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omen have made significant strides in most socie- gravitated en masse toward NGOs, where they have found fewer
ties over the last century, but the trend line has not barriers to leadership. The 230 NGOs in the National Coun-
been straight. In recent interviews with hundreds of cil of Women's Organizations represent ten million American
female leaders in over 30 countries, I have discovered that where women, and women lead many of the country's largest phil-
s in the women have taken leadership roles, it has been as social refortn- anthropic organizations, including the Bill and Melinda Gates
maturi ers and entrepreneurs, not as politicians or government officials. Foundation and the Ford Foundation. As for academia, Harvard,
But the This is unfortunate, because the world needs women's perspec- MIT, and Princeton currently have women at the helm.
lives and particular talents in top positions. In 1998, Francis Most other countries follow a similar pattern. The number of
peöple Fukuyama wrote in Foreign Affairs that women's political lead- NGOs in the former Soviet republics grew exponentially after

nrs/tö eship would bring about a more cooperative and less conflict- the fall of the Iron Curtain, and women formed the backbone of
g Olais ptone world ("Women and the Evolution of World Politics," this new civil society, but the percentage of women in eastern
Whene September/October 1998). That promise has yet to be fulfilled. European parliaments plummeted. In Lithuania, that percentage
ne!d.aiåt Granted, a few women are breaking through traditional bar- declined from approximately 33 percent during the communist
Tiers and becoming presidents, prime ministers, cabinet mem- era to 17.5 percent in 1997 and 10.6 percent jn 2004. According
Whåt< bers, and legislators. But even as the media spotlight falls on to a group ofjournalists in Kyrgyzstan, women head 90 percent of
hich : the II female heads of government around the world, another NGOs but hold not a single seat in parliaments even though they
.significant fact goes unreported: most of the best and the bright- made up 33 percent of the legislature at the end of the Soviet era. In
Jntåes•,
' est women eschew politics. Women are much mgre_likely-to_ China, the Communist Party-controlled All-China Women's Fed-
actiW)t.:::.
Wield influence from a nopgovernmentgl organization (NGO) eration functions much as an NGO does, engaging women across
than from the country on community issues, but despite the government's
Women are still severely underrepresented in governments claims of equality, Chinese women have rarely held positions of
worldwide. A recent World Economic Forum report covering political power. Likewise, in South Korea, women run some 80

:115 countries notes that women have closed over 90 percent of percent of the country's NGOs but occupy less than 14 percent
:the gender gap jn education and in health but only 15_percentof—.. of the seats in the National Assembly. The story is the same in

.ilWhen comes to political empowerment at the highest levels.

it Africa. According to Robelt Rotberg, director of the Program on
Although 97 countries have some sort of gender quota system Intrastate Conflict and Conflict Resolution at Harvard's Kennedy
government positions, according to the Inter-Parliamentary School of Government, 'African women, who traditionally do the
•Üiiion, an organization that fosters exchange among parlia- hard work of cultivation and all of the family rearing, also nurture
i!il€nts, women fill only 17 percent of parliamentary seats world- NGOs and motivate civic initiatives. But they are widely expected
and 14 percent of ministerial-level positions—and most of to leave politics—and cortüption and conflict—to men."
4höséare related to family, youth, the disabled, and the elderly. Women may thrive in NGOs. The world, however, needs
• the story is very different: women are consistently them to take that experience into the political sphere. As the
"yeriepresented at the top levels. Sierra Leonean activist and former presidential candidate Zai-
y;This pattern also holds for the United States, where 1 $ of 100 nab Bangura points out, "The real power isn't in civil society;

IFhbers of the Senate and 71 of 435 members of the House of it's in policymaking."
e>resentatives are women. The United States ranks 68 out of
It/91countries, behind a dozen in Latin America, in terms of the
Of women in the legislature. Ihose iow numbers are A Woman's View
.\oyftistent with Capitol Hill's historic antipathy toward females. Greater female political participation would bring significant
were denied the vote for 133 years, refused an equal rewards. Research sponsored by the World Bank has shown that
and shut out of government-funded health countries with a high number of women in parliament enjoy.
for decades, At the same time, American women have lower levels of corruption. Another World Bank-sponsored

113
 ANNUAL EDITIONS
study concludes that women are less likely to be involved in who disappeared duling (he dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet.
bribery and that corruption is less severe where women make South Korean Prime Minister Han Myeong Sook was a social
up a large share of senior government officials as well as the activist (and political prisoner) during her country's military
labor force. A survey of research by Rachel Croson, of the dictatorship.
Wharton School, and Uri Gneezy. of (he University of Cali- The lessons women learn while leading civil society may also
fornia, San Diego, simmaqröööauded that women are more explain why they have "higher moral or ethical standards than
trustworthy than Consider Nigeria. The watchdog group their male counterparts," according to the International NGO
ransparency International ranked it as {he most corrupt coun- Training and Research Center. Hannah Riley Bowles, professor
try in the world in 2003. But that year, Ngozi Okonjo-lweaia of public policy at Harvard's Kennedy School of Government,
left her job as a vice president at the World Bank to become found that when negotiating for jobs, American women asked
the country's finance minister, and by 2005 Transparency for 15 percent less than men did, but when negotiating on behalf
International was hailing Nigeria as one of 21 most improved of others, women's demands increased substantially. (No such
states. Change came thanks to the indictment of corrupt offi- difference was found among male negotiators.) Carrying that
cials, as well as to reform in banking, insurance, the foreign tendency into the political sphere, "women may hold back when
exchange market, pensions, and income taxation. Similarly, promoting their own candidacy or securing the resources they
in Liberia, international policymakers have been heartened to need to rise to the fore," argues Bowles. But they can be "fabu-
see President Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf prioritize the eradication lous advocates for their constituents."
of corruption. Knowing that foreign investment would flow Given these qualities, it is no surprise that women's involve-
only after a crackdown on the plundering culture of her pre- ment in political negotiations tends to•solidify conflict resolution.
decessors, Johnson-Sirleaf fired the entire Finance Ministry "If we put women in leadership, they have a degree of tolerance,
staff and brought in women for the positions of finance min- an understanding that allows them to persist even when things
ister, chief of police, commerce minister, and justice minister, seem to be very bad," notes Pumla Gobodo-Madikizela, a South
among others. African clinical psychologist who worked in grass-roots NGOs
Electing and appointing women to positions of political lead- during apartheid and helped establish the Truth and Reconcili-
ership turns out to be good for the broader economy as well.. ation Commission. Unlike men, she continues, "women have
There is a correlation between women holding political office thepower and emotional inclination (o hold onto hope when it
and the overall economic competitiveness of a nation. Augusto comes to negotiating with former enemies." As documented by
Lopez-Claros, chief economist and director of the World Eco- the Initiative for Inclusive Security. in numerous settings, women
nomic Forum's Global Competitiveness Network, argues that have joined forces across party lines to shape peace agreements,
"the Nordic countries seem to have understood the economic sponsor legislation, and influence the drafting of constitutions.}
incentive behind empowering women: countries that dQ not They also come to the table with a different perspective on
ully capitalize on one-half of their human urces a c early conflict resolution. Women are more likely to adopt a broad def-
undeminin heir c mpetiüve potential. "The high percentage inition of security that includes key social and economic issues
of women in parliamen countiies such as Rwanda (almost that would otherwise be ignored, such as safe food and clean
49 percent of members in the lower house), Costa Rica (40 water and protection from gender-based violence. This senti-

perccnt), and Mozambique (35 percent) suggests that it is not ment was expressed to me by South Korea's Song Young Sun;
simply a nation's affluence that causes more women to assume the National Assembly's military watchdog. Most of the men
leadership positions, If that were the case, the relatively pros- she serves with define security as protecting South Korea's tert
perous United States should be in the top ranks of countries ritory against North Korea, she said; she believes that security
sending women to Congress instead of lagging behind countries considerations should also include "everything from economics
such as El Salvador, Nepal, and Tajikistan. to culture, environment, health, and food."
In 2000, an Inter-ParIiamentary Union poll of 187 female
politicians in 65 countries found that 80 percent or the respon-
dents believed that increased representation of women renews A Man's World
public trust in government, which in turn helps economic wel- If having women wield political power is so beneficial, why
fare. The politicians cited examples from countries as varied as are there not more female leaders? A fundamental reason is

El Salvador, Ethiopia,New Zealand, and Russia in which politi- that women themselves are not eager or for

cal activism by women led to "tangible improvements" in social political office. Women view politics as a dirty game, and
services, the environment, the safety of women and children, their loftier standards may keep them away from the glit and
i
and gender equality. grind of it. , More than 200 public officials and NGO leaders
Worldwide, female legislators as agroup tend to concentrate throughout Kyrgyzstan responded to a 2004 United NationS
on helping marginalized cilizens. In the United States, for exam- Development Program poll by saying women -would bring
pleaDemocratic and moderate Republican congresswomen are transparency, B'a strong sense of responsibility," and "fair attit

more likely than men to focus on socially conscious legislation. tudes" to politics, But Nurgul Djanaeva, who heads a coalition
Perhaps female politicians take such concerns to heart because of 88 Kyrgyz women's groups, bemoaned the situation: "The
they have often honed their skills in the NGO arena. Chilean only way for me to feed my family, while working in govern:'
President Michelle Bachelet, for instance, returned from exile ment, is to be corrupt, so I'd rather work for an NGO and have
in 1979 to work with children of people who werc tortured or a living wage."

114
 Article 20. Let Women Rule

Pinochet. IL does not help that politics has traditionally been man's Money constitutes another barjier for women. Coming 111)

IS a social world, and that many men——and some women——want to keep it with fees to file as a candidate or run a campaign can be daunt-

s military that way. A woman may be considered "too soft" for political ing. Few countries have emulated the creation of organizations
leadership—or "unfeminine" if she runs. Oftem however, it is such as EMILY's List ("EMILY" stands for 'Early Money
may also women themselves who doubt their own leadership abilities. Is Like Yeast"), which raises contributions across the United
lards than According to the 2000 World Values Survey, women comprised States for Democratic pro-choice women.
NGO 21 percent of respondents in Chile and 45 percent of respon- The financial squeeze can be further compounded by the
professor
Mexico who agreed strongly with the statement that
dents in threat of physical harm. According to Phoebe Asiyo, a promi-
men make better political leaders than women do. This distinct nent Kenyan member of parliament for more than a quarter cen-
vernment;
askéd lack of self-assurance persists across cultures. According to tury, the greatest expense for women running for parliament in

on behalf research by the political scientists Richard Lawless and Jen- Kenya is around-the-clock security, which is necessary because

(No such nifer Fox, authors of It Takes a Candidate: Women Don't of the danger of rape, a common intimidation tactic. Mary
:ying thåt•
Run for Office, American women were twice as. likely as men Okumu, a Stanford-educated Kenyan public health expert, was
jack when to describe themselves as "not at all qualified to run for office," beaten up when she stood for election in 2002. Okumu says that
trces they even when their credentials were equivalent. Only 25 percent she and other candidates routinely can•ied concealed knives and
be "fabu- of the women saw themselves as likely or ver3GETFtmers, wore two sets of tights under their dresses in order to buy more
percent of the men. time to scream during an attempted rape. Male opponents were
s involye- The women to phy does not also at risk of physical attack, but Okumu says that "for women
esolution, spur them on to pol itical leadership either. Reconciling political political aspirants the violence also includes foul verbal abuse,

tolerance;
• •life with family commitments was the primary concern of the beatings, abduction, and death threats."

.things
female politicians surveyed in 2000 by the Inter-Par!iamentary Given prevailing social norms and the numerous barriers to

a, a Soufr Union. Women usually believe that their obligations to family entry to the political arena, as well as women's own perception
NGOs members—including parents and in-laws—as the primary care- of politics as a dirty game, it is unsurprising that many women
Qeconcili; • giver are incompatible with holding public office. Rebeca Gryn- turn away from elected office, believing that they have a better

men• .have span, former vice president of Costa Rica, voices the dilemma: chance of achieving results in the NGO realm. In 1991, as a

e when it {Society doesn't provide conditions under which we can do our child, Ala Noori Talabani fled on foot from Saddam Hussein's
aentcd by jobs home with peace of
with tranquility and leave our children army. Fourteen years later, she was elected to the interim Iraqi
s, women mind, We can count on stable, supportive partners." The
even if National Assembly. She seemed a model legislator—a well-

reements; pressures for women to stay home and tend to their families are educated, articulate former diplomat equally comfortable among
itutions, compounded by conservative religious doctrines. A fundamen- villagers in Kirkuk, politicians in Baghdad, and policy analysts
ectWe on talist interpretation of Islam threatens women 's nascent political in Washington. Yet in 2006, she left politics in frustration to

road déf' hopes in countries such as Kuwait, where women gained the work with an NGO SO tllüt she could focus on the problems she
lic issues right to vote and run for office in the 2006 elections but did not cares about most: honor killings, domestic violence, and rape.
Ind clean- win any parliamentary seats. Similarly, Afghanistan and Iraq,
his Senti; where new constitutions reserve a quarter of parliamentary seats

-uhg Sun; for women, are in danger of backsliding into a collision with What is to be Done?
the men resurgent extremism. In the West, the Catholic Church in such The forces excluding women from political leadership are so
mea's ter• countries as Croatia urges women to focus on family rather than strong that only a serious and comprehensive effort can bring
security Püblic life. Likewise, most women in U.S. politics find their about change. Fortunately, governments, foreign-aid organiza-
)onomics _ views incompatible with the religious right: in 2004, only two and academic institutions can stimulate both
tions, think tanks,

Ofthe 14 female senators, compared with 48 of the 86 male the supply of and the demand for women in the political arena.

Senators, vo ed consistently with the Christian Coalition. At the most basic level, national governments should imple-
Even WY en women want to run for political office, they ment 'family-friendly" policies, including straightforward
encounter roadblocks, In most countries, male political party measures such as easier access to daycare, flexible office hours,

gatekeepers determine candidate lists, and the ordering of can- and limits to evening meetings. But in some countries, to be
•didates on the lists is a fundamental factor in determining who effective, policies will have to be designed according to more
•tand.föf gpes to parliament. It takes more than affirmative-action mea- progressive interpretations of religious doctrine regarding genu
line}: and stires, such as quotas or reserved seats, to ensure women's places der roles. In 2004, Moroccan King Muhammad VI personally
tgiif;andr on those lists; it takes parties' will. According to the Harvard backed a new version of family law that was compatible with
)'l€ådérå •.P01itical scientist Pippa Norris, who analyzed the 1997 British sharia and that gave women equal rights. His support of gen-
Nätiö!1.9 'elections, the Labour Party showed rare resolve in setting aside women's political rep-
der-sensitive legislation also increased
lidiibrjngi$•) • half of the seats from which members of parliament resentation (from two in 2002 of the 325 seats in
2001 to 35 in

retiring and half of those considered 'most winnable."

' parliament's lower house) and made Morocco one of the most
é6åliE0 move doubled the total percentage of women in parliament socially progressive countries in the Muslim world. In May
9.2 to 18.2 percent of all seats. More typical, however, is 2006, thanks to another of the king's initiatives, the first class
-€!hS'complaintofaBosnian politician who told me wryly that her of 50 female imams graduated from an academy in Rabat. They
On her party's candidate list dropped precipitously, thanks are expected to do everything male imams do except lead Friday
•t$backroom hacks and men muscling their way to the top. prayers in a mosque.

115
 : 7•.2•• • • •try, .

ANNUAL EDITIONS
NGOs
equipping
and governments have an important role
women with the confidence and skills necessary
to play in
Less Swagger, More Sway
Women's community-based wisdom, fresh ideas, and commie
to run for office. Grass-roots programs could help recruit and
ment to the social good may be the best news in domestic policy
train women across the political spectrum. The Cambodian
today. They have much to contribute to decisions regarding the
organization Women for Prosperity, for instance, has prepared
environment, security, health care, finance, and education. In
more than 5,500 female candidates for elections in Cambo-
foreign policy as well the world could use more sway and less
dia. Embassies abroad could encourage established f ale
swagger.
pfficials to mentor new candidates,_ learning rom the Forum
of Rwanaan Women Parliamentarians. In 2006, Rwanda's
A critical mass of female leaders will change norms; thal

may be why President Bachelet appointed ten women along-

female parliamentarians returned to their districts to rally
side the ten men in her cabinet. Of course, there are excep-
women to n.m for local office, increasing the proportion of
tions, but generally speaking, stereotypical "feminine" qualities
female mayors and deputy mayors in the country from 24 to • dil
(such as the tendency to nurture, compromise, and collaborate)
44 percent in one election, Outsiders ought to boost the profile
have been confirmed by social science research. The world
of Liberia's Johnson-Sirleaf, the only elected African female
needs those traits. With so many intractable conflicts, conven-
head of state, who recently urged female officeholders, "Don't
tignal strategies—economic sanctions, boycotts, or military
we
Stop with parliament. Join me. I'm lonely." The Initiative for
intervention—have clearly proved inadequate. Women's voices to
Inclusive Security, which has brokered relationships between
would provide a cali/row arms. m,
hundreds of female leaders in conflict regions and thousands
None of these benefits to domestic and foreign policy, how.
of policymakers, is a cleative and strong model of an external
ever, will be realized if just a few women reacb positions of
player working to encourage women's political participation. leadership. The few women who now make it to the top of a
And governments should look to replicate innovative politi-
predominantly male hierarchy, and who do not come out of
cal party reforms that ensure gender equality, such as those
a women's movement, usually have attributes more similar
promoted by Michal Yudin's group in Israel—WE (Women's
to those of most men. Indira Gandhi, Margaret Thatcher, and
Electoral) Power—which has pressured Knesset members to
Golda Meir had more "masculine" qualities than many of the
increase funding for parties that exceed the quota for women's
men they bested, and they pushed little of the social agenda
participation. commonly of interest to women in politics. General wisdom
Supporting transparent and equitable campaign-finance
about critical mass would predict that approximately 30 percent
rules would also help women in the political arena. Women of officeholders have to be female for a significant effect to be
tow me that when they have to choose between their children's
felt to me about her expe-
on policy. As Anita Gradin remarked
school fees or their own campaign, their children win. Govern-
member oi Sweden*s parliament, the same group
rience as a
ment campaign subsidies spread across political parties help
of women who were once in a small minority in the legisla-
level the field. Governments should go further by rewarding
ture talked, acted, and voted differently when their proportion ,

parties that boost the representation of women on their candi-

increased significantly.
date lists and penalizing those that do not,
The more women shift from civil society into government;
Female politicians also need to be protected. In Afghanistan,
the more political culture will change for the better, and the more
where women running for parliament in 2005 were attacked, other women will follow. Advocates of women 's leadership need
and international organizations asked governors, chiefs of
local
to stop their handwringing over whether gender differences exist
police, tribal elders, and other community leaders to provide
and appreciate the advantages women have over men's brawny
security details, At least one candidate who reported threats had
style of governance, whether because of biology, social roles, or
police protection 24 hours a day. Security measures reassured
a cascading combination of the two. In the meantime, however,
women that state and community leaders backed their right to
they will have to put up with some paternalistic responses, such
engage in politics.
as the one I received from a colonel at the Pentagon shortly after
Finally, and most important, governments ought to support the United States' "shock and awe" attack on Iraq in 2003. When
quotas for women at all levels of government. In systems I urged him to broaden his search for the future leaders of Iraq,
with proportional representation, "zippering," requiring that a which had yielded hundreds of men andonly seven w,omen, he
woman be in every second or third slot on a ballot, has helped responded, "Ambassador Hunt, we'll address women's issues
raise women's numbers; still, women rarely appear in the top after we get the place secure." I wondered what "women's
two ballot slots. Although quotas may initially result in female issues" he meant. I was talking about security.
members of parliament being taken less seriously, the upside
far outweighs the downside, since quotas propel women into
SWANEE HUNT is Director of the Women and Public Policy Program
politics. Sixteen of the 19 countries—including Cuba, Ice- Harvard University's Kennedy School of Govemmencå%d Chair of the
land,South Africa, Spain, and Sweden—that have parliaments Initiative for Inclusive Security. She was U.S. Ambassador to Austriå
in which at least 30 percent of the members are women have from 1993 to 1997 and is the author of This Was Not Our War: Bosnian
implemented either legislative or party quotas. Women Reclainiing the Peace.

Rcprinted by permission of Foreign Affalrs, May/junc 2007. Copyright@ 2007 by thc Council on Foreign Relations. Inc.

116