Till last lecture: experiments to show particle nature and wave

nature of the material :

• Blackbody radiation
• Photoelectric effect
• Compton effect
• Davisson-Germer experiment
Conceptual principles:
• Planck's quantization of electromagn etic energy
• De Broglie's hypothesis of wave-particl e duality
• Heisenberg's uncertainty principle

What is lacking for completeness

• Mathematical formulation (similar to newton's law of m·otion or
Maxwell's wave equation)
• In 1926, Erwin Schrodinger developed mathematic al version of
Quantum mechanics

• Every particle (or a system of particles) is represented by a "wave

function" 1/J(x, y, z, t), which is a function of space coordinates
and time. The wave function determines all that can be known
about the system it represents.

Richard Feynman:
Where did we get that {Schrodinger's equation] from? Nowhere. It is
not possible to derive from anything you know. /t came out of the
mind of Schrodinger; invented in his struggle to find an understanding
of the experimenta l observation of the real world.
 E

fu . ho uld fu lfi l
Conditions th at th e wave e ua tio n fo r a wa ve nc tio ns
q d mo me ntu m p, th e
a art icle of mass m ha
vin g e_nergy E an
Fo
eqrua tio ns ho uld be co ns ist en t wi th

1. de Bro gli e re IatI•on ·}i

• .-!
- p: p: ::. ~k

2. Planck,s f orm u la·• E = hv = hw

h t ta\ en er gy f th e
It sh ou ld be co ns ist en t wi• h th rel ati on fo rt e o 0
3. (classical) pa rtic le, wh t e . \
f ·t kin eti c an d po te nt ,a
ich is the su mo ' s
en erg ies
p2
E = -+ V (x ,y ,z ,t )
2m
4. Th e Sc hr6 din ge r eq ua
tio n mu st b e r,ne a r in X , y z an d t.
,

4. The Schrodinger eq ua tio

n mu st be lin ea r in x, y, z
an d t.
• i.e. If ljJ 1 (x, y, z, t) and 1/}
2 (x, y, z, t) are tw o so lut ion s
Schrodinger eq ua tio n for a of th e
given ·po ten tia l en er gy V(
x,y ,z, t)
any lin ea r co mb ina tio n of
l/J 1 an d l/J 2 say, 1/J C 1/J + C 1./J th an
= 2 2 wi th
C1 and C2 as ar bit ra ry co ns 1 1 ,
tan ts, mu st als o be th e so
same Sc hro din ge r eq ua tio lut ion of th e
n
• The lin ea rity of wa ve fun
cti on is es se nti al so th at tw
ad de d to pro du ce int er fer o wa ve s ma y be
en ce

Wave function for a fre e pa

The en erg y of a pa rtic le is rticle (p ot en tia l energy =O
giv en as )
p2
E = Zm + V( x, y, z, t)
Or

h2 k2
hw = - - + V( x, y, z, t)
2m
 For a free particle, V(x, y, z, t) = 0

So,
h2k2
hw = - ---- -(1)
2m
assume that a wave function for a free particle movin g along the x-
direction having a definite momentum p = hk and energy E = hw is
given by
t/)(x, t) = Aei(kx -wt)

Taking first order deriva tive of tj;(x, t) w.r.t variables x and t,

dt/J(x, t)
dt = .
-iwAe i(kx-w t) =
-iwlj)( x, t) - - - - -(2)

And
dl/J(x, t) .
dx = ikAei( kx-wt) = ikt/)(x, t) - - - -(3)

Multip lying equation (2) with iii

. dlj)(x, t)
iii dt = liwl/J(x,t)
Or,

hw = ih 1 dl/J(x, t)
1/J(x, t) dt ---- -(4)
Differe ntiatin g equati on (3) again w.r.t variable x I
d 21/)(x, t)
dx2 = -k21/J(x, t) ---- -(5)

Or
2
k2 = _ 1 d t/J(x, t)
1/J(x, t) dx 2 ---- -( 6)
Puttin_g the expression for hw from eq.(4) and k 2 from equati on (6) in
equati on (1)
 6/16/ 202:.

n,2
--- 1 d 21l1(
2m 7;:( - - 't'dx2X, t) 1 d ( )
Or 't' x, t) - === ih - - 1/J x, t
1/J(x, t) dt

n. 2 d
21l1(
d1l1( )
- - - - 'f' X, t)
2m dx2 - x, t ___ _ _ 7
=== ih 't'
dt ( )
Eq. (7) is the ti
Parr Ie moving me-dependent
.
s h ·
c rodinger equation for a free
IC alo
ng x-d1rection.

With the same analo t .

. gy, he time-dependent Schrodinger equa tion
for the one-d·,m . .
potential V(x
,
t)
ens,onal
. .
mof
1s given by
ion
f
a
.
particle °
of mass m movi ng 1n a

- h.2 d2tµ(x, t) . dl/J(x, t)

2m dx2 + V(x, t)ljJ(x, t) = ih - - - - - - -(8)
dt

Problem:
the x-axis between
1. A parti cle of mass m can move freely along
this region.
- L < x < L but is prohibited from going outside
the following
Dete rmin e the value of the constant E for which
t Schrodinger
wave func tion is a solution of the time dependen
equa tion for the particle:

ip(x, t) = NSin (7") exp (- i!t) for - L < x < L

=O elsew here

Schrodinger
. If -ip (x, t) and 1/Jz (x, t) are two so~uti~ns of the
2 1 t) and
equa tion, show that a linear combination of t/) 1 (x,
1 a 2 as
1/Jz(X, t), 1/J(x, t) = a11/) 1 (x, t) +_a2t/J2(x, t) with a
Schr odmg er
·t constants , is also a solution of the same
ar b I rary
equa tion.
 Issues re I at ed to Sc hrodinger tim e- de pe
nd en t w av e eq ua tio n
• Sc hr od in ge r's
eq ua tio n co nt ai ns
re sp ec t to tim e on ly th e fir st -d
bu t th e se co nd de er iv at iv e w ith
Hence, tim e an d riv at iv e w ith re sp
space co or di na te ec t to sp ac e,
fo ot in g in th is eq s are no t tre at ed
ua tio n. Thus, th e on an eq ua l
co rre ct in th e re Sc hr od in ge r eq ua
la tiv ist ic do m ai n. tio n ca nn ot be
non-relativistic tim Th e eq ua tio n, th
e de pe nd en t Schr er ef or e is th e
odinger eq ua tio n
• Th e wa ve fu nc
tio n us ua lly is a
so lu tio ns of th e co m pl ex fu nc tio n.
Sc hr od in ge r eq ua Th er ef or e, th e
waves as a co m pl tio n ca nn ot be
ex nu m be r ca nn re al ph ys ica l
observable qu an ot be re la te d to a
tit y measurable or

• Th e physical m
ea ni ng of th e wa
ve fu nc tio n tjJ(x,
t)w as no t clear.
However, th e Sc
hrodinger eq ua tio
regarding a phys n incorporated al
ical system as po l th e in fo rm at io n
stulated ea rli er

Probabilistic In te rp
re ta tio n of th e Wav
• Si nc e th e wa e Function
ve fu nc tio n co nt
ph ys ica l sy st em ai n al l th e in fo rm
as po st ul at ed ea at io n re ga rd in g
rli er , it m us t be a
th e wave fu nc tio n to pr ed ic poss ible to use
t physical qu antities.

B u t How???
M ax Born's propos
al to es ta bl is h a qu
1/J an d th e ob se rv ab le an tit at iv e co nn ec
s of th e pa rti cl e tio n be tw ee n

• The probability
density of finding
measurement of a particle at any po
its position is ca int, when a
11/Jl 2 = 1/J*l/J, which is th rried out, is prop
ortional to
e modulus square
of th e particle at of th e wave func
th at point. 1/J* is tion
wave function t/J. th e complex conj
ugate of the
• ll/Jl 2 is bo th re al an d
po si tiv e an d he
pr ob ab ili ty . nc e, it can be re
la te d to th e

12
 6/16/2023

• For a one~d·
rn d
I
irnensi
ona1 svste rn, •if, rt ~7i := =- ~~asu
at any
-- -- -- -.
a
l/J( e to oca te a nstant t, a me rement is
x, t), the n th Particle rep
P(x ;~~ented by the wave function
be twe en the c e P~obability nd
oordinates x and ' x _th at the object will be fou
x+ dx is give n by
P( x t)d
, x ::::: 1/J*(x t
' )1/J(x, t)d x '= l'P(x, t)lzdx
P(x , t) :::: 11/J(x t 2.
am pli tud e" , ) I is called the " r ..
bili ty
p obabihty density" or "pr oba

• Th e pro bab ility of f d'ing the •I

L[x1 ] in partic e in some finite region
• X2 can be wn·tten as,

Pi( t) -
-
f
x1
Xi P(
x, t)d x ==
f Xi
t/J*(x, t)tj)(x, t)d x
x1 .
• Since the par ticl e must al som ewhere in space, the total
s be
pro ba bili ty of find · .. way whole space is unity.
mg it m the

L:
00

L/ Cx , t)d x = tp*(x, t)tp(x, t)d x = 1

s
of the wave function also require
Th e pro bab ilis tic interpretation
the following properties:
tha t the wa ve fun ctio n have
erwise
single-valued everywhere; oth
i) tjJ( x, t) should be finite and ce will not be
object in a region of spa
the pro bab ility of finding an
fin ite and uni que .
nics to
ctions ~sed in qu~ntum mecha
ii) we res tric t the wave fun
e functions for which
, the class of square-integrabl
2
11/J(x, t) 1 dx < oo
a physical system,
. d r tha t ,r,(x, t) represent
er in or e
111 Fu rth '.
on t/J(x, t)
···) • ditions must also be imposed
cer tain cont1nu1ty con

13
 6/1 6/2 023

Problem:
a par ticl e is giv en by:
At t = 0, the wave fun ctio n of

t/J(x, t) = Ax (a - x) for O < x < a

0 elsewhere

ing the particle bet we en x = 0 an d

Calcualate the probability of find
X= -
2 •

14
/

6/19/2023

1. "probability density'' or "probability amplitude" is

P (x, t) = 11/J(x, t) 12
J
oo oo
2. _ 00 P(x, t)dx = f_00 1/J*(x, t)ljJ(x, t)dx = 1
In three dimension,

L.,,
oo oo

J _}(x,y, z, t)dV = 1/J*(x,y, z, t)t/J(x,y,z, t)dV = 1

Or

A wave function that obeys above equation is said to be normalized

3. The Schrodinger equation is given as

h2 d 2 , 1•(x t) d, 1,(x t)
- Zm ~x 2' + V (x, t)t/}(x, t) = ih 'I" dt,

4. A wave function for a free particle moving along the x-direction

having a definite momentum p = hk and energy E = hw is given by
t/J(x, t) = Ae i(kx-wt)

s. The time-dependent Schrodinger equation for the one-dimensional

motion of a particle of mass m moving in a potential V(x, t) is given by

- dzlp(x, t) + V (x, t)lp(x, t) = ih dt/J:x, t)

2m dx 2 t

The task in QM is to find a solution of above equation

1
 . ens·I0 n the Schrodinge
In th ree d1m r eq ua tio n is given as

hz (dzt/J d2t/J d2t/J)

- . dl/J
2m dx 2 + dY2 + dz z + Vl/J - th -
- -

dt

6_ If t/Ji (x, y, z, t) and t/J2 (x, y, z, t) are

Schrodinger equation for tw o solutions of the
a given po ten tia l energy
any linear combination V(x,y,z,t ) than
c and c
of t/J1 and t/J2 say, t/J
as arbitrary constants, C11/11 =
+ C21/J2 , with
1 2 must also be the solut
same Schrodinger equa ion of the
tion

Problem: Determine the

normalization constant
wave function: N for the following

t/J(x, t) = Nx (a - x) e- T
iEt
fo r O < x < a
=0 els ew he re

Solution:
The complex conjugate of
the given wave function is
'V *(x,t) =N$ x( a- x)e iEt
ln
Since the wave function
is zero at all positions oth
normalisation condition giv er than O< x a, the
es:
a
a
J'V \vd x =1 f
N* N j x2 (a - x dx = 1
0
0
or \N\2 aJx2(a2 - 2ax + x 2 ) dx = 1 f(a2 x2 -2ax 3 + x4 ~x = 1
0
0

or IN\2la2 x3 - 2ax4 + x5
]a 1
3 4 5
=
1Nj2 a 5( 3~] = 1
0

IN \= ~3 0
a5

2
 6/19 /202 3

• The Wa
t Ve func r ---
a Provid ion 1/J is th •
e Physical .e solution of s .
1. ip rnean1ngful resul ·th rodin ger equa tion. For it
must be con r ts, it has to well-behaved
inuous and .
2. a.p single-valued everywhere.
ax, aY , - m
az ust be con r
31/J m inuous and • I
singe-valued everywhere.
ust be normalizable.

Phase of the wave function

• Assume that the wave functio ,,,
phase eiO to t .
n o/(x, t) is multiplied by a constant
ge a new wave function 1/J' (x, t) than

,P' (x, t) = 1/J(x, t)ei0

1/J'*(x, t) = 1/J*(x, t)e- i0

The prob abil ity den sity is

t/J'* (x, t)l/J' (x, t) = 1/J*(x, t)e- i 9 1/J(x, t)ei0

Or
t//*( x, t)t/J' (x, t) = t/J*(x, t) 1/J(x, t)

The probability density or the physical

interpretation of the wave
function is not changed when the wav
e function is multiplied by a
complex phase.

For a line ar com bina tion of two wave

functions t/J1(x, t) and t/Jz (x, t)
whic h are two solutions of the sam
e Schrodinger equation:
tfJ(x, t) = t/J 1 (x, t) + 1/Jz(X, t)

Its com plex conjugate

t/J*(x, t) = t/J* (x, t)
1 + t/J* 2(x, t)

3
Th e pr ob ab ilit y de
ns ity
t/J*t/J == \t/J 1 \2 + \1/ 2
J2\ + 1/J* 1t/Jz + 1/J11/J* 2
If we assume, wi th
ph as e
ljJ1(x , t) = 1/J ei 0 1
10
And ljJ 2(x , t) = 1/J2oern2

Th e pr ob ab ilit y de
ns ity is
t/)*1/} == \1/J10 \2 + \t/J20 \2 + VJ1ot/J20 ( e-i(81
-0 2) + ei(81 -0 z) ]
W ith th e re lat ive ph
as e di ffe re nc e be tw
ee n th e wa ve s,
cp = 01 - 02
2
1/J*l/J = \1/J10 \ + \1/ 2
J20 \ + l/J101/J20Co
sq,

Th e th ird te rm is th
e qu an tu m "in te rfe
th e relative phase re nc e" te rm wh ich
di ffe re nc e be tw ee depends on
explains th e in te rfe n th e waves given
re nc e pa tte rn th at by cp. This
is ob se rv ed fo r m at
te r waves.

Screen

I4\\ l I4\ 111 I'l'i\ 2 + I \l\

(a ) 1~ I4'1+4'71 !
(b ) (d (d ) le)

4
 6/19/2023

Expectation value

Expectation value for positio n

Problem

A particl e limited to the x axis has the wave function

1/J(x, t) = ax for O < x <1

= 0 elsewhere
(a) Find the probab ility that the particle can be found between x= 0.45
and x=0.55. (b) Find the expectation value (x) of the particle's position

Operators
A wave functio n for a free particle moving along the x-direction
having a definit e mome ntum p = hk and energy E = hw is given by
1/J(x, t) = Aei(kx -wt)

or
1/J(x, t) = Ae-(i/h )(Et-px )

Differe ntiatin g it w.r.t variable x,

alj) i
ax= hpt/J
Or
hat/)
ptjJ = -:--
i ax
Similar ly after differe ntiatin g the wave functio n w.r.t. variable t,
at/)
EtjJ= ih-
at

5
 6/1 9/2 023

On com par ing righ t and left side

of two equ atio ns,
p = "h7a- (mo me ntu m ope rat or )
tax
And
-
E = iha- (To tal ene rgy ope rat or)
at

Expectation value of mo me ntu m

(p) = oo 1/J*pt/Jdx = Joo 1/J* (h-:-a)

- l/}dx = h Joo
J
-oo -oo t ax
"7' l/J* a1/) dx
t -oo ax
Expectation value of energy
00

J
00

J
00
(E) =
-oo
ljJ*El/Jdx = l/J* (ih ~)l /Jd x = ih J l/J* aljJ dx
-oo at _00 at

•• 11"1 Ila !kirnMUbtp" eqaidlc

a
2
d 1jJ(x, t) 2m
dx2 + h 2 lih dt
f.
dl/J(x, t) }
- V(x, t)l/J(x, t) = o
By using

Is the stea dy sta te Sch rod ing er

equ atio n in 1 - D
In thre e dim ens ion

d 2 1/J d 2 1/J
d 2
-+ - + - + - {1/JE -
2m
V}l/J = 0
dx 2 dy 2 dz 2 h. 2

6
 6/19/2023

Eigenvalues and Eigenfunctions

h Schr6dinger's steady-state
• The values of energy En for whic
d eigenvalues and the
equ atio n can be solved are calle
d eigenfunctions.
corr esp ond ing wave functions n are calle

ation for the one-dimensional

The time -dep end ent Schrodinger equ
in a potential V(x, t) is given
mot ion of a particle of mass m moving
by
2 2 . dt/J(x,t)
h d lJ;(x ,t)
- 2m dx2 + V(x, t)t/J(x, t) = th dt

Or,
] . dt/J(x, t)
h2 d2
[ _- - + V(x, t) t/J(x, t) = th dt J
2m dx 2

2
h dxi + v(x, t)] is know n as Hamiltonian
The ope rato r [ - zm
ope rato r ii

hz dz
fl= --- -i- +V (x, t)
2m dx

n as,
• h t h.IS, the Schrodinger equation is give
Wit

R¢ = Et/J