Human Development • It is a pattern of movement or change that begins

at conception and continues through the lifespan.

• The physical, cognitive, and • Development includes growth and decline. This
psychosocial development of means that development can be positive or negative
humans throughout the lifespan. (Santrock. 2002).

>> Types of Development

• Physical development involves • Cognitive development • Socioemotional
growth and changes in the body involves learning, attention, development involves
and brain, the senses, motor memory, language, thinking, emotions, personality,
skills, and health and wellness. reasoning, and creativity. and social relationships.

>> Major Principles of Human Development

1. Development is relatively orderly.

The muscular control of the trunk and the arms comes earlier as compared to the
hands and fingers. (Proximodistal Pattern - center to outward)

During infancy, the greatest growth always occurs at the top of the head with
physical growth in size, weight and future differentiation gradually working its way
down from top to bottom. (Cephalocaudal Pattern – top to bottom)
2. While the pattern of development is likely to be similar, the outcomes of
developmental processes and the rate of development are likely to vary among
individuals.
The premise is that development is affected by socio-economic factors.
3. Development takes place gradually.
It takes years before they become one. While some changes occur in a flash of
insight, more often it takes weeks, months, or years for a person to undergo
changes that result in the display of developmental characteristic.
4. Development as a process is complex because it is the product of biological,
cognitive and socioemotional processes.
>> Two Approaches of Human Development
Traditional Approach – human will show extensive change from birth to
adolescence, little or no change in adulthood and decline in late old age,
Life-span Approach - believe that even in adulthood developmental change takes
place as it does during childhood.

Characteristics of Life-Span Approach:

• Development is life-long. • Development is contextual.
• Development is multidimensional. • Development involves growth,
maintenance, and regulation
• Development is plastic.
>> HAVIGHURTS’ DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES AND TASKS

1. Infancy and Early childhood (0-6 y.o.)

Learning to walk, talk, take solid foods, control the elimination of body wastes, sex
differences and sexual modesty, and getting ready to read.

2. Middle Childhood (6-13 y.o.)

Learning physical skills necessary for Developing fundamental skills in reading,
ordinary games. writing, and calculating.

Get along with age-mates. Developing conscience, morality, and a

scale of values.
Achieving personal independence.

3. Adolescence (13-18 y.o.)

Achieving new and more mature
relations
. with age-mates of both sexes
and a masculine or feminine social role
Achieving emotional independence of
parents and other adults.
Preparing for marriage and family life and
preparing for an economic career.
Acquiring a set of values and an ethical
system as a guide to behavior; developing
an ideology and socially responsible
behavior.

4. Early Adulthood (19-30 y.o.)

Selecting a mate & achieving a masculine Rearing children & managing a home
or feminine social role.
Getting started in an occupation
Learning to live with a marriage partner
Taking on civic responsibility & finding a
and starting a family.
congenial social group.

5. Middle Age (30-60 y.o.)

Achieving adult civic and social
responsibility.
Establishing and maintaining an economic
standard of living.
Assisting teenage children to become
responsible and happy adults.
Accepting and adjusting to the
physiologic changes
Adjusting to aging parents
Assisting teenage children to become
responsible and happy adults.
Developing adult leisure-time activities.

6. Later Maturity (60 years and above)

Establishing an explicit affiliation with
Adjusting to decreasing physical strength
one’s age group
and health
Meeting social and civil obligations.
Adjusting to retirement and reduced income
Establishing satisfactory physical living
Adjusting to death of a spouse.
arrangement.
 >> FREUD’S PYSCHOANALYTIC THEORY
Father of psychoanalysis, most popular psychologist that studied the development
of personality, also probably the most controversial in his theory of psychosexual
development.
>> Stages of Psychosexual Development
1. Oral Stage (birth-18months) – erogenous zone is the mouth.
• Oral Receptive – Gullible and dependent. Stronger tendency to smoke, drink
alcohol, and overeat.
• Oral Aggressive - Tend to bite his or her nails or use curse words or even
gossip. Pessimistic and aggressive.
2. Anal Stage (18months-3yo) – erogenous zone is the anus.
• Anal Retentive - an obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and control.
• Anal Expulsive - where the person may become messy and disorganized.

3. Phallic Stage (3-6yo) – erogenous zone is the genitals.

Interested in what makes boys and girls different. Preschoolers will sometimes be seen
fondling their genitals.
• Oedipus Complex – boys develop unconscious sexual desire for their mother.
• Electra Complex - girls develop unconscious sexual desire for their father.
• Fixation - Sexual avoidance or overindulging.

4. Latency Stage (6yo-puberty)

– during this stage that sexual urges remain repressed.
– focuses on the acquisition of physical and academic skills.
According to Freud, unresolved conflicts or issues during this stage can lead to problems
later on, such as difficulty expressing emotions or forming healthy relationships.
5. Genital Stage (puberty onwards) - sexual urges are once again awakened.
Adolescents focus their sexual urges towards the opposite sex peers, with the pleasure
centered on the genitals.
Delays in other stages may result in fixation in this stage.
>> Freud’s Personality Components
❖ ID - instinctual needs and drives. PLEASURE
The first one to develop but slowly being restrained and suppressed as the
child grows older.

❖ EGO - The CONSCIOUS and RATIONAL part of the self.

Mediates between the biological and social needs of the person.

❖ SUPEREGO - Internalization of societal values and beliefs.

It plays a moralizing role for the individual because it serves as the person’s
CONSCIENCE. This is the last one to develop.
 PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
>> Basic Cognitive Concepts
• Schema - cognitive structures. It is an individual's way to understand or create
meaning about a thing or experience. (Example: A child sees a dog for the first time)
• Assimilation - the process of fitting a new experience into an existing or previously
created cognitive structure or schema.
• Accommodation - the process of creating a new schema.
• Equilibration - achieving proper balance between assimilation and accommodation.

>> Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development <<

Stage 1: SENSORIMOTOR
❖ Birth to infancy.
❖ Focuses on the prominence of the senses and muscle movement.
❖ The stage when a child who is initially reflexive in grasping, sucking, and reaching
becomes more organized in his movement and activity.
> Object Permanence
- the ability of the child to know that an object still exists even when out of sight.
- bridge to pre-operational stage.

Stage 2: PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE

❖ 2-7 years old. (Preschooler years)
❖ Intelligence at this stage is intuitive (instinct) in nature.
❖ The child can now make mental representations (imagination), the child is now ever closer
to the use of symbols.
> Symbolic Function - represent objects and events.
> Egocentrism - child to only see his point of view and cannot take the perspective of others.
> Centration – the child only focuses on one aspect of a thing and exclude other aspects.
> Irreversibility - inability to reverse their thinking. (can understand 2+3 is 5, but not 5-3 is 2)
> Animism – the child tends to inanimate objects.
> Transductive Reasoning - neither inductive nor deductive. (if A causes B, then B causes A)
Stage 3: CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE (mid/primary schoolers)
❖ 7-11 years old. (Elementary years)
❖ The ability of the child to think logically but only in terms of concrete objects.
> Decentering - ability of the child to perceive the different features of objects and situations.
> Reversibility - the child can now follow that certain operations can be done in reverse.
> Conservation - the ability to know certain properties of objects (numbers, mass, volume, or
area) do not change even if there is a change in appearance.
> Seriation - the ability to order or arrange things in a series based on one dimension such as
weight, volume, or size.
 Stage 4: FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE
❖ 12-15 years old. (adolescents to adulthood)
❖ Thinking becomes more logical.
❖ They can now solve abstract problems and can hypothesize.
> Hypothetical Reasoning - can now deal with "What if'' questions.
> Analogical Reasoning - can make an analogy and narrow down possible answers in
another similar situation or problem.
> Deductive Reasoning - ability to think logically by applying a general rule to a particular
instance or situation.

ERICKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY OF

DEVELOPMENT
❖ Erikson's "psychosocial” term is derived from
the two source words - namely psychological
(or the root, "psycho” relating to the mind,
brain, personality, etc.) and social (external
relationships and environment).
❖ The epigenetic principle. "This principle
says that we develop through a
predetermined unfolding of our personalities
in eight stages. Our progress through each
stage is in part determined by our success, or
lack of success, in all the previous stages.
>> Stages of Psychosocial Development
• Erikson's theory was largely influenced by
Sigmund Freud. But Erikson extended the
theory and incorporated cultural and social
aspects into Freud's biological and sexually
-oriented theory.
• Contrary dispositions - psychosocial
crisis of two opposing emotional forces.
• Syntonic – positive disposition in each
crisis.
• Dystonic – negative disposition in each
crisis.

1. Stage 1: TRUST vs MISTRUST (1-1 ½ years)

Maladaptation: Overly trusting

Malignancy: will develop the tendency of withdrawal
Virtue – HOPE. If the proper balance is achieved, he will develop the strong belief that,
even when things are not going well, they will work out well in the end.

2. Stage 2: AUTONOMY vs SHAME AND DOUBT (18months - 3/4 yo)

Maladaptation: Impulsiveness. Jumping into things without proper consideration of

your abilities.
Malignancy: Compulsiveness. Everything they do must be done perfectly.
Virtue - WILLPOWER or DETERMINATION.

3. Stage 3: INITIATIVE vs GUILT (early childhood stage, from 3 / 4 – 5 / 6 yo)

Maladaptation: Ruthlessness. They don't care who they step on to achieve their
goals.
Malignancy: Inhibition. "Nothing ventured, nothing lost."
Virtue - sense of PURPOSE.

.
4. Stage 4: NDUSTRY vs INFERIORITY (middle age / school age. 6-12 yo)

• Parents must encourage, teachers must care, peers must accept.

• They must learn the feeling of success, whether it is in school or on the playground, academic
or social.

Maladaptation: Narrow Virtuosity (gina pressure). These are kids without life and
aren't allowed to be children.
Malignancy: Inertia (gina discourage). People who suffer from inferiority complexes.
Virtue – COMPETENCY

5. Stage 5: IDENTITY vs ROLE CONFUSION (puberty – 18/20 yo)

• The task during adolescence is to achieve ego identity and avoid role confusion.
• Ego identity means knowing who you are and how you fit into the rest of society.

Maladaptation: Fanaticism. These people will gather others around them and
promote their beliefs and life - styles without regard to others’ rights to disagree.
Malignancy: Repudiation. To repudiate is to reject.
Virtue – FIDELITY means loyalty, the ability to live by society’s standards despite their
imperfections and incompleteness and inconsistencies.

6. Stage 6: INTIMACY VS ISOLATION (young adulthood, 18-30 yo)

• "Fear of commitment" some people seem to exhibit is an example of immaturity in this stage.

Maladaptation: Promiscuity. The tendency to become intimate too freely, too easily.
Malignancy: Exclusion. The tendency to isolate oneself from love, friendship, and
community, and to develop a certain hatefulness in compensation for one's loneliness.
Virtue - CARING.

7. Stage 7: GENERATIVITY vs STAGNATION (Middle age, 30-64 yo)

• The period during which we are actively involved in raising children.

• Generativity is a concern for the next generation and all future generations.

Maladaptation: Overextension. These people no longer allow time for themselves, for
rest and relaxation.
Malignancy: Rejectivity. They panic at getting older and not having experienced or
accomplished what they imagined they would when they were younger, they try to
recapture their youth
Virtue - sense of PURPOSE.

8. Stage 8: NTEGRITY vs DESPAIR (Old age, around 60 yo)

• This stage might be the most difficult. It might seem like everyone would feel despair.

Maladaptation: Presumption. The person in old age believes that he alone is right.
He does not respect the ideas and views of the young.
Malignancy: Disdain. The person becomes very negative and appears to hate life.
Virtue – WISDOM.
 KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
>> Stages of Moral Development
❖ PRE-CONVENTIONAL – moral reasoning is based on CONSEQUENCE/RESULT, not on
whether the act itself is good or bad.

• Stage 1: Punishment/Obedience – motivated by fear of punishment.

• Stage 2: Mutual Benefit – motivated by the benefit/reward he will obtain.

❖ CONVENTIONAL (usual/standard) – moral reasoning is based on the “NORMS” of society.

• Stage 3: Social Approval – motivated by how he/she will appear and gives importance
to what other people will think and say.
• Stage 4: Law and Order – will follow the law because it is the law.

❖ POST-CONVENTIONAL – moral reasoning is based on ENDURING/CONSISTENT

PRINCIPLES. It is not just recognizing the law, but the principles behind the law.

• Stage 5: Social Contract – motivated by social justice and common good. “Laws that
are wrong can be changed.”
- considers other people’s situation/perspective.
- justifies/explains the reason behind its action.
• Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle – development of conscience.
- Having a set of standards that drives one to possess moral responsibility to make
societal changes regardless of consequence to oneself.

VYGOTSKY’S SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY

❖ A young boy who was educated by a teacher who used Socratic Method (question &
answer).
>> Comparison between the theory of Piaget and Vygotsky
Social Interaction
❖ Piaget’s theory was more individual, while Vygotsky’s was more social.
❖ Piagetian's tasks focused heavily on how an individual’s cognitive development became
evident through the individual’s own processing of the tasks.

Vygotsky, on the other hand, gave more weight on the social interactions that
contributed to the cognitive development of individuals.
Cultural Factors
➢ Piaget believed that as the child develops and matures, he goes through universal stages
of cognitive development.

Vygotsky, on the other hand, looked into the wide range of experiences that a culture
would give to a child.
❖ LANGUAGE

• Opens the door for learners to acquire knowledge.

• Helps the learner regulate and reflect on his own thinking.
• “Talking-to-oneself” will lead to PRIVATE TALK which guides the child’s thinking
and action.
• Vygotsky suggests that children learn best through hands-on activities.

❖ ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT

• The difference between what the child can accomplish alone and what she can
accomplish with the guidance of a More Knowledgeable Other (MKO).
• Zone of Actual Development – A child’s level of competency in performing a task alone.
• Scaffolding - support or assistance that lets the child accomplish a task he cannot
accomplish independently.

BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL THEORY

➢ Presents child development within the context of relationship system that comprise the
child’s environment.
➢ The term bioecological points out that the child’s own biological make-up impacts as a key
factor in one’s development.
➢ Bronfenbrenner concluded that the instability and unpredictability of family life is the most
destructive force to a child's development.
➢ According to the bioecological theory, if the relationships in the immediate microsystem
break down the child will not have the tools to explore other parts of his environment
➢
• MICROSYSTEM (Immediate Environment) – the layer nearest to the child.
➢ comprises structures (family, school and neighborhood) which the child directly
interacts with.
➢ covers the most basic relationships and interactions that a child has.
➢ relationship effects happen in two directions - both away from the child and toward the
child. (Bi-directional Influences)
• MESOSYSTEM (Connection)
➢ serves as the connection between the structures of the child’s microsystem.
(ex. link or interaction between the parents and teachers, or the parent and health
services or the community and the church.)
• EXOSYSTEM (Indirect Environment)
➢ bigger social system in which the child does not function directly.
➢ This includes the city government, the workplace, and the mass media.
➢ Likely to feel the positive or negative impact even with the absence of direct interaction
Example: Parents nature of work.
• MACROSYSTEM (Social and Cultural Values)
➢ includes the cultural values, customs, and laws.
➢ A child’s development varies on what country and customs he grows up with.
(ex. In China, sons seen as more valuable than the daughters.)
• CHRONOSYSTEM (Changes over time)
➢ covers the element of time as it relates to a child's environment.
➢ Involves patterns (predictable/sudden) of stability and change in the child's life.
 PRE-NATAL DEVELOPMENT
❖ Human life begins from the moment of conception.
>> Stages of Pre-natal Development
1. Germinal Stage – creation of the zygote
2. Embryonic Stage – zygote becomes embryo and embryo’s life-support system develop
3. Fetal Stage – fetus has become active & reflexes are stronger.
Germinal Stages:
• Endoderm – inner layer of the cell that develops unto the digestive & respiratory system.
• Ectoderm – outermost layer which become the nervous system, sensory receptors & skin
parts.
• Mesoderm – middle layer which become the circulatory, skeletal, muscular, excretory

❖ Organogenesis – organ formation process

❖ Teratology – field that investigates the cause of the birth defects.
❖ Teratogen – what causes the birth defects. From the Greek word “tera” means monster.
❖ Heavy drinking by pregnant woman results in Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
>> Teratology & Hazards to Prenatal Development
• Prescription & Nonprescription Drugs – antibiotics, thalidomide (diet pills, aspirin, coffee)
• Psychoactive Drugs – nicotine, coffee, marijuana, cocaine, heroin.

Smoking can cause to fetal and neonatal deaths, preterm births and lower birth
weights.
Heroin addicts deliver smaller than average size babies with more incidence of
toxemia, premature separation of placenta, retained placenta, hemorrhaging after
birth and breech deliveries.
Cocaine exposure during pre - natal development is associated with reduced
birthweight, length and head circumference, impaired motor development,
impaired information processing, and poor attention skills.

• Environmental Hazards – radiation, x-ray, environmental pollutants, toxic wastes, and

prolonged exposure to beat in saunas and bathtubs.

Chromosomal abnormalities are higher among the offspring of fathers exposed to

high levels of radiation in their occupations.

• Other maternal factors – rubella (German Measles), syphilis genital herpes, AIDS,
nutrition, high anxiety and stress, age. (too early or too late, beyond 30)

Folic acid is necessary for pregnant mothers. Folic acid can reduce the risk of having
a baby with a serious birth defect of the brain and spinal cord, called the 'neural tube'.
Down Syndrome’s risk increases beyond 30 and higher before age 18.

• Paternal Factors - fathers' exposure to lead, radiation, certain pesticides, and

petrochemicals may cause abnormalities in sperm that lead to miscarriage or diseases
such as childhood cancer.
 INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD DEVELOPMENT
>> Height and Weight
✓ It’s normal for newborn babies to drop 5 -10 percent of their body weight within a couple of
weeks of birth.
✓ In general, an infant’s length increases by about 30 percent in the first five months.
✓ Baby’s weight usually triples during the first year but slows down in the second year of life.
>> Brain Development
✓ Among the most dramatic changes in the brain in the first two years of life are the
spreading connections of dendrites to each other.
✓ At birth, the newborn’s brain is about 25 percent of its adult weight. By the second
birthday, the brain is about 75% of its adult weight.
MYELINATION - the process by which the axons are covered and insulated by layers of
fat cells, begins prenatally and continues after birth.
Depressed brain activity has been found in children who grew up in a depressed
environment.
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
>> Reflexes
• Sucking Reflex - initiated when something touches the roof of an infant's mouth.
• Rooting Reflex - most evident when an infant’s cheek is stroked. The baby responds
by turning his or her head in the direction of the touch and opening their mouth
for feeding.
• Gripping Reflex - The strength of this grip is strong, and most babies can support
their entire weight in their grip.
• Curling Reflex - when the inner sole of a baby's foot is stroked, the infant responds
by curling his or her toes.
• Startle/Moro Reflex - Infants will respond to sudden sounds or movements.
• Galant Reflex - infant’s middle or lower back is stroked next to the spinal cord.
• Tonic Neck Reflex - infants who are placed on their abdomens. Whichever side the
child's head is facing, the limbs on that side will straighten, while the opposite limbs will
curl.

GROSS MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

➢ From babies unable to even lift their heads to being able to grab things out of the cabinet,
to chase the ball and to walk away from parents.

FINE MOTOR SKILLS

➢ Refined use of the small muscles controlling the hand, fingers, and thumb.
➢ Able to complete tasks such as writing, drawing, and buttoning.
➢ The ability to exhibit fine motor skills involve activities that involve precise eye-hand
coordination. Show wrist movements, hand rotation and coordination
SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT
➢ Newborn males show a higher level of cortisol (an indicator of stress) after a circumcision
than prior to the surgery
➢ Babies only two hours old, babies made different facial expressions when they tasted
sweet, sour, and bitter solutions.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
➢ Begins from reflexive behaviors to more refined and more coordinated activities.
➢ Primary Circular – Focused on self.
➢ Secondary Circular – Focused on the environment.
➢ Tertiary Circular – Doing things over and over again (Pattern Seeking)
➢ Achievement of Object permanence
LEARNING AND REMEMBERING
➢ INFANTILE AMNESIA - The inability to recall events that happened when we were very
young.
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
➢ From day one. infants appear to be programmed to tune in to their linguistic environment.
➢ Infants clearly have remarkably acute language learning abilities even from an early age.
Stages in Producing Language
1. Cooing - comprises largely vowel sound.
2. Babbling - which comprises consonant as well as vowel sounds.
3. One-word utterances - these utterances are limited in both the vowels and the
consonants they utilize.
4. Two-word utterances and telegraphic speech.
5. Basic adult sentence structure (present by about age 4years) with continuing
vocabulary acquisition.

Language Acquisition Device (LAD) - a metaphorical organ that is responsible for

language learning.
SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
➢ Attachment
▪ The infant needs to establish an enduring emotional bond characterized by a
tendency to seek and maintain closeness to a specific figure, particularly during
stressful situations.
▪ According to Dr. John Bowly, the father of attachment theory, the beginnings of
attachment occur within the first 6 months.
➢ Temperament - a word that captures the ways people differ.
Basic Types of Temperament of Babies
▪ Easy Child - easily readily establishes regular routines, is generally cheerful, and
adapts readily to new experiences.
▪ Difficult Child - is irregular in daily routines, is slow to accept new experiences and
tends to react negatively and intensely to new things.
▪ Slow-To Warm-Up-Child - shows mild, low-key reactions to environmental changes,
is negative in mood, and adjusts slowly to new experiences.
THE EMERGENCE OF MORAL SELF
▪ about 50% of the 19-to-24-month-olds, and 80 % of the 25-to-29 months old and
almost all 30-to-40-month-olds are capable of self-evaluation. These age groups
of babies therefore have a sense of morality.
▪ Children who aren't capable of self-evaluation and self-description don't have the
capacity to experience a sense of shame and remorse.

EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT

(Preschoolers)
❖ Physical growth increases in
preschool years but much slower
than in infancy and toddlerhood.
❖ Their center of gravity is at a lower
level, near the button belly.
❖ Best time to learn skills that
require balance such as riding
bike or skating.
❖ Time to instill habits of good
dental habits.

GROSS AND FINE MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

➢ Gross motor development refers to acquiring skills that involve large muscles.
➢ Fine motor development refers to acquiring the ability to use the smaller muscles in
the arm, hands and fingers purposefully.

LOCOMOTOR SKILLS - involve going from one place to another such as walking,
running, climbing, skipping, hopping, creeping, galloping, and dodging.

NON-LOCOMOTOR SKILLS - ones are those where the child stays in place, such as
bending, stretching, turning and swaying.

MANIPULATIVE SKILLS - involve projecting and receiving objects, like throwing,

striking, bouncing, catching and dribbling.

PRESCHOOLERS’ ARTISTIC DEVELOPMENT

Stages of Drawing: (Victor Lowenfeld)
Stage 1: Scribbling Stage - begins with large zigzag lines which later become circular
markings.
Stage 2: Preschematic Stage – adults may be able to recognize the drawings. Usually
comprise of a prominent head with basic elements.
Stage 3: Schematic Stage – depicts elaborated scenes which includes houses, tress,
sun, sky and people.

Nutrition and Sleep

✓ Preschoolers benefit from about 10-12 hours of sleep each day because the vital
biological processes that affects physical and cognitive development takes
place.
✓ During sleep, growth hormones are release, blood supply to the muscle are
increased which helps preschoolers to regain energy and increased brain activity.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OFPRESCHOOLERS
➢ Preschooler’s Stages Symbolic stages- being able to draw objects that are not
present, by their dramatic increase in their language and make-believe play.

➢ Intuitive substage- preschool children begin to use primitive reasoning and ask a
litany of questions.

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
PHONOLOGY – Speech Sound SYNTAX – sentence construction
SEMANTICS – word meaning PRAGMATICS – conversation or social uses of language

LANGUAGE AND SOCIAL INTERACTION

Vygotsky asserted that preschoolers can improve their cognitive development through use of
scaffolding from more-skilled children and adults.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY ATTENTION AND MEMORY
Children's mental processes through the metaphor of a computer processing encoding,
storing, and decoding data.
YOUNG CHILDREN’S THEORY OF MIND
• refers to individuals’ thoughts about how mental processes work.
• by the age of 2 or 3, children become aware that the mind exists. They refer to needs,
emotions, and mental states.
• when a preschool child says, “forgot my doll", "I want my ice cream” these imply that
he/she is aware that a mind exists.
Socio-emotional Development
• Crucial in the preschool years.
• Attending preschool is more on socialization than for formal academic learning.
Preschooler’s Initiative
Initiative vs Guilt (3-5 years old)
• As preschool children encounter a widening social world, they are challenge more and
needs to develop more purposeful behavior to cope with these challenges. Children are
now asked to assume more responsibility.
• Uncomfortable guilt feeling may arise, though if they are irresponsible and are made to
feel too anxious
Self-Concept and the Preschooler
• Self-concept – refers to the way one sees himself, a general view about one’s
abilities, strengths and weaknesses.
• Self-esteem – refers to one’s judgments about one’s worth.

➢ Gender typing – the process of forming gender roles, gender-based preferences and
behaviors accepted in the society.
➢ Parten’s Stage of Play
1. Unoccupied 3. Solitary Play 5. Associative Play
2. Onlooker 4. Parallel Play 6. Cooperative Play – there’s rule (tigso)
➢ Caregiving Styles

• Authoritative – parents have high expectations towards their child, but they’re also
concern and recognizes their child’s achievement.
• Authoritarian – parents have high level of control towards the child.
• Permissive – Parents are not strict and controller, but there’s affection, love, and
care.
• Negligent – Parents doesn’t care and doesn’t have expectations towards their
child.

MIDDLE CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT

(Primary Schoolers – grade 1-3)
➢ Factors: Natural (Genetics and Heredity) and Environment (Nutrition, physical
enviro)
➢ Physical Growth – slow and steady
➢ Height: 2 inches a year for boys and girls. Weight: 6.5pounds/2.9kg. for boys and girls.
Factors that could indicate how much a child grows and how much changes in the body:
➢ Genes, food, climate, exercise, medical conditions, and diseases/illnesses.
➢ Bones and Muscles:
Primary schoolers need more water and protein-like materials.
They have fewer minerals than adults.
Adequate calcium intake will strengthen the bones and muscles.

➢ MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
• Unimanual Activities – require the use of one hand. (ex. throwing a ball)
• Bi-manual Activities – require the use of two hands. (ex. Using spoon and fork)
• Graphic Activities – visual works (writing)

➢ MOTOR DEVELOPMENT SKILLS

• Coordination - series of movements organized and timed to occur in a particular
way.
(eye-hand coordination; eye-foot coordination)
• Balance - ability to maintain the stability of his/her body in different positions.
(Static Balance; Dynamic Balance)
• Speed - ability to cover great distance in the shortest possible time.
• Agility - ability to quickly change or shift the direction of the body.
• Power - ability to perform a maximum effort in the shortest possible period.

➢ What is the importance of developing the motor skills of the primary pupil?

✓ Vital in performing different activities, games, and sports.

✓ May spell the difference between success and failure in future endeavors of the child.

➢ LOGIC
• Inductive Logic - specific to general
• Deductive Logic – general to specific
➢ COGNITIVE MILESTONES

• Elementary age children learn in sequential manner, meaning they need to

understand numbers before they can perform a mathematical equation.

➢ Information Processing Skills – human mind is a system that can process information
through the application of logical rules and strategies.

The mind receives information, performs operations to change its form and content, stores
and locates it and generates responses from it.

➢ SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

• Industry vs. inferiority is the psychosocial crisis that children will have to resolve in this stage.

Industry refers to a child’s involvement in situations where long and patient work is demanded
of them, while inferiority is the feeling created when a child gets a feeling of failure when they
cannot finish or master their school work.

▪ School Year

Children tend to become increasingly self-confident and able to cope well with social
Interactions.
Characteristics like loyalty and dependability are being considered as well as responsibility
and kindness.

▪ Budling Friendships
Five types of peer statuses:

Popular – frequently nominated as a best friend and are rarely disliked by their peers.
Average – receive and average number of both positive and negative nominations from
others.
Neglected – infrequently nominated as a best friend but are not disliked.
Rejected – infrequently nominated as someone’s best friend and are actively disliked.
Controversial – frequently nominated both as someone’s best friend and as being disliked.

▪ Anti-social Behavior

✓ Expose the children to kid-rich environments.

✓ Create a play group in your class.
✓ When children hit, remind them that it will hurt others.
✓ Coordinate with parents and other teachers so that the children will have greater
opportunity to interact with other children.

▪ Self-control

Children begin to take pride in their ability to do things and their capacity to exert effort. They
like receiving positive feedback from their parents and teachers.