of FCI) Consider the cost of Opera ng
supplies = 15% of $7,749,160 = 1.162374 million US$
vii. Laboratory Charges: (10-20% of OL)
Consider the Laboratory charges = 15% of OL = 15% of $11.5891887 Million = 0.15 x
$11.5891887 Million = 1.7383783 million US$
viii. Patent and Royal es: (0-6% of Total Product Cost)
Consider the cost of Patent and royal es = 4% of total product cost = 0.04 * $96.5765729
Million = 3.86306292 million US$
C. Plant overhead Costs (50-70% of Opera ng labour, supervision, and maintenance or 5-15%
of total product cost); includes for the following: general plant upkeep and overhead, payroll
overhead, packaging, medical services, safety and protec on, restaurants, recrea on, salvage,
laboratories, and storage facili es.
Plant overhead cost = 60% of OL, DS & CL, and M&R
=60%of(($11.5891887 Million) + ($1.39070264 million) + ($7,749,160)) = $20.7290513 million
Thus, Manufacture cost = Direct produc on cost + Fixed charges + Plant overhead costs.
Manufacture cost = $96.5765729 Million + $28,136,520 Million + $20.7290513 Million =
28.1366373 million US$
II. General Expenses Administra ve costs distribu on and selling costs+ research and
development costs
A. Administra ve costs :( 2-6% of total product cost)
Consider the Administra ve costs = 5% of total product cost=0.05 x $96.5765729 Million = $
4.8288 Million
B. Distribu on and Selling costs: (2-20% of total product cost); includes costs for sales offices,
salesmen, shipping, and adver sing.
Consider the Distribu on and selling costs 15% of total product cost = 15% of $96.5765729
Million = 0.15 x 186,263,706 = 14.4864859 million US$
C. Research and Development costs: (about 5% of total product cost) Consider the Research
and development costs = 5% of total product cost = 5% of $96.5765729 = 4.82882864 US$

D. Financing (interest): (0-10% of total capital investment)

Consider interest 5% of total capital investment = 5% of 74.517864 million US$ = 3.7258932
million US$
Thus, General Expenses = $ 4.8288 Million + 14.4864859 million US$ + 4.82882864 US$ +
3.7258932 million US$ = 23.0411839 million US$
2. Total Product cost = Manufacture cost+ General Expenses

= (28.1366373 million US$) + ( 23.0411839 million US$) = 51.1778212 million US$

Economic Analysis Summary

Deprecia on Calcula on Dynamics

Schema c of En re Plant Layout
The economic construc on and efficient opera on of a process unit will depend on how well
the plant and equipment specified on the process flow- sheet is laid out. The principal factors
to be considered are:
1. Economic considera on: construc on and opera ng cost
2. Process requirements and convenience of opera on
3. Maintenance
5. Safety
6. Plant expansion
1. Costs: The cost of construc on can be minimized by adop ng a layout that gives the
shortest run of connec ng pipe between equipment and the least amount of structural steel
work. Modular construc on which involves building components off-site and then assembling
them on-site. This can help reduce construc on costs by reducing the me and labor required
for on-site construc on. Efficient project management and standardizing the materials used
in the plant can also help reduce costs.
2. Process Requirements and convenience of opera on: The process flow of the chemical
plant is a key factor in determining the layout. The flow of raw materials, intermediates, and
finished products needs to be op mized to ensure the plant operates efficiently and safely.
Requirements of the process also dictate the layout such as the need to clavate the base of
columns to provide the necessary net posi ve suc on head to a pump or the opera ng head
for a thermosyphon reboiler. Equipment that needs to have frequent operator a en on
should be located convenient to the control room. Valves, sample points, and instruments
should be located at convenient posi ons and heights. Sufficient working space and head
room must be provided to allow easy access to equipment.
3. Maintenance: The plant layout should also facilitate easy maintenance of equipment in the
long run. Heat exchangers need to be situated so that the tube bundles can be easily
withdrawn for cleaning and tube replacement. Vessels that require frequent replacement of
catalyst or packing should be located on the outside of buildings. Equipment that requires
dismantling for maintenance, such as compressors and large pumps, should be placed under
cover.

4. Safety: Safety is a cri cal concern in the design and layout of a chemical plant. Blast walls
maybe needed to isolate poten ally hazardous equipment, and confine the effects of an
explosion. At least two escape routes for operators, as well as clearly indicated assembly areas
in case of an emergency, must be provided from each level in the process buildings.
5. Plant Expansion: Equipment should be located so that it can be conveniently ed in with
any future expansion of the process. U lity systems, such as electrical, plumbing, and HVAC
systems, can be challenging to modify or expand. Therefore, plant layout should consider the
future expansion of these systems, allowing for addi onal capacity or the ability to reroute or
reconfigure the systems as necessary. Space should be le on pipe alleys for future needs, and
services pipes over- sized to allow for future requirements.

Reference: unlimitedplan mages.com

 Assembly Plant
Emergency
Evacua on

Lab Storage
Tank
Main Office

Assembly
Plant

Main Reactor Area

Control
Emergency Exit Room
Residen al Area Emergency Exit

Fig: Plant Layout

Hazard & Operability Studies

Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP) are systematic assessments conducted in industrial
settings, including lube oil blending plants, to identify potential hazards, operability issues,
and deviations from normal operating conditions. Here's how HAZOP studies are applied in
lube oil blending plants:

1. Identification of Hazards: HAZOP studies involve a multidisciplinary team of

engineers, operators, and safety professionals systematically reviewing the process
flow diagrams, equipment layouts, and operating procedures of the refinery.
2. Analysis of Operating Parameters: The team examines each process parameter,
including temperature, pressure, flow rate, and chemical composition, to identify
deviations from normal operating conditions that could lead to hazardous situations or
process upsets. For example, variations in temperature or pressure during blending
operations could result in overheating, overpressurization, or chemical reactions
leading to product quality issues or safety hazards.
3. Evaluation of Process Design: The team assesses the design of equipment, piping,
instrumentation, and control systems to identify potential weaknesses, vulnerabilities,
or failure modes that could compromise safety or operability. This includes evaluating
the adequacy of containment measures, emergency shutdown systems, relief devices,
and process safeguards to prevent or mitigate the consequences of hazardous events.
4. Scenario Analysis: HAZOP studies consider various process scenarios, including
normal operations, startup, shutdown, maintenance, and emergency situations, to
evaluate their potential impact on safety, environmental compliance, and production
efficiency.
5. Risk Assessment: Based on the identified hazards and scenarios, the team conducts a
qualitative or quantitative risk assessment to prioritize and rank the potential risks
according to their severity, likelihood, and consequences.
 6. Development of Mitigation Measures: HAZOP studies generate recommendations
for mitigating identified hazards and improving the operability and reliability. These
may include design modifications, process improvements, procedural changes,
training programs, emergency response plans, or equipment upgrades to reduce the
likelihood and severity of accidents, protect personnel and assets, and ensure
regulatory compliance.

For analysis, the entire installation was divided into 13 areas or key points designated
by nodes, which corresponds to 100%. Only the results of the first six nodes,
approximately 50% of the installations, were presented and analysed in this paper.
Table describes the nodes briefly. The steps that comprise a HAZOP analysis are
described below:
(i) Selection of nodes: the nodes were defined according to the functioning and
operation of the equipment and accessories in their neighbourhood.
(ii) Choice of guide words and process limits: words that describe the unit’s process
parameters (pressure, temperature, flow, level and corrosion), associated with words
that indicated deviations in the normal operation of the unit, called guide words (high,
low, none, inverse/reverse, and other). The combinations of these words used
throughout the analysis/study that assigned indicators of equipment functioning
(nodes), showing whether they would be operating inside/outside the standard
(deviations) of operation, allowing the identification of hazards—for example, high
pressure, low temperature, or none flow.
(iii) Identification of the source of deviations or causes of hazards: with the system
divided into smaller sections and each one with the parameters and keywords
adequately identified, the risk analysis was carried out by testing the hypothesis of
improper functioning of the equipment. Based on the probable trends of deviations
observed, it was sought to predict the result, that is, the consequences. If the variation
in the parameter represented a hazard, that problem was documented, and its impact
was later estimated.
(iv) Risk frequency analysis: the frequency analysis was made based on estimates of
the probability of occurrence of scenarios that were predicted to be dangerous. The
frequencies were synthesised using models of frequency estimates. Synthesising the
frequencies involves determining combinations of failures and circumstances that may
cause the scenarios of interest, using the consulting firm’s procedure manual (adapted
from BS IEC 61882: 2001).
(v) Determination of consequences: the analysis of the consequences was based on
the statistically estimated results of a target population regarding the risk of interest
and the effects on safety/health related to this level of exposure (Criteria described in
the CCPS manual, 2011). Consequence estimates were made according to a risk
matrix, measuring the level of impact of the consequences in association with safety,
environment, and economy.
(vi) Setting barriers: to prevent the consequences of the identified risks from being
implemented, measures were taken to mitigate or eliminate these risks; these
measures were established to prevent the progress of a situation that could become
potentially disastrous; for this reason, the measures are called barriers. These barriers
were recorded on the HAZOP sheet.

(vii) Recommendations: at the end of the assessment, recommendations were made

on the potential hazards identified in the previous steps to reduce the level of risks
analysed and discussed by the HAZOP team.

Table: Risk Matrix

Risk Classification Criteria

Risk classification is a management tool to prioritise the monitoring of
recommendations. The identified hazards were classified by criteria, at levels: low,
medium and high. In addition, they were grouped into categories according to the harm
to people, environment, assets/property of the company, and impact on the company’s
image.
The frequency of the cause and the severity of the consequence were defined
according to BS IEC 61882: 2001, which considers the simplest combination of
probability and severity (see Table A3). The current criteria reflect the belief that the risk
rating performed during the HAZOP studies should be used only to determine
qualitative properties for priority recommendations. It is important to note that the
criteria stipulate that the values of severity and probability should be assigned
consistently throughout the study. The risk classification should be used only to
prioritise recommendations, not for quantification. The HAZOP registration sheets
were used to record both the sources of risks and their consequences, as well as the
barriers that were set/inserted, without forgetting the recommendations.
Pressure
Regarding the pressure, the “high pressure” deviation would be caused by a failure of
the pressure gauge or by the malfunction of the pressure valves, which, in turn, would
cause more pressure inside the vessel. The “low pressure” deviation does not apply
to this node; however, it is a deviation considered important for the integrity of the
vessel and the substance. For this reason, as a safeguard, it is advisable that the use
of the safety valve must be included in the periodic calibration program to ensure its
correct operation.
It was noted that the causes of more pressure are pressure safety valve (PSV) failure,
compressor malfunction and pump backflow. As a consequence, it causes damage to
the pump. As a safeguard, it proposes using an alarm, a controller and a pressure
indicator. As causes of more pressure, failure of the pressure indicator, blocked line
and leakage of raw steam. As a consequence, the fracture of the line, oil spill, risk of
fire and release of H2S. To mitigate the possible problems, H2S alarm and fire alarm
were proposed to safeguard the installation of the PSV. For Kletzand Cozzani, these
deviations may be caused by a failure in the pressure valve manometer, failure of the
pressure sensors, error in the safety circuit or calibration error of the manometers. As
a safeguard, it is suggested to install a pressure control valve, installation of pressure
alarms, periodic inspections and maintenance of valves and sensors.
Flow Rate
Regarding the flow entering to the separator, it was assumed that it could be increased
or reduced; “high flow” when the flow valves are fully open or “low flow”, “no flow” or
“flow reverse” when the pumps are stopped, or the wells are partially shut down. The
study pointed out that the causes of the variations in the flow were the failure of flow
control valves (FCV), valve malfunction, pump failure, valve opening and closing
failure and sensor indicator malfunctions. Consequently, flaws in the production
process, an increase in temperature values and the possibility of the collapse of the
pipes were observed. On the other hand, to solve the problems, periodic inspection of
valves and equipment, use of flow alarms and verification of lines and systems are
recommended.
The causes of too much flow are: (i) fully open flow valves; (ii) faulty flow regulating
mechanism; (iii) out-of-calibrated controller and (iv) pump failure. Consequently, the
pressure increases rapidly in the pipeline; therefore, the likelihood of leakage and
explosion increases. The researchers also claim that the causes of less flow are the
partial opening of the outlet valve, rupture of the flow inlet pipe to the vessel due to
mechanical damage and minimal leakage in the pipe [16]. As a result, there is less
release of crude oil into the environment and the possibility of increased pressure in
the storage line.
As causes of more flow, leaving the flow valve fully open, temperature increase and
flow valve failure. Consequently, there would be low stabilisation of crude oil,
increased pressure in the vessel, line rupture, oil spillage, fire risk and H2S release.
As a safeguard, the installation of a PSV with an automatic opening mechanism, H2S
alarm and fire alarm were recommended.
Level
Regarding the effect of the level parameter, two scenarios were assumed: low level
and high level. The “high level” deviation may be related to the non-stopping of the
pumps during the activities, failure of the level transmitter during the transfer or due to
the entry of flood water in the vessel or tank. As a result, there may be oil spills, causing
environmental impact and possible effects for people. It is recommended to place the
vessel in a safe space with a second spill containment tank and check that the level
transmitter signals are being transmitted well.
The causes of more level in the vessel are: (i) vessel without supervision or inspection;
(ii) failure of the level indicator; (iii) wrong valve opening and (iv) alarm that does not
work correctly. On the other hand, Ibraim and Syed [24] point out as causes of the
lower level, cracking or corrosion of the vessel, damage to the vessel body seal, weak
joints between the ceiling and the vessel structure and damage to the valves and
flanges.
The causes of high levels such as failure of the open LCV (Level Control Valve),
increased discharge pressure and blocked outlet valve. Consequently, floods, loss of
production and flow migrating to another direction may occur. As a safeguard,
installation of an alarm of high liquid level, use of LIC, and constant monitoring of the
system are recommended. As causes of the low level pump, failure and malfunction
of the level meter. The main consequences of Low Flow are emptying of the vessel
and loss of production. As safeguards, it is recommended to use a LIC to operate the
pump, make adequate monitoring and periodic maintenance.
Temperature
The temperature may also be low or high. The reasons underlying these deviations
may be the failure of the high-temperature controller, reflux controller, a fully open
reflux flow control valve and faulty supply temperature controller. It was recommended
to use high-temperature alarms, maintain the column temperature controllers,
regularly check and maintain the flow lines and valves, and frequently check the tubes
of the heat exchangers.
The causes of the high-temperature deviation might be due to more steam entering
the heat exchanger system, which will heat the vessel due to a failure in the
temperature indicator. Benedetti-Marquez [10] also noted that the deviation would
cause uncontrolled heating of the hydrocarbon in the vessel, consequent
decomposition and risk of explosion. As mitigation, it is recommended to inspect the
tank and calibrate the sensors periodically.
Jagtap [29] and Ishteyaque [25] observed that the causes of the deviation of “low
temperature” can be due to the shutdown of the steam that feeds the heat exchanger,
which, in turn, is due to the failure of the refrigerant temperature meter and failure of
the supply of steam to the line tracing. The low-temperature deviation would result in
the crystallisation of hydrocarbons and clogging of the lines, and loss of production.
The recommendation is to install a temperature transmitter in the recirculation line of
the storage tank with an alarm. In addition, a low steam flow alarm is recommended.

Environmental And Control Techniques

Source of the pollutants
Petroleum industry is the industry, which unites anthropogenic ac vi es to explore for,
produce, transport worldwide, and process around 3.5 billion tons of crude oil and 2.5 giga
m3 of natural gas and their deriva ves each year. More than 2500 refined products, including
liquefied petroleum gas, gasoline, kerosene, avia on fuel, diesel fuel, fuel oils, lubricants, and
feed stocks for the petrochemical industry are the direct results of these ac vi es. Bigger
refineries integrated with petrochemical plants may produce addi onally different synthe c
deriva ves - from pure chemicals to addi ves for fuels and lubricants, synthe c polymers,
rubber, etc. Figure 1 illustrates the main ac vi es of the petroleum industry. The main purpose
of the petroleum industry is to find and bring above ground natural gas and crude oil, to
process it into products and to distribute petroleum deriva ves to customers. A major factor,
which determines the importance, ease of processing, quality of final products, and the
environmental impact of the petroleum industry, is the composi on of natural gas and
especially - crude oils. Natural gas is mainly methane with small amounts of the next higher
members of the n-alkane hydrocarbons. Natural gas is considered "sour" if it contains more
than 5.7 mg m-3 hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Carbon dioxide and water are the other major
impuri es. Crude oils are usually dark and viscous, but may vary widely in color and viscosity.
Typical element analysis of crude oils shows 79.5 - 87.3 per cent carbon, 10.4 - 14.8 per cent
hydrogen, 0 - 8 per cent sulfur, 0 - 2 per cent oxygen, 0 - 0.1 per cent nitrogen, and 0 - 0.05
per cent metals (iron, vanadium, nickel, arsenic, etc.). The main crude oil cons tuents are
hydrocarbons of different molecular mass and type, containing from 1 to 60 C atoms and
including several thousands different compounds. The typical hydrocarbon groups in crude
oils are normal and isoalkanes, cycloalkanes and arenes. A significant amount of hybrid
hydrocarbons - i.e. cycloalkanes and arenes with side alkyl chains, combined cycloalkane-
arene structures with side chains, etc. is present in heavier frac ons. Normal boiling points of
crude oil hydrocarbons range from 30 to above 500 o C. Alkenes are not common in natural
crude oil, but may be obtained by specific processes. Sulfur is usually in the form of
mercaptans (R-SH), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), dissolved free sulfur, thiophene ((CH)4S), sulfonic
acids (RSO3H), alkylsulfides (R-S-R) and disulfides (R-SS-R), sulfoxides (R-SO-R), alkylsulfates
(R2SO4) and sulfones (RSO2R), R being an organic radical. Oxygen will be present appreciably
in cycloalkanic (naphtenic) crudes as organic carboxylic acids (usually naphtenic), and to a
limited extent as phenols. Nitrogen, found appreciably in naphtenic crude oils and heavy
frac ons, is in the form of alkylquinolines and pyridines, pyrroles, indoles and carbazoles.
Organic metal complexes, containing pyrrole (CH4)4NH rings, might concentrate in heavier
dis llate frac ons. The world petroleum industry produces around 67 million tons of waste
annually. Figure 1 above provided a bird eyes view of the major branches of the petroleum
industry. Table 1 offers addi onal details of the ac vi es related to this industry and their
impact on air pollu on in the USA. The total contribu on of methane (CH4), carbon dioxide
(CO2) and non methane vola le organic compounds (NMVOCs) from the natural gas and
petroleum systems in the USA for 1997 has been es mated at: CH4 – 6 118 000 Gg; CO2 – 15
235 000 Gg; NMVOCs – 488 000 Gg. The petroleum industry consumes huge amounts of water,
especially in the produc on and processing sector, but modern refineries work with a nearly
closed water cycle, compensa ng with fresh water only for evapora on losses. Their main
contribu on to water pollu on comes from uncontrolled leaks and spills, and during
transporta on of crude oil and products. The contribu on of the la er to marine pollu on is
the object of a separate chapter in this presenta on. A 1996 US study iden fied 29 refinery
solid wastes, some of which are typical for other sectors of the petroleum industry as well. It
should be noted also that despite the significant contribu on of the petroleum industry to
pollu on, rela vely few specific effluents directly associated with that industry have been
classified as hazardous. Air emissions from the petroleum industry can be classified as
combus on emissions, process emissions, fugi ve emissions, emissions from storage and
handling of petroleum liquids and secondary emissions. Combus on emissions are produced
with the onsite burning of fuels usually for energy produc on and transporta on purposes.
Flaring is a specific source of combus on emissions in the petroleum industry. It is used to
control pressure and remove gas, which can not be otherwise used. Fugi ve emissions
(equipment leak emissions) are released through leaking valves, pumps, or other process
devices. Process emissions are generated in the process units and released from process
vents. Storage and handling emissions are contributed from the storage and manipula on of
natural gas and crude oil, as well as their intermediate and finished deriva ves. The water
systems of a produc on or processing site (tanks, ponds, sewer system drains, etc.) are the
main source of secondary emissions. Polluted water in the petroleum industry is usually
generated in the various produc on or processing opera ons. Leaks of liquids from the
produc on, process, storage equipment or pipelines to the ground can also contribute to
pollu on of underground water. Solid wastes containing varying amounts of different
pollutants are generated from par cular processes or as sludge in storage tanks. Produc on
of oil and gas is a major opera on of the petroleum industry. Nearly 100 countries are involved
in it world wide, and a considerable amount of oil and gas is produced off shore. In the USA
only, there are more than 575 000 crude oil wells, 252 000 gas wells and 724 gas plants. Major
ac vi es in this branch of the petroleum industry include explora on and well site
prepara on; drilling; crude oil and gas produc on, enhanced (secondary) recovery and
eventually some on-site processing. Explora on for outlining of oil and gas reservoirs includes
geological surveys, space, ground and sea mapping based on magne c, gravity or seismic
geophysical methods. Seismic methods if improperly applied might damage environmental
species, especially in marine explora on. Drilling employs usually rotary drilling rigs, driven by
diesel fuel or natural gas internal combus on engines. Ground penetra on is facilitated by
drilling muds, which are gel like (non-Newtonian) water-based, oil-based or water-in-oil
emulsion based clay suspensions with addi ves. They may include polymers, caus c soda,
different ionic or non-ionic emulsifiers, etc. Recul va on of soils a er drilling is a major
requirement for environmental compa bility. Oil and gas produc on is done from wells, which
are essen ally pipelines with screwed joints reaching from the top of the ground to the
producing forma on. The pipe through which the oil is produced is called tubing and its
diameter is between 31 and 115 mm. Produc on is controlled by bo om-hole chokes,
pressure gauges and down-hole safety valves mainly for preven on of "blow-outs", which
usually are followed by igni on of the light frac ons. Enhanced (secondary) recovery methods
are used to increase the amount of recovered crude oil to about 30 – 40 per cent of the
amount in the reservoir since only 20 – 25 per cent of oil come out on its own. These include
flooding with salt containing water, high pressure gas injec on (hydrocarbon gas, CO2, N2,
etc. being used), hea ng with hot gas or steam or by burning part of the oil. On-site processing
of natural gas may include acid gas removal with amines and dewatering with glycols. On-site
processing of crude oil usually includes gravita onal separa on of water and salts and
recovery of condensable hydrocarbons. Sulphur recovery and frac ona on of light
hydrocarbons may be done if there is a near-by refinery or another available facility. Air
pollu on from the produc on of oil and gas is with vola le hydrocarbons in fugi ve emissions
(mainly methane), as well as emissions from storage and manipula on. Employment of gases
in enhanced oil recovery usually leads to increased process emissions, which also come from
process vents of produc on equipment and eventually – from removing of acid gases. Exhaust
combus on emissions are generated from compressors, pumps, drill engines and engines of
servicing vehicles. Gas flaring is the major source of combus on emissions. The major source
of secondary emissions is the water separated from the natural gas and crude oil.
Underground water pollu on is usually associated with enhanced recovery and desal ng of
crude oils. The water from the desal ng at a produc on facility, however, can be reused in the
produc on well. Solid wastes are mainly sludge from the desal ng of the crude oil and storage
vessels, spent mud, etc. Processing of natural gas is usually limited to de-watering and
removing of acid components like hydrogen sulphide and eventually carbon dioxide. The
throughput of a crude oil refinery may be from between 2000 and 10 000 tons per day (1.8 to
9.0 million tons per year) for a small refinery, to 20 000 – 60 000 tons per day (18.0 to 54.0
million tons per year) - for a large one. In 1995 the world petroleum processing industry
produced around 3.3 billion tons of refined petroleum products, 23.4 per cent of which were
manufactured in the USA, and nearly the same quan es – in Western Europe (20.7 per cent)
and Far East and Oceania (22.4 per cent). In the course of refining energy equivalent to the
energy value of 3 – 8 per cent of the processed crude oil is used. The exact amount for a
par cular refinery depends mainly on the assortment of products being produced, but also
on energy efficiency. One of the most advanced refinery industries – that of the USA in 1994
has used 6500 trillion BTUs of energy (Conversion factor: one Bri sh Thermal Unit, BTU=1.054
kJ). Petroleum processing uses also huge amounts of water. In 1992, the total amount of water
used in US refineries is es mated to average 1.5 – 2.2 m3 of water per one cubic meter of
crude oil processed. Polluted water is treated inside the refinery and most of it is recycled.
The amount discharged to public water treatment facili es or returned to natural water
sources is es mated to be in the range of 0.3 – 0.6 m3 of water per one cubic meter of crude.
For old refineries in other parts of the world, the above parameters would be much higher.
Petroleum processing involves also large quan es of chemicals, which are u lized in different
technologies – water treatment, processing of frac ons, as addi ves to finished products, etc.
Many of these are listed as toxic chemicals. Toxic chemicals managed by US refineries in 1995
were around 0.6 million tons.
Strategy to Control the pollu on
API members are commi ed to protec ng the health and safety of their workers and the
community. To this end, the refining industry has made significant investments in programs,
training, standards and prac ces, and equipment that have led to occupa onal and process
safety performance improvements. These investments con nue as part of the industry’s
overall con nuous improvement effort.

API has developed and maintains more than 180 refining safety and opera onal standards
and recommended prac ces under its American Na onal Standards Ins tute (ANSI)
accredited program. API and its member companies are commi ed to ensuring that all
industry standards contain the latest science and technologies, they recognize proven
industry prac ces and incorporate lessons-learned from past incidents and near
misses. These standards have been incorporated by reference into Federal, State and
Interna onal regula ons. These resources are published and updated to reflect the latest
science, technologies and enhanced prac ces and procedures. API member companies also
comply with safety regula ons. For example, the Occupa onal Safety and Health
Administra on (OSHA) Process Safety Management (PSM) is a comprehensive federal
regula on developed as part of the Clean Air Act Amendments that required the
Department of Labor and the Environmental Protec on Associa on (EPA) to promulgate a
safety standard to prevent accidental releases of chemicals that could pose a threat to
employees. The petroleum industry is concerned that applica on of PSM to low-hazard
petroleum opera ons, including onshore produc on and atmospheric storage tanks, would
result in a significant regulatory burden to refineries and onshore producing facili es. API
helps member companies engage in advocacy, educa on and awareness as it relates to
OSHA and EPA regula ons, as well as regula ons at the state and local levels. API also
engages with other government agencies, such as the U.S. Chemical Safety Board, to support
the overall mission of safety. API works with other groups such as the American Chemistry
Council, American Fuel & Petrochemical Manufacturers and Na onal Fire Protec on
Associa on on advocacy, standards, common programs, etc. These efforts are improving
safety at refineries and plants in the United States. Refinery employees are five mes less
likely to be injured on the job than workers in other manufacturing sectors, and the refining
industry’s rate is steadily trending downward. From 2008 to 2017, the refining sector has
seen a steady decrease in job-related nonfatal injuries and illnesses (from 1.1 to 0.7 per 100
full me workers). API is proud of its membership’s commitment to safety performance and
improvement.

Safety plans for refineries include protec ng the physical safety of employees and the plant.
Fire protec on, occupa onal safety and process safety are the three pillars that should make
up any customized plan for a plant. These types of rules prevent fires, protect workers and
reduce hazardous chemical releases. Due to the specific nature of refineries in their
arrangement and chemicals on-site, each site will have its own customized safety plan.

Fire Protec on

Fire protec on safety should include methods of preven on and suppression. The American
Petroleum Ins tute (API) works with the Na onal Fire Protec on Associa on (NFPA) to
create fire safety standards published by both organiza ons. The various standards the API
recommends for fire protec on cover poten al igni on hazards, use of fire arresters and
spray systems, fireproofing facili es and preven ng igni ons.

Not all of these guidelines will apply to every facility. For instance, Recommended Prac ce
(RP) 2218 specifically covers on-shore petroleum processing facili es with processing pools
and how to fireproof those pools to reduce loss.

Occupa onal Safety

Occupa onal safety rules aim to ensure all workers, both employees and contractors, work
in a manner that minimizes the chances for incidents that could damage property or injure
personnel. Examples of the standards and recommended prac ces from API for occupa onal
safety include the following:

 Safe prac ces for welding or hot tapping

 Appropriate methods for opera ng vacuum trucks that handle combus ble liquids

 Working safely in confined, inert spaces

 Contractor safety guidelines

 Training and enforcement of safety guidelines for contractors

As with fire protec on, every refinery must have safety rules that apply to its opera ons. For
instance, in facili es that more frequently use contractors, focusing on clear contractor
safety guidelines and implemen ng those will be crucial to overall plant protec on.

Process Safety
Process safety rules establish the safe, reliable opera on of the machinery at a facility. These
guidelines should protect the facility and its surrounding areas from uninten onal releases
of toxic products that may lead to fires or explosions.
A plant should have plans to reduce emissions and prevent spills or other releases that could
impact the neighboring area. For example, RP 754 outlines four safety indicator ers and
how a refinery should use them to determine its safety. Facili es with incidents that cause
serious consequences from an uncontrolled or unplanned release have lagging performance
per the scale. These sites should create indicators to prevent those types of incidents in the
future. When a facility’s most severe incidents do not have serious consequences but put
the safety systems to the test, they will have a er 3 indicator. These facili es perform
decently but should examine their safety guidelines and standards to prevent similar
incidents in the future. Tier 4 sites have the best prepara on for incidents and may only
need to change learning or management systems to maintain their good record.
Mechanical integrity rules are only one of the 14 components in the standards of the
Occupa onal Safety and Health Administra on (OSHA). These rules ensure the equipment
operates safely and as expected.

Other types of process safety guidelines include rules for maintaining opera onal safety and
preven ng releases from both temporary and permanent buildings and reducing the risk
imposed by worker fa gue.

Implemen ng Incen ves and Disincen ves

While having safety standards is essen al to all refineries, workers must have incen ves to
follow the rules. However, use cau on when crea ng such programs because OSHA forbids
all employers from discrimina ng in any way against workers who report injuries or illnesses.
Therefore, refineries should have a rewards and punishment system that does not
discourage repor ng of incidents. Instead, OSHA suggests the following ways to incen vize
workers toward crea ng a safer plant:
  Giving away shirts or other small prizes to those serving on workplace safety
commi ees
 Providing rewards or small prizes for workers who make health and safety
sugges ons
 Rewarding those who iden fy near misses or safety hazards in the facility
 Offering a celebra on or party for all employees at the end of a safety training
session for the en re company
Disincen ve programs can be difficult to implement within OSHA guidelines. By their nature,
they punish workers for sustaining injuries or repor ng problems. This type of disincen ve
violates OSHA’s requirements. Therefore, facili es may find greater par cipa on in safety
programs through posi ve reinforcement by incen vizing safe prac ces and repor ng
unsafe situa ons or opera ons.

Crea ng a Goal-Focused Safety Plan

Those at a refinery in charge of crea ng the safety plan must first establish goals for the
program. Every guideline and rule in the plan should point toward these goals. One place to
start with crea ng goals is by examining the refinery’s safety performance over the previous
year. Goals should include ways to close gaps in safety or to prevent incidents that occurred.
For instance, minor incidents such as slips and falls may require goals that include increasing
training, adding more signage or installing non-slip floor coa ngs where possible.
Goals should have a basis in realis c expecta ons and include measurements for
determining their success. For example, a refinery may want to reduce workers’
compensa on claims spending by improving safety. Looking at the expenditures before and
a er increasing safety standards or training can provide the data required to see how
effec ve the changes proved to be.
Another metric that a company could use might be the number of incidents over a given
period. To see if the changes implemented actually reduce the number of slip and fall
incidents, look at the numbers over one month or six months to see if a decreasing trend
occurred. If the safety amendments worked, the accident rate should drop.
Addi onally, as incidents occur throughout the year, refinery safety managers should review
and revise safety guidelines and make goals for the following year to prevent and reduce
injuries and incidents.
In order to ensure a safe work environment on your next energy project, apply these safety
best prac ces:
1. Collaborate effec vely with the local emergency response community
Develop a rela onship with local emergency response organiza ons and establish a
consistent flow of communica on to provide a higher level of overall safety. Emergency
responders, rig hands and explora on company safety and health professionals must work
together to u lize their resources to be ready to handle emergencies swi ly and
successfully.

2. Invest in a safety program that unites workers

Encourage an environment of open communica on and respect. Embrace a personal
approach to safety training and dedicate me to allow workers to get to know each other.
Building more substan al personal connec ons with fellow workers will inherently build
trust and camaraderie.

3. Ac vely monitor workers’ mental health

A large factor that nega vely affects safety in the industry is worker culture. Eliminate the
“tough guy” exterior and stereotype. Build a sense of community and trust with workers to
make it easier for them to ask for help, obey rules, admit mistakes and seek advice.

4. Ensure familiarity with worksites

Before work begins, ensure everyone understands their role, hazards that exist, and all
safety precau ons. Require procedures and hazards to be fully communicated to new
workers, during shi handovers, and for work site changes.

5. Maintain consistent housekeeping

Reduce the chances of fatal accidents by keeping floors, pathways and all work areas clear of
unnecessary items to prevent trips and falls, as well as struck-by hazards. Implement clear
signage that directs workers to emergency and safety equipment.

6. Implement a 5S system
Improve the workflow and reduce waste with a 5S system. Apply strategic labeling
techniques to direct, warn and communicate informa on to workers. Color-code materials in
the workplace to make them easier and quicker to find, including specific tools and
equipment.

7. Install in-vehicle monitoring systems (IVMS)

Accidents from driving or riding in a motor vehicle account for the highest number of total
fatali es in the oil and gas industry. Monitor driver behavior to analyze issues and poor
habits to determine how to improve your vehicle safety programs and worker training.

8. Provide clear visual communica on

Strive to eliminate miscommunica on and confusion with legible, reliable signs and labels to
convey dangers and safety instruc ons. Create custom signs to communicate procedures to
specific work crews and work sites. Replace worn out, illegible and outdated signage with
new signs. Check for floor markings that are in need of re-applica on.

9. Reassess safety signage when projects shi

When worksites, projects, and crews change, take the me to assess that signs and labels
are in the correct areas and communicate hazards and procedures before the next project
begins; this will ensure dangers and details about specific loca ons will be known when new
workers come in.

10. Stay on top of machine maintenance

When working on offshore rigs, the machines are a lifeline when you’re hundreds of miles
from shore. Prevent premature machine failure and keep your workers safe by conduc ng
regular maintenance checks. Use OSHA maintenance ac vi es in the Oil and Gas Well
Drilling and Servicing eTool. Also, ensure safety messages can endure grease, grime, and
extreme temperatures. Print OSHA, ANSI, and NFPA compliant labels for a variety of
applica ons, including chemical labeling, pipe marking, arc flash, and GHS/HazCom 2012.

There are two important aspects of best prac ces for risk assessment – regulatory
compliance and industry standards, as well as implemen ng risk management systems.

1. Regulatory Compliance and Industry Standards

Adherence to regulatory requirements is crucial in conduc ng risk assessments.

Organiza ons should be aware of applicable laws, regula ons, and guidelines related to risk
assessment in their specific industry or jurisdic on. Compliance with regulatory
requirements helps ensure that risks are appropriately iden fied, assessed, and mi gated
according to established standards. Industry standards such as ISO 20815: 2008 and OSHA
provide addi onal guidance and benchmarks for risk assessment prac ces. Following
recognized industry standards ensures that organiza ons are applying best prac ces and
aligning with industry norms. Below are some of the most frequently cited standards in the
Oil and Gas industry from OSHA.
 Oil and Gas Field Explora on Services (NAICS Code 213112)

 Oil and Gas Field Services, Not Elsewhere Classified (NAICS Code 213112)

 Oil and Gas Field Services Industry Group (NAICS Code 213111)

 Crude Petroleum and Natural Gas (NAICS Code 211111)

 Drilling Oil and Gas Wells (NAICS Code 213111)

2. Implemen ng Risk Management Systems

Establishing a robust risk management system is essen al for effec ve risk assessment.
Below are the ac ons involved in implemen ng risk management systems.

 Define and document the methodology, criteria, and techniques to be used in

risk assessment, including whether qualita ve or quan ta ve methods will be
employed.

 Ensure that the risk assessment process is transparent, well-documented, and

consistently applied across the organiza on.

 Regularly review and update risk assessment processes to incorporate new

informa on, changing circumstances, and lessons learned from previous risk
assessments.