Excavations at Jericho

Author(s): Kathleen M. Kenyon

Source: The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and
Ireland , Jan. - Dec., 1954, Vol. 84, No. 1/2 (Jan. - Dec., 1954), pp. 103-110
Published by: Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland

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 Excavations at Jericho*

KATHLEEN M. KENYON, C.B.E., F.S.A.

Director, British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem

WHEN IN I952 political conditions made it possible to resume active archaeological work
in Palestine, the British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem decided to undertake a further
series of excavations at Jericho. In addition to the interest of the site from its association
with Biblical history, Professor John Garstang's excavations in 1935-6 had shown that in
the heart of the mound lay important remains of the Neolithic period, and further examina-
tion of both of these aspects of its history was very desirable. The Palestine Exploration Fund
has throughout been associated with the School as a sponsor of the enterprise, and the two
bodies have now been joined by the British Academy; a large number of universities,
museums, and societies, including the Royal Anthropological Institute, have contributed
to the excavation funds. In Jordan, the American School of Oriental Research has collabor-
ated in the excavations. Every assistance has been given by the Department of Antiquities
of the Hashemite Kingdom of the Jordan.
The results of the three seasons' work already carried out have provided important
evidence for all periods from the Late Chalcolithic to the Late Bronze Age, roughly from
the 4th millennium B.C. to the I4th century B.C. Before the Late Chalcolithic lies an earlier
Chalcolithic phase, a Neolithic phase with pottery, and a pre-pottery Neolithic phase. It
is concerning the Neolithic that the excavations have produced results of particularly out-
standing importance, and the present article is concerned with that period alone, as being
of especial interest to readers of this JOURNAL.
The site of ancient Jericho is an oval-shaped mound on the outskirts of the modern
oasis, at the foot of the mountains forming the western edge of the great Jordan Rift. It lies
at a level of goo feet below sea level, with the mountains to the west rising to 2500 feet above
sea level within a distance of about 15 miles. Across the flat trough of the Jordan Valley,
some iO miles wide, the mountains of Moab and Gilead rise equally abruptly to a similar
height. The reasons which gave Jericho its importance through millennia are twofold. At
the foot of the mound a strong perennial spring gushes out, today irrigating the modern
oasis. The soil of the Jordan Valley is very fertile with irrigation, and the abundant water
supply, coupled with the fertility of the soil and a sub-tropical climate, provided conditions
very favourable to primitive agriculture. Secondly, the site lies on one of the two most im-
portant routes from the uplands to the east, and the desert behind them, into coastal Palestine.
From these steppe and desert areas bands of nomads have from the dawn of history and
long before surged out at intervals to establish a footing in the Fertile Crescent, of which
Palestine forms part. Jericho, as guardian of the gateway, must at all periods have had to
look to her defences, and the excavations have shown the results of the incursions of many
such nomad bands, and the succession of strong city walls built to oppose them.
The mound today rises some 70 feet above the spring at its foot. Garstang's (I935,
excavations revealed, deep in the mound at the north-east end, a level characterized by
Neolithic pottery, and beneath it a deep deposit earlier than the appearance of pottery.

*A paper read at a meeting of the Institute on 7 October 1954,

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 104 KATHLEEN M. KENYON

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WALL~~~O OkL

4 Mt

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SCAct~ ~ ~ ~ ~~P BURA sMeLEr yeoR

4cg a0Pf D RO

PamE I. Section of Trench 1, showing prewpottery Neolithic levrelsa with? above, pot
Age levrels.

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 EXCAVATIONS AT JERICHO I05

His main trench cleared two building phases of this pre-pottery stage, and a restricted sound-
ing was sunk through a total depth of i 6 feet of the same type of occupation.
The present expedition has continued excavation downwards of part of the main trench,
and it has also located occupation of the same pre-pottery type within 5 feet of the surface
about 400 feet further south. Two characteristics of this occupation are of outstanding
interest. The first is the highly developed architecture. The plan of the buildings so far
excavated seems to be almost stereotyped. In each phase, in both areas so far examined,
there seems to be a principal room, rectangular in plan, with pairs of oval-shaped piers
standing slightly away from the side walls and separated centrally by a wide opening. Sur-
rounding the main rooms are smaller subsidiary enclosures. The walls are solid and straight,
the angles of the rooms slightly rounded. The unfired mud bricks are characteristic, of a
flattened cigar shape, hand-made, with keying for the mortar provided by a herringbone
pattern made by the brick-maker's thumbs. Floors and walls are covered with a fine plaster,
usually creamy or pinkish in colour and highly burnished.
The individual houses seem to have been fairly large, for in no case does the complete
house lie within the area excavated. In the site at the north-east end of the tell, a courtyard
is flanked by buildings to the east and west. It is not yet clear whether it is a courtyard within
a building, or one separating two adjacent houses. In it, cooking took place; successive hearths
and charcoal spreads were sealed by re-layings of the floor.
The second outstanding point of the settlement is its size. When occupation of this
type was first located by Professor Garstang, it was presumed that it belonged to a small
village round the source of the stream. It is now clear that the settlement is at least as wide
as the later tell from east to west. Excavation at the south end has not yet reached the neces-
sary level, but there are already indications that similar occupation extended to that point,
and that the settlement was therefore as large as the later town.
This occupation undoubtedly precedes the introduction of pottery; the character of
the occupation, architecture, and planning in fact changes completely in the succeeding
phase when pottery was introduced. Apart from this, it has all the characteristics of a
Neolithic economy. It was undoubtedly settled. It was based on agriculture and stock-breed-
ing; there are numerous querns of a characteristic and individual type; grain and grain-
impressions are abundant and bones of domesticated and domesticable animals, Bos, sheep,
goat, are frequent. The examination of the material is not yet completed, so we do not know
how close the grain and animals are to the wild types, but the present presumption is that
domestication was in progress. The flint industry is Tahunian, the standard Neolithic
Palestinian type.
Until the Carbon-I4 analysis has been completed, we have no absolute date for this
occupation. A very considerable antiquity is suggested by the absence of pottery, but it
might be argued that this would merely show that the Jordan Valley was a cultural back-
water. There are points, however, which suggest that this was not so. A phase, very long,
as will be seen, of the pre-pottery culture, was succeeded by a phase with the abrupt appear-
ance of a characteristic pottery, quite unlike the Neolithic pottery of northern Syria and
northern Mesopotamia. There are indications, not yet confirmed by stratigraphical suc-
cession, that this was succeeded by other pottery which has its links with the Yarmuk
culture of the site south of the Sea of Galilee and with Byblos Aeneolithic A; Byblos in turn
gives a link with the Neolithic of Mersin, Hassuna Archaic, and a number of other northern
sites. Thus the pre-pottery phase at Jericho would seem to be safely earlier than the majority
of Neolithic sites to the north. A comparable position is occupied by Jarmo (Braidwood
I950), which also has a pre-pottery and a pottery phase, and which is also probably earlier
than Hassuna. A Carbon-I4 date for Jarmo is 4700 ? 330 B.C. It is very probable that the

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 io6 KATHLEEN M. KENYON

great length of occupation during that phase at Jericho will carry the initial occupation
back appreciably earlier.
There are indications, therefore, that, while over the rest of the area only the most
tentative steps were being taken from a Mesolithic to a Neolithic economy, with sites such
as Karim Shahir (Braidwood I951) showing seasonal occupation and incipient agriculture,
there had been built up at Jericho a very firmly settled economy, of which the evidence is
of course the highly-developed architecture and the size of the settlement. The basis of the
settlement must be successful agriculture, the reason for this, the spring by which the settle-
ment is situated, assuring the productivity of the fields. The need for controlling irrigation
may also have something to do with the development of an organized community (the
evidence for which will be referred to below), just as a similar need stimulated urban develop-
ment in the river valleys of Egypt and Mesopotamia.
The equipment of the community was fairly simple. As has been said, there were
numerous querns, and a very varied collection of rubbing and polishing stones, some large,
some so small that they must have been used for very delicate work. The surviving receptacles
are stone bowls of various sizes and shapes. Many are finely worked, though they do not
compare with the excellent stone bowls of Khirokitia in Cyprus (Dikaios I953). They would
no doubt have been supplemented by skin containers. Sickle-blades with a fine denticulation
and the characteristic gloss are very common: the majority are short sections, no doubt
part of composite sickles set in hafts of wood or bone, but there are some longer blades with
two serrated edges, which must have been hafted as knives. Blades, borers, and gravers form
the bulk of the other implements. Arrowheads occur, but in a relatively small proportion.
There is a curious lack of heavy implements, and almost nothing in the way of wood-working
tools, though the evidence of a few post-holes in the walls shows that wood was used struc-
turally. A considerable number of pierced stones which would have served as weights for
digging-sticks may indicate the methods of tilling the fields. Small pierced disks, which are
probably spindle-whorls, and other pierced stones, which could have been loom-weights,
may be evidence of textile-making.
The finds give evidence of basic self-sufficiency with just that slight intrusion of im-
ported objects which is typical of Neolithic sites. Objects which are not of local materials
include a few obsidian blades, presumably derived from Anatolia or Transjordan, lumps
of what appear to be turquoise matrix, of which the source must be the Sinai Peninsula,
and cowrie shells, probably from the Red Sea. A planned survey of the sources of the
materials has not yet been carried out.
The first evidence that the settlement must be regarded as an organized community
came with the discovery of a remarkable defensive wall in the centre of the west side of the
mound. The wall is very massive, built of undressed stones of considerable size (one as much
as a metre by a metre-and-a-half across the face), which must have been brought from the
mountain foot at least half a mile away. Such a wall is clear evidence of communal enterprise
and organization. It must be primarily defensive in purpose, for though it also served as a
retaining wall for a platform, this had been artificially constructed. The foundations of the
wall are cut through a fill to its rear, and this fill was simultaneously removed in front of
the wall. The wall, moreover, had had a superstructure above the surviving portion and
above the contemporary surface to its rear, for a house had been built up against it. It was
constructed, therefore, as a formidable obstacle, with a minimum height of at least I3 feet.
A length of 30 feet of this wall has so far been uncovered. It cannot yet be said with certainty
whether it is a town wall or a citadel wall, though the fact that it follows the line later selected
for the town wall during some fifteen hundred years would make it quite probable
that it is a town wall. But whether it is a town wall or citadel wall, it represents a major

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 EXCAVATIONS AT JERICHO I07

achievement of communal enterprise, most surprising at a stage when incipient villages were
alone to be expected.
Community development is also attested by evidence which is accumulating of religious
observances. A number of small animal figurines suggest a fertility cult, as is to be expected
among people with an agricultural economy. One figurine, only 2.7 inches high, is un-
doubtedly that of a mother-goddess, an elegant little lady, her head unfortunately missing,
with wide-flaring skirt gathered at the waist, arms akimbo, and hands clasping her breasts.
In the clearance at the north-east end of the site, a small room was found which was
probably a household shrine. In an alteration of the plan of one of the houses, a small room
was partitioned off from the main room of the house. In one end wall was constructed a
small niche with, at its base, a rough stone set as a pedestal. In the fill nearby was found
a stone which fitted the niche and was almost certainly the cult object. It is a stone of vol-
canic origin, probably derived from the Nebi Musa neighbourhood about io miles away,
elaborately flaked to form a pillar with a pointed oval section. There is little doubt it was
intended to represent the diety, and it shows that the community was already groping after
a comprehension of a supernatural being.
More important still is a building which may be a public sanctuary or temple. This lies
in the area excavated on the western side of the site, immediately below the town wall des-
cribed above, which was built into its ruins. It consists of a large rectangular room, I9 feet
long and more than i6 feet wide (the northern wall being outside the excavated area). At
the east and west end were annexes with curious curving inwards-sloping walls. The main
room had the usual burnished plaster floor, and in the centre was an accurately formed
rectangular basin, likewise plastered and aligned on the walls. The basin and part of the
adjacent floor was strongly scorched by fire. The size and unusual plan, quite unlike anything
else discovered, and the central basin, strongly suggest some ceremonial use, and the structure
may therefore be a temple.
The other discovery which as well as having religious implications gives important
evidence of artistic development is that of the group of portrait heads discovered in I953.
These heads had as a basis human skulls, on which the features were restored in plaster.
The tops of the skulls are left uncovered, but the face and the jaw are completely covered.
The interior of the skull was packed with earth before the plastering was carried out, and
the soft tissues had therefore previously decayed or been removed; the plaster features do
not therefore represent a death-mask. The features are modelled with delicacy and precision,
ears, nose, mouth, and eyelids all being small and neat, while the cheeks are smooth and
rounded. The eyes are inset with shells. In six out of the seven heads the shells are cockle
shells, arranged with a vertical slit to represent the pupils. In the seventh head, the eyes are
represented by cowrie shells. In one case only is there anything on the top of the head; this
one has bands of dark brown paint, which may represent a head-dress or hair.
The whole effect is extraordinarily life-like. Each head has a great individuality, and
one cannot escape the conviction that they are portraits. A curious feature is that in only
one case is the mandible present. In the others, the plaster of the chin is in fact moulded
over the teeth of the upper jaw. This gives the face a somewhat squat appearance, but they
nevertheless remain very true to life.
These heads are evidence of a cult in which the preservation of the human skull formed
a part. This had already been suggested by an earlier find of the skull of an elderly man
carefully set upright in the corner of a room and sealed by the floor, but in this case there
were no plastered features.
Quite apart from the religious significance, the heads have a great artistic interest.
They are evidence of high technical and representational skill in the maker. They are not

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 i o8 KATHLEEN M. KENYON

of course the earliest known representations of the human form, for such representations
are known both in the Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic cultures. But these very early
artistic developments are separated by long gaps in time from later art, whereas from the
Neolithic stage a steady cultural progress can be traced towards full civilization, and through
Sumerian, Egyptian, and Hellenic art these heads can claim a direct ancestry to modern
art.
Jericho had already produced a head moulded in plaster, found by Professor Garstang
(I935, P1. LIII). A superficial resemblance is given by the use of shells for eyes, but
have not got the central slit, and in almost all other details there is a great difference. The
head is not moulded on a human skull, and is in fact a flat disk and is therefore much less
life-like. The head moreover apparently formed part of a complete figure, one of a group
of three, which was certainly not the case with the present group. The whole treatment is
much more stylized, and one would therefore be inclined to expect it to be later. This cannot
yet be definitely established on stratigraphical grounds, as the two finds were made in dif-
ferent parts of the mound. But Professor Garstang's head apparently came from approxi-
mately the junction of the pre-pottery and pottery Neolithic phases, whereas the other group
is well down in the pre-pottery levels, which would support the idea that they were earlier.
As found, these heads lay in a discarded pile beneath one plastered floor, and in debris
overlying a lower one. The underlying structure, in which the heads were presumably
treasured, has now been cleared. It is typical in plan and construction of the pre-pottery
Neolithic houses, with plastered floors and spacious rectangular rooms. There was no indi-
cation of any special shrine or fitting from which the heads could have come, but the full
extent of the structure was not cleared.
Beneath the floor, however, was evidence of the history which lay behind the heads.
Immediately below the floor were the remains of a large number of individuals. Burial
beneath the floors of houses seems to have been the normal practice, but the number of indi-
viduals, about thirty in an area of 57 feet by Ig feet, suggests unusual circumstances. Some
of the remains were of intact skeletons, lying in a strongly flexed position. In other cases,
the skeleton was intact with the exception of the cranium, while the mandible is usually
displaced and lying near. In other cases, again, there were collections of limb bones, often
themselves articulated but detached from the trunk. It would appear that at a stage when
the flesh was partially, but not completely, decayed, some of the bodies had been collected
up in a disjointed condition, and in other cases they had been removed. In the whole group,
there was a marked shortage of crania. It thus seems highly probable that it was from these
remains that the crania used for the plastered skulls were derived.
The number of bodies suggest a preceding disaster. This is unlikely to have been an
earthquake, for they were lying on top of and not beneath the ruins of the preceding house.
The bones were too fragile for it to be ascertained whether there were any signs of injury,
to distinguish between disease or massacre. But a suggestion that a massacre may have taken
place is given by the fact that it was when the succeeding house was built, with the bodies
buried beneath the floor, that the defensive wall already described was constructed. This
would allow of two explanations. There may have been a massacre, after which the survivors
returned, built the wall as a precaution against a recurrence of the disaster, and preserved
the heads of the seven most honoured individuals as venerated ancestors. Afterwards the
conquerors may have established themselves, and have taken the heads to preserve as trophies.
The evidence is not as yet conclusive, but further excavation may show whether the culture
of the new phase is continuous with the preceding phase or whether there is a break.
The house built over the burials, in which the heads must have been treasured, had
a long life, with the floors several times renewed. During its life the defensive wall seems

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 EXCAVATIONS AT JERICHO 109

to have collapsed, and was rebuilt i6 feet further west, in a similar platform technique.
When the house was finally superseded by one on a somewhat different plan at a higher
level, the heads were discarded and buried beneath the new floor.
The structures so far excavated represent an impressive sequence of building periods within
the pre-pottery Neolithic phase. But it is now clear that a long period of occupation lies
before them. Beneath the floor of the building possibly to be identified as a temple and
described above was a depth of i 6 feet of tipped fill. This slopes down against the face of a
yet earlier defensive wall, almost vertically beneath the later one, but separated from it by
at least three building phases. This wall stands to a height of I5 feet, in two stages, the
of which is cut into fill against the face of the lower, which is founded on rock. Like the later
wall, it is built of undressed stones, rather smaller than the later, but on the other hand
more regularly constructed. Part of the face is covered with mud-plaster, but it is not clear
whether this is a patch or whether the whole face had originally been plastered.
This wall, again like the later one, is built on a batter, almost certainly against a core
of earlier fill. The slope of the bed-rock has now been established for a distance of I30 feet
from the west to the foot of the wall. It is clear from this that the rock slopes down gradually
to the level of the spring on the east side of the tell, and that there is no natural hill at all.
Behind the wall, therefore, lies a long succession of earlier levels, carrying back occupation
on the site to a very early date.
It is thus already clear that the debris derived from occupation of the pre-pottery
Neolithic phase accounts for the greater part of the present height of the mound. If the
evidence suggesting that the pre-pottery phase at Jericho is in fact earlier than the pottery
Neolithic cultures elsewhere in Syria and Palestine is sound, it would appear that settled
occupation, with highly developed architecture, grew up there very much earlier than
elsewhere. This is presumably due to its favourable geographical situation, leading to an
agriculture sufficiently developed to support a permanent population.
The pre-pottery phase was succeeded by a phase, still apparently Neolithic, in which
pottery appears. The pottery is hand-made and mostly soft and friable. Some is extremely
coarse, with grit and often straws in it. The surface is often grass-smoothed. In addition,
there is a decorated ware, somewhat finer, with a cream slip and decoration in dark red.
The decorated motives are most commonly chevrons and triangles. The effect is enhanced
by the red-patterned areas being burnished, while the reserved areas are not so treated.
The forms are simple, the most common being a flat-based saucer with splaying sides and
a jug with a slightly globular body, a cylindrical neck, and handles at the base of the neck.
Both the decorated and undecorated pottery seems to appear simultaneously, and there
is very little doubt that the appearance of pottery indicates the arrival of a new group. The
architectural remains associated with this phase are entirely different from those of the pre-
pottery phase. Stone is employed in building to a much greater extent, and the bricks are
bun-shaped. It is beginning to appear that there are two distinct phases in this occupation.
Over most of the area excavated, the lowest level containing pottery consists of large,
irregularly-shaped pits, filled with very loose rubble, and containing much pottery. There
is very little doubt that these pits were dug into the debris of the preceding period in order
to obtain material for making bricks. But in small areas there are now appearing traces of
earlier occupation, consisting only of hearths and floors. It would thus seem that the new-
comers arrived without any developed architectural traditions, and lived in very slight
structures. After a time sufficient for a considerable amount of pottery to accumulate, they
started to build houses, and in doing so, the quarry-pits dug to obtain brick material des-
troyed most of the traces of the earlier occupation. Not a great deal has so far been recovered
of the plan of the houses of this period, for the levels were considerably destroyed by later

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 IIO KATHLEEN M. KENYON

pits. It is clear, however, from the distribution of the pottery, that the occupation covered
the whole mound. The depth of deposit, on the other hand, is very small indeed as com-
pared with the pre-pottery Neolithic phase.
No absolute date can so far be given to the Neolithic pottery phase at Jericho. As has
been pointed out, this pottery precedes a different type, found in Professor Garstang's Level
VIII. Some of the types with herringbone decoration in this area can be linked with other
Neolithic sites to which a fourth or a fifth millennium dating is usually given. At Jericho
this phase is followed by one with Late Chalcolithic pottery, one tomb of which has been
dated by Carbon-I4 to 3260 1i IO B.C. In the area on the west side of the tell in which
the best stratigraphic sequence has been obtained, these two phases are missing, and may
in fact be represented by a buried soil-line preceding the Early Bronze Age occupation,
which Professor Zeuner (I934) estimates to indicate a gap in occupation in that part of the
site of 300 i ioo years. It would seem probable that the pottery Neolithic phase at Jericho
should be dated to somewhere in the late fifth millennium.
A considerable amount remains to be done to establish the outlines of the history of
the Neolithic occupation at Jericho. The very earliest occupation in the heart of the mound
has still to be examined, and also the size of the settlement. The earliest levels may show
whether there is a development on the site from a Mesolithic to a Neolithic type of culture,
and how early the characteristic architecture was evolved. It is at present planned to carry
out a further three seasons' excavation to examine these problems.

REFERENCES

BRAIDWOOD, ROBERT J. I95I. From Cave to Village in Prehistoric Iraq. Bull. A

124, PP. I2-I8.
BRAIDWOOD, ROBERT J. & LINDA I950. Jarmo: A Village of Early Farmers in Iraq. Antiquity, 24,
pp. i89-95.
DIKAIOS, PORPHYRIOS I953. Khirokitia: Final Report on the Excavation of a Neolithic Settle-
ment in Cyprus on Behalf of the Department of Antiquities I936-I946. Monogr. Dept Antiq.
Govt. Cyprus, I. xxi, 447 pp. London, Oxford University Press for Government of Cyprus.
GARSTANG, JOHN I935. Jericho: City and Necropolis. Fifth Report. VII. General Report for I935.
The Early Bronze Age. Ann. Archaeol. Anthrop. 22, pp. 143-68.
GARSTANG, JOHN I936. Jericho: City and Necropolis. Report for Sixth and Concluding Season,
I936. I. General Survey and Special Features. Ann. Archaeol. Anthrop. 23, pp. 67-76.
ZEUNER, F. E. 1954. The Neolithic-Bronze Age Gap on the Tell at Jericho. Pal. Explor. Q.
86, pp. 64-8.

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KATHLEEN M. KENYON. Excavations at Jericho PLATE I

NEOLITHIC PORTRAIT HEADS FROM JERICHO

. M . . .. ad. . .
........ ....

a~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~...... - .... ......

I .... . ............................. .. ''' - 'n' N~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

!~~~~~~~~~~

.. .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ . . . . .

Three of the seven

and by cockle shells in the rest. Only in a single case was the mandible present.

{^ .X.s t - l?S:~ ~A~Z~8~;A~'~~~~~~~~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~.~k~ A~ ~! ~. .:.>t. .. .. . .

_..' .: .$.3.)> -F i ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.. .. .

'S. ~ ~ ~ .

Portrait head as it appeared when found. The group lay in a tumbled heap, and one of those
still to be uncovered can be seen resting on the nose of the cleaned specimen.
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KATHLEEN M. KENYON. Excavations at Jericho PLATE II

THE NEOLITHIC WALLS OF JERICHO

i - | '. . . :.'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ . ....

Below, the g
defensive wa
heads probably belonged.

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