CHAPTER MECHANICS OF

3 MATERIALS
Normal Stresses in
One-Dimensional
Homogeneous
Elastic Elements
MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Introduction

• One-dimensional elements, which are usually referred to as skeletal

structures, include truss members, beams, arches, and frames.

• The problem of determination of stresses in structural elements is a

statically indeterminate problem, since the available equilibrium
equations are usually not sufficient.

• A complete solution of specific problem may be obtained by knowing the

stress-strain relations and equations of compatibility.

• The solution to any problem must satisfy:

a)The equations of equilibrium.
b)The stress-strain relations.
c)The equations of strain compatibility.

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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Assumptions

• The scope of this chapter is confined to the analysis of stresses in one-

dimensional structural elements of homogeneous elastic materials, the
following assumptions are considered:

1) The cross section of an element may be constant or variable, the analysis,

however, does not extend to cover cases in which abrupt changes take place.

2) The longitudinal axis of the structural element may be straight or curved,

without sudden changes in direction.

3) For a structural element to be treated as a one-dimensional case, its

longitudinal dimension should, normally, exceed four or five times its
maximum cross sectional dimensions.

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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Assumptions
4) The material is homogeneous, isotropic and perfectly elastic.

5) The material obeys Hooke’s law, i.e. Stresses and strains are linearly
proportioned, and the proportional limit of the material is not exceeded.

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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Assumptions
6) The modulus of elasticity of the material (Young’s modulus) is the same in
compression as it is in tension.

7) Plane sections, normal to the element center line before deformation, retain
plane and normal to the center line after deformation (Bernoulli’s
assumption).

3-5
MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Normal Stress Formula
The general expression for the strain e at any point (x, y)
e = ax + by + g
 =E.e =E(ax + by + g)

 
N    dA  E  α  x dA  β  y dA  γ  dA 
area  area area area 
 
M X  N  y    dA)y  E  α  xy dA  β  y dA  γ  y dA 
2

area  area area area 

 
M Y  N  x    dA)x  E  α  x dA  β  xy dA  γ  x dA 
2

area  area area area 

From Chapter 1

  X   Y     X  dA  I Y ;  xydA  I XY
2 2
ydA S ; xdA S ; dA A; y dA I ; x
area area area area area area
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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Normal Stress Formula
N = E  aSY + bSX + gA)
MX = E  aIXY + bIX + gSX)
MY = E  aIY + bIXY + gSY)
By solving these eqns., we get a, b, and g
And consequently, the normal stress  at any point in
the section.
 =E(ax + by + g)

If the 2 axes X and Y are chosen to pass through the centroid of the section, then
SX = SY =0 and the above eqns. Reduce to
N = E gA)
MX = E  aIXY + bIX)
MY = E  aIY + bIXY)

3-7
MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Normal Stress Formula
Solving for a, b, and g , one obtain
M Y I X - M X I XY
α

E I X I Y  I 2XY )
M X I Y - M Y I XY
β

E I X I Y  I 2XY )
N
γ
EA
Substituting the values of a, b, and g , into Eqn.  =E(ax + by + g)
General
N  M Y I X - M X I XY   M X I Y - M Y I XY 
     x    y formula for
A  I X I Y  I 2XY   I I
X Y  I 2
XY 
normal
stresses

If the 1 axis or 2 axes X and Y are principal centroidal axes, then IXY =0 and the eqns.
Reduce to
N  MY   MX 
     x    y
A  IY   IX 
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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Normal Stress Formula
General formula for normal stresses
N  M Y I X - M X I XY   M X I Y - M Y I XY 
     x    y
A  I X I Y  I 2XY   I I
X Y  I 2
XY 

If the 2 axes X and Y are principal centroidal axes, then IXY =0 and the eqns.
Reduce to
N  MY  M 
     x   X  y
A  IY   IX 

• The positive(+) sign is used when N is tensile.

• The negative(-) sign is used when N is compressive.
• If either the moments MX or MY produces tensile
stresses at a point in the first quadrant of the
coordinate system, them the moment is taken
positive (+).

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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Example 3.1
SOLUTION:
• The straining actions at the fixed end:
N=+1 t
MX=+2x200=+400 t.cm
MY=+1x100=+100 t.cm

• X and Y are axes of symmetry, then they

are principal axes. Stress Eqn. at any point

1  100   400 
   x   y
Calculate the maximum 82.7  2140   5950 
normal stresses at the fixed
end of the cantilever beam, Max. tensile stress at point a (x=+10, y=+10)
if the cross section of the a=+1.152 t/cm2
beam is BFI No. 20 that has
the following properties: Max. compressive stress at point b (x=-10, y=-10)
A=82.7cm2, IX=5950cm4, b=-1.127 t/cm2
and IY=2140cm4
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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Example 3.2
Determine the maximum
normal stresses in the
cross section of the    - 55x4586.67  95.263x2162 0 x   - 95.263x178 6.67  55x2160 
purlin, the properties 
of the section: A=80cm2,
IX=4586.67cm , 4
4
IY=1786.67cm , and
IXY=2160cm 4 σ   0.013175(
SOLUTION:
• The max. normal stress will occur at the
section that has the max. bending moment
• straining actions at the mid point of span:
Mmax=0.5x42/8+0.1x4/4=1.1t.m=110 t.cm
Mmax lies in the vertical plane (plane of loading)
The two components with respect to X and Y
MX=-110 cos30=-95.263 t.cm
MY=-110 sin30=-55.0 t.cm
• X and Y are not principal axes. Thus
2 
y
4586.67x17 86.67 - 2160   4586.67x17 86.67 - 2160 
Max. normal stress at the bigger coordinates point
(x=+11, y=+10) & (x=-11, y=-10)
11)  0.0145648(  10)   0.29t/cm 2
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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Normal Stress Distribution
  represents the value of normal stress at the points
of equal stresses.
• The neutral axis passes through the points which
have =0.
• The equation of the neutral axis is obtained by
setting the stress equations to zero.

N  MY  M 
     x   X  y  0
A  IY   IX 
N  M Y I X - M X I XY   M X I Y - M Y I XY 
     x    y  0
A  I X I Y  I 2XY   I I
X Y  I 2
XY 
• The slope of the neutral axis with the X-axis can be obtained from

α M Y I X - M X I XY
tanθ    
β M X I Y - M Y I XY
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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Normal Stress Distribution
• The intercepts of the neutral axis with the X and Y
are
x-
γ

N/A )
α 
M Y I X - M X I XY ) / I X I Y  I 2XY )
γ
y- 
 N/A )
β 
M X I Y - M Y I XY ) I X I Y  I 2XY )
• If X and Y axes are the principal centroidal axes,
then IXY=0, and the 3 previous eqns. can be
reduced to
M Y IX
tanθ  -
M X IY
N/A
x-
M Y /I Y
N/A
y-
M X /I X
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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Normal Stress Distribution
• N, MX, and MY may be
replaced by N as shown
• N acting at a point whose
coordinates are:
MY MX
eX  and e Y  Neutral axis versus location of normal force
N N
• Substituting for MX=N. eY and MY=N. eX into 3 previous eqns. and simplifying
MY IX N/A N/A
tanθ  - , x - ,y  -
MX IY M Y /I Y M X /I X
eX IX e X i 2X
tanθ    X and Y are centroidal principal axes
eY IY e Y i 2Y
I Y /A i 2Y
x  Where iX and iY are radii of gyration
eX eX
i 2X IX IY
X  Y 
I X /A i2 and i 2
y  A A
eY eY
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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Normal Stress Distribution

Neutral axis versus location of normal force

• The orientation of the neutral axis does not depend upon the value of axial
force N, but on the location of its point of application.

• The neutral axis intersect the quadrant opposite to that where the normal
force N acts.

• If the normal force N moves from 0 to ∞ on a straight line, the neutral axis
moves parallel to itself from ∞ to 0.

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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Normal Stress Distribution
• If the neutral axis lies inside the
boundary of the section, then both
tensile and compressive stresses
are induced as shown in fig (a). In
this case , the neutral axis divide
the section into two regions (tensile
& compressive)

• If the neutral axis lies outside the section as shown in fig (b), the stresses acting
on the whole cross-section are of the same kind and they are tensile if N is a
tension force and compressive if N is compressive force.
• The max. and min. values of normal stresses occur at the extreme fibers with
respect to the neutral axis (points a and b).
• The normal stress (at the centroid of the section) =N/A and is of the same kind
as N.

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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Example 3.3
Draw the normal stress distribution for the problem
in Example 3.2
SOLUTION:
 - 55x4586.67  95.263x216 0   - 95.263x178 6.67  55x2160 
  2 
x  2 
y
 4586.67x17 86.67 - 2160   4586.67x17 86.67 - 2160 

By putting =0, the eqn. of the N.A. will be:

-0.013175x – 0.0145648y=0

α
Thus, the slope of N.A. is tanθ  -
β
Tan q = - 0.013175 / 0.0145648 = -0.9

q =137.86o . Setting x=0, then y=0, i.e. the neutral

axis passes through the centroid of cross-section.
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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Example 3.4
Draw the normal stress distribution at sec s-s of the
column own weight of column material is 2.5 t/m3.

SOLUTION:
-Properties of Section:
A=2x2-p(1)2/4=3.2146m2
IX=IY=2(2)3/12-p(0.5)4/4=1.284m4
IXY=0 due to symmetry of the cross section.

-Straining Actions:
W=own weight=(3.2146x4)x2.5=32.146t
N=-32.146-2=-34.146t
MX=+P4x4+P3x3-P1x1 =+4x4+2x3-2x1 =+20t.m
MY=+P2x4-P1x1 =+3x4-2x1 =+10t.m

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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Example 3.4
-Equation of Normal Stress:
Since X and Y are axes of symmetry, then they are
principal axes.
N  MY   MX 
    x   
y
A   Y 
I   I
 X 
- 34.146  10   20 
   x   y
3.2146  1.284   1.284 
 10.622  7.787x  15.573y
-Neutral Axes:
Setting =0, the eqn. of neutral axis is   10.622  7.787x  15.573y  0
MY IX 10 / 1.284 7.787
tanθ  -    0.5 i.e. θ  153.43
MX IY 20 / 1.284 15.473
N/A  10.622 N/A  10.622
x-   1.36m, y  -   0.86m
M Y /I Y 7.787 M X /I X 15.573
-Normal Stress Distribution:
a=-10.622+7.787(+1)+15.573(+1)=+12.738t/m2
b =-10.622+7.787(-1)+15.573(-1)=-33.982t/m2
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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Example 3.5
The allowable stress= 1.4 t/m2 for the material of
clamp, determine the largest force P that may be
produced when the clamp are tightened.
SOLUTION:
-Properties of Section:
A=10x7.5-7.5x5=37.5cm2
IX=10(7.5)3/12-7.5(5)3/12=271.4375cm4
IY=7.5(10)3/12-5(7.5)4/4=449.21875cm4
-Straining Actions:
N=+P ton, MX=0, and MY=-30P t.cm
-Equation of Normal Stress:
Since X and Y are axes of symmetry, then they are principal axes.
N  MY   MX 
   
 x 
 
y
A  IY   X 
I
P  - 30P   0 
   x   y
37.5  449.21875   271.4375 
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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Example 3.5
-Neutral Axes:
Setting =0, the eqn. of neutral axis will be
 =-P(0.0267-0.06678x)=0,
0.0267-0.06678x=0, x=0.3998cm
Where y=0, thus N.A is parallel to the Y-axis

-Normal Stress Distribution:

P  - 30P 
   x
37.5  449.21875 
M ax. tensile stress(at any p oint on the left face)
P  - 30P 
t   ( 5)  1.4  P  4.11t
37.5  449.21875 
M ax. comp ressive stress(at any p oint on the right face)
P  - 30P 
c   ( 5)  1.4  P  4.27t
37.5  449.21875 
then P  4.11t
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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Core of the Section
• The core of a section is an area inside the section
where the application of an eccentric normal force
produces normal stresses of one sign.

• The outline of the core is the locus of the points of

application of the eccentric normal force for which
the corresponding neutral axis is tangent to the
perimeter of the sec.

• Following remarks are helpful in constructing cores:

1. The core of a symmetrical section is also symmetrical.
2. For every straight line on the perimeter of the section, there is a corresponding
corner in the core.
3. For every corner on the perimeter of the section, there is a corresponding
straight line on the core.
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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Core of the Section
• Consider the section shown in Fig., where the X-Y
axes are centroidal principal axes of inertia.

• For a tangential axis 1-1, with intercepts x1 and y1,

the corresponding eccentricities of the normal force
(u, v) are :

i 2Y i 2Y
u x
x1 eX
From eqns.
i 2X i 2X
v y
y1 eY

Where iX and iY are the radii of gyration of the section about X and Y axes

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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Core of Some Common Cross Sections
• Rectangular section
IX bh 3 / 12 h 2 IY hb3 / 12 b 2
i 2
X    and i Y 
2
 
A bh 12 A bh 12
• For the line 1-1 of the perimeter, the coordinates of the
corresponding point on the core boundary are:
i 2x h 2 / 12 h
u1  0 and v1    
y1 h/2 6
And those for line 2-2 are:

i 2y
b 2 / 12 b
u2     and v 2  0
x2 b/2 6
• Strip section
If the height of the rectangle is ∞ the core is a strip of the width b/3

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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Core of Some Common Cross Sections
• Circular section
πR 4 / 4 R 2
i 2X  i 2Y  
πR 2
4
The core will be a circle of radius Rc given by:
R2 / 4 R
Rc  
R 4
• Hollow circular section

i 2X  i 2Y 

π R 41  R 42 / 4) 
R 21  R 22

π R1  R 2
2 2
) 4
The core will be a circle of radius Rc given by:

Rc 
R 2
1 )
 R 22 / 4

R 21  R 22
R1 4R 1

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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Determination of the Extreme Stresses in a Cross
Section by Means of the Core
The coordinates of the point Ca on the core boundary are:
i 2Y i 2X
u1   z a cos φ   and v1   z a sinφ  
x1 y1
i 2Y i 2X
Thus z a cos φ  and z a sinφ 
x1 y1
Also, we have
M X  Ney  N e sinφ and M Y  Nex  N e cosφ
Hence, the normal stress at point a will be given by

 
a 
N N e cosφ
 x a )  N e sinφ y a )  N 1  e cosφ
2
x a ) 
e sinφ
2
 y )
a 

A IY IX A iY iX 
N  e cosφ  x a  e sinφ  y a   N  e  x a y a  
 1  
 
  
 
  1    
A 
z a cosφ  x1  z a sinφ  y1   A  z a  x1 y1  
3 - 26
MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Determination of the Extreme Stresses in a Cross
Section by Means of the Core
But the Eqn. of line 1-1, which passes through point a, is:
x y x a ya
  1 , point a lies on that line, then  1
x1 y1 x1 y1
Thus, substituting in the previous equation, the normal
stress at point a is:
N  e  x a ya   N 
 e  Nz a  e )
 a  1    
   1   

A za  x1 y1   A  za  Aza
Similarly, it can be shown that the normal stress at point b will be given by
N e  Nz b  e )
b  1   
A zb  Azb
Where, N(za+e) and N(zb-e) are the moment of the normal force N about the core
points Ca and Cb.
Aza and Azb are the flexure modulus with respect to the core points Ca and Cb .
3 - 27
MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Special Cases
1-The section is subjected to only bending moment
Mφ Mφ
a  and  b  where, Ne  M φ
Aza Azb
2-The normal force lies on one of the two centroidal
principal axes
Nz a  e ) M Ca Nz b  e ) M Cb
a   and  b  
Aza Aza Azb Azb

3-The section is subjected to only bending moment MX or MY about X or Y axes, the

extreme normal stresses may be determined by
MX MY
 and   , where ZX and ZY are the section modulus
ZX ZY
ZX=(bh)h/6=bh2/6, and ZY=(bh)b/6=b2h/6 for a rectangular section
ZX=ZY= (pR2)R/4=pR3/4 for a solid circular section

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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Example 3.6
Draw the core of the section and, hence, find the extreme stresses
due to a compressive normal force N= 10 t, acting at point P. Using
the obtained extreme stresses, draw the normal stress distribution.
SOLUTION:
-Properties of Section:
A=10x30+2p30x10)=900cm2
IX=10(30)3/12+2x[30x(10)3/12+300x(20)2]=267500cm4
IY=30(10)3/12+2x [10x(30)3/12]=47500cm4
267500 47500
i 2X   297.2222cm and i 2Y   52.7777cm
900 900
-The Core of the Section:
Since X and Y are axes of symmetry, then they are principal axes.
i 2Y i 2X
using Eqns. u   and v  
x1 y1
v1=-297.222/25=-11.8888cm and u1=0
u1=-52.7777/15=-3.51852cm and v1=0
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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Example 3.6
i 2Y i 2X
using Eqns. u   and v  
x1 y1
v3=-297.222/-25=+11.8888cm and u3=0
u4=-52.7777/-15=+3.51852cm and v4=0
-Extreme Normal Stresses:
The inclination of the neutral axis corresponding to the applied force N at point P
(ex=15cm and ey=15cm) is given, using the Eqn. of slope of the N.A., by
e X i 2X 15x297.222
tanθ     5.63  θ  -79.93

e Y i 2Y 15x52.777
The extreme normal stresses will occur at points a and b. The
extreme stresses due to the given eccentric normal fo(ex=15cm
and ey=15rce are obtained as:
Nz a  e )  10000x 3.8395  21.213)
a    -72.5 kg/cm 2
Aza 900x3.8395
Nz b  e )  10000x 3.8395  21.213)
b    50.3 kg/cm 2
Azb 900x3.8395
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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Example 3.7
A crane of capacity 10t and rotating about a vertical axis, is placed on
rectangular concrete foundation. The loaded crane has a total vertical
load V=35t including its own weight at an eccentricity 0.6m from the
center of the foundation. a)max and min at the base of the foundation
b) Find the smallest possible foundation of the given height with either
square or circle base, for which the N.A. does not cut the cross section.
SOLUTION:
-Straining Actions at Foundation Base:
W=(2.4x3.0x1.8)x2.2=28.512t (weight o foundation)
N =-(28.512+25.0)=-53.512t (compressive force)
e = (25x0.6)/53.512=0.28m (eccentricity of normal force)

-The Core of the Section:

The core of the foundation base is rhombus with diagonals of lengths
b/3 and h/3.

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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Example 3.7
-Maximum and Minimum Normal Stresses:
The max. and min. stresses occur at one corner and the opposite
corner respectively by:
N e  N e 
 a  1 
  and b  1  
A za  A zb 
The max. and min. stresses at the base occur when za and zb are min.
The angle of inclination of the line pCa is:
tan f=0.5/0.4=1.25 → f=51.34o
And za = zb =0.4 sinf =0.3123m
Thus, the max. and min. normal stresses are:
N 
e - 53.512  0.28 
a  1     1    14.096t/m
2

A 
za 3x2.4  0.3123 
N e  - 53.512  0.28 
 b  1     1    0.769 t/m
2

A zb  3x2.4  0.3123 
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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Example 3.7
-Square base with side a:
W=(a x a x 1.8)x 2.2=3.96a2 t and N=-(25.0+3.96a2)
e=(25x0.6)/(25.0+3.96a2)
za=zb=a/(6√2)
Applying the condition that the N.A. does not cut the
cross section N e 
b  1    0  e  zb
A zb 
i.e. a/(6√2)=(25x0.6)/(25+3.96a2) then 25a+3.96a3=127.279 → a=2.53m
-Circular base with radius r:
W=(pr2 x 1.8)x 2.2=12.44r2 t and N=-(25.0+12.44r2)
e=(25x0.6)/(25.0+12.44r2)
za=zb=r/4
N e 
 b  1    0  e  zb
A zb 
i.e. r/4=(25x0.6)/(25+12.44r2) then 25r+12.44r3=60 → r=1.30m
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