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 Ingrid Lewis
Laura Canning

EUROPEAN CINEMA
IN THE TWENTY-FIRST
CENTURY

Discourses,
Directions and
Genres
 European Cinema in the Twenty-First Century

“Two decades into the twenty-first century, it is time to take a look at the recent cinema
of Europe, and bring it into the curriculum. And this is what the book does: it presents
and analyses the cinema of the new Europe, from riveting migrant documentaries set in
the Mediterranean (Francesco Rossi’s Fire at Sea) to contemplative woman’s cinema
from small peripheral countries (Athina Rachel Tsangari’s Attenberg). A true constella-
tion of riveting topics and essays written by authors who represent Europe’s true diver-
sity: East and West, North and South.”
—Dina Iordanova, Professor of Global Cinema and Creative Cultures,
University of St Andrews, Scotland

“This broad-ranging edited volume provides a much needed resource for film students
as it deftly approaches the way conventional Western filmic traditions connect with
emerging Eastern and Central European traditions. The well-structured chapters paint
a rich tapestry of an evolving European cinema and speak to new modes of national
identity. Drawing on a rich tradition of film scholarship, this book provides a timely
geographical and critical historical map for decoding European cinema.”
—Pat Brereton, Professor of Film Studies, Dublin City University, Ireland

“European Cinema in the Twenty-First Century: Discourses, Directions and Genres

uniquely places Eastern European cinema in co-equal dialogue with Western European
cinema, addressing a gap in current studies. The chapters assembled by Lewis and
Canning broach highly contemporary concerns in scholarship of Europe and its cine-
mas, including migration, ecocriticism, disability studies, biopolitics, as well as auteur-
ship and genre. This is a comprehensive and accessible collection.”
—Maria Flood, Lecturer in Film Studies, Keele University, UK

“Contemporary European cinema is extremely diverse and engages with some of the
most relevant issues of modern day life, not least the future of the continent. Responding
to intensified scholarly research activity of the past few years, European Cinema in the
Twenty-First Century sums up state of the art recent discourses while delivering new
insights. Clearly structured and directly addressing lecturers’ needs, this book is a wel-
come and helpful contribution.”
—Claus Tieber, Lecturer in Theatre, Film and Media Studies,
University of Vienna, Austria

“This is a timely volume that makes two interventions: it brings together a range of
international scholars who cover film cultures from Central and Eastern Europe, and it
offers a refreshing take on art and popular cinema that attests to the heterogeneity of
European film in the twenty-first century. Merging the close reading of recent films with
industry analysis, among other methods, the volume engages with topical debates in
European film studies as it addresses questions of gender, migration, and eco-cinema
while also furthering our understanding of transnational authorship, small-nation film-
making, peripheral cultural production, and genre cinema in a pan-European context.
This collection will therefore be a useful resource for scholars and students alike.”
—Jaap Verheul, Lecturer in Film Studies Education, King’s College London, UK
 Ingrid Lewis • Laura Canning
Editors

European Cinema
in the Twenty-First
Century
Discourses, Directions and Genres
Editors
Ingrid Lewis Laura Canning
Department of Creative Arts, Media School of Film & Television
and Music Falmouth University
Dundalk Institute of Technology Penryn, Cornwall, UK
Dundalk, Ireland

ISBN 978-3-030-33435-2    ISBN 978-3-030-33436-9 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33436-9

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 To Padraig, my wonderful husband, soulmate and friend.
To Cristina, the best sister I could ever wish for.
Ingrid Lewis
In memory of my beautiful boy Eric. I treasure every too-brief moment we had.
For Ruan, light and joy of my life.
Laura Canning
 Acknowledgements

This book was inspired by our students and written for them. Being a teacher
is a wonderful calling and a great responsibility at the same time. We would
thus like to thank all our students for inspiring both our research and work in
the classroom, for helping us to become, day by day, better teachers. Moreover,
we feel privileged to belong to two fantastic departments at Dundalk Institute
of Technology and Falmouth University. Our gratitude goes towards our
employers and colleagues, all marvellous people with whom we are lucky
enough to share the daily joys and challenges of our professional journeys.
Huge thanks to the fantastic staff and students of the Department of Creative
Arts, Media and Music, DkIT, especially Dr. Gerard (Bob) McKiernan and Dr.
Adèle Commins. Major thanks to all students and staff at the unique and inspir-
ing School of Film & Television (SoFT) at Falmouth University and, in par-
ticular, to Dr. Kingsley Marshall and Dr. Neil Fox.
We are very grateful to our editors at Palgrave Macmillan, Lina Aboujieb
and Emily Wood, for their continuous enthusiasm for and support towards this
edited collection. Special thanks to our contributors who patiently and promptly
engaged with our many sets of reviews and comments to their chapters.
Finally, our deepest gratitude goes towards our families.
Ingrid would like to thank her beloved mom, sister and niece: nothing of all
this would be possible without your steadfast love and support. Vă iubesc mult.
To my dad in heaven: miss you so much every day. I hope you are proud of me.
To my amazing husband and extended Irish family, I am extremely grateful for
your wholehearted love and affection. Grá agus gean ó chroí daoibh.
Laura thanks, above all, those who have shown so much love and solidarity
in the waning months of 2019. The sudden death of Eric Starr—my beloved
partner, fiancé, best friend and devoted father of our son Ruan as well as his
daughter Aoife—in the final days of editing this collection, just months before
our wedding, has been a heartbreaking and terrible blow which I could not
have survived without you. My family, friends in Ireland and Cornwall, Eric’s
family, colleagues, publishers and the incredibly supportive and compassionate
Ingrid: thank you all, from my heart.

vii
 Contents

1 Introduction: The Identity of European Cinema  1

Ingrid Lewis and Laura Canning

Part I Discourses  13

2 Documenting Difference: Migration and Identity in European

Documentaries 15
Adam Vaughan

3 Scotland’s Onscreen Identities: Otherness and Hybridity in

Scottish Cinema 33
Emily Torricelli

4 Questioning the ‘Normality Drama’: The Representation of

Disability in Contemporary European Films 51
Eleanor Andrews

5 Ecocritical Perspectives on Nordic Cinema: From Nature

Appreciation to Social Conformism 69
Pietari Kääpä

6 The Trauma of (Post)Memory: Women’s Memories in

Holocaust Cinema 87
Ingrid Lewis

7 An Ordinary Warrior and His Inevitable Defeat:

Representation in Post-Yugoslav Cinema109
Dino Murtic

ix
x Contents

Part II Directions 127

8 The New/Old Patriarchal Auteurism: Manoel de Oliveira,

the Male Gaze and Women’s Representation129
Ingrid Lewis and Irena Sever Globan

9 The Latest European New Wave: Cinematic Realism and

Everyday Aesthetics in Romanian Cinema149
Doru Pop

10 Between Transnational and Local in European Cinema:

Regional Resemblances in Hungarian and Romanian Films167
Andrea Virginás

11 Crossing Borders: Investigating the International Appeal of

European Films187
Huw D. Jones

12 Technology, Decentralisation and the Periphery of European

Filmmaking: Greece and Scandinavia in Focus207
Olga Kolokytha

13 Brooklyn and the Other Side of the Ocean: The International

and Transnational in Irish Cinema227
Maria O’Brien and Laura Canning

Part III Genres 247

14 On the Eve of the Journey: The New European Road Movie249
Laura Rascaroli

15 German Film Comedy in the ‘Berlin Republic’: Wildly

Successful and a Lot Funnier than You Think263
Jill E. Twark

16 On the Ambiguous Charm of Film Noir: Elle and the New
Type of Woman281
Begoña Gutiérrez-Martínez and Josep Pedro
 Contents  xi

17 Dystopia Redux: Science Fiction Cinema and Biopolitics299

Mariano Paz

18 Spanish Horror Film: Genre, Television and a New Model of

Production317
Vicente Rodríguez Ortega and Rubén Romero Santos

Index335
 Notes on Contributors

Eleanor Andrews is retired Senior Lecturer in Italian and Film Studies from
the University of Wolverhampton, UK. She specialised in Italian Cinema, in
particular the works of directors Bernardo Bertolucci, Federico Fellini and
Nanni Moretti, as well as Neo-Realism and the Spaghetti Western. She also
taught French cinema, including poetic realism and the Nouvelle Vague.
Her book on Moretti’s use of narrative space (Place, Setting, Perspective)
was published in 2014. She is co-editor of Spaces of the Cinematic Home:
Behind the Screen Door (2015). Her research interests include the Holocaust
as well as myth and the fairy tale.
Laura Canning is Senior Lecturer in Film and Course Leader on the BA
(Hons) Film at the School of Film & Television, Falmouth University, UK. She
holds a PhD from the School of Communications, Dublin City University
(2013) and primarily writes on Irish cinema, women filmmakers and genre.
Her most recent work includes contributions on ‘Smart’ teen film in Rethinking
Genre in Contemporary Global Cinema, eds. Silvia Dibeltulo and Ciara
Barrett (Palgrave Macmillan, 2018) and on Irish women filmmakers in
Women in Irish Film: Stories and Storytellers, ed. Susan Liddy (Cork University
Press, 2020).
Begoña Gutiérrez-Martínez holds a PhD in Theory, Analysis and
Cinematographic Documentation (Universidad Complutense de Madrid,
UCM, Spain). She collaborates with the research group Analysis of Audiovisual
Texts (ATAD, UCM), and has been a visiting scholar at the University of Texas
at Austin (Radio-Television-Film Department). Her articles about television,
cinema and culture have been published in Investigaciones Feministas, Trama
& Fondo, EU-topías, Jazz Research Journal, and in the volumes Creaciones
Audiovisuales Actuales, ¿Qué es el cine? and Entender el Artivismo. She has
taught Narrative Cinema and Film Analysis (Universidad Rey Juan Carlos), as
well as Political Communication (CES Next, Universitat de Lleida).

xiii
xiv NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Huw D. Jones is Lecturer in Film at the University of Southampton, UK. He

previously worked at the University of York as a postdoctoral research associate
on the ‘Mediating Cultural Encounters through European Screens’
(MeCETES) project (www.mecetes.co.uk), an international project on
the transnational production, distribution and audience reception of
European film and television drama. His articles have appeared in The
Routledge Companion to World Cinema, Transnational Cinemas,
Comunicazioni Sociali, Journal of British Cinema and Television, and Cultural
Trends. He also edited the book The Media in Europe’s Small Nations (2014).
Pietari Kääpä is Associate Professor in Media and Communications in the
Centre for Cultural and Media Policy Studies at the University of Warwick. His
work on transnational cinema has appeared in many journals and books,
and they include Transnational Ecocinemas: Film Culture in an Era of
Ecological Transformation (with Tommy Gustafsson, 2013), Ecology and
Contemporary Nordic Cinemas (2014), Nordic Genre Film: Small Nation Film
Culture in the Global Marketplace (with Gustafsson) and Environmental
Management of the Media: Policy, Industry, Practice (2018). He is writing The
Politics of Nordsploitation: History, Industry, Audiences (Bloomsbury, 2020)
with Gustafsson.
Olga Kolokytha is Assistant Professor in the Department of Communication,
University of Vienna, researching on cultural policy. Before joining academia,
she worked for more than a decade as a cultural projects manager and consul-
tant around Europe. In December 2016, she received the Best Publication
Award for the years 2013–2015 from the University of Music and the
Performing Arts of Vienna. In 2018, she was among the key experts
invited by the European Commission to consult on the future of the
European Agenda for Culture.
Ingrid Lewis is Lecturer in Film Studies at Dundalk Institute of Technology,
Ireland, where she teaches modules on European Cinema, Holocaust Film and
Popular Culture, Film Theory and World Cinema. She holds a PhD from the
School of Communications, Dublin City University (2015) and has taught
within the discipline of Film Studies at universities in Ireland, Croatia and Italy.
She has been granted fellowships at Royal Holloway, University of London
(UK, 2016) and Northwestern University (United States, 2015). Ingrid Lewis
is author of the book Women in European Holocaust Films: Perpetrators, Victims
and Resisters (Palgrave Macmillan, 2017).
Dino Murtic teaches research and critical literacy at the University of South
Australia. His book, Post-Yugoslav Cinema: Towards a Cosmopolitan Imagining
(Palgrave Macmillan, 2015), offered both a homage to the cinematic and
cultural history of former Yugoslavia and a critical contextual overview of the
political, aesthetic and ethical principles embedded in post-­Yugoslav film.
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xv

Maria O’Brien submitted her PhD thesis ‘A Political Economy of Tax

Expenditures for the Audiovisual Industries in Ireland: A cultural policy
research perspective on Section 481’ in the School of Communications, Dublin
City University in October 2019. Her research interests include state aid pol-
icy, cultural industries policy for film and videogames and media law
issues. She holds an MA in Screen Studies from Goldsmiths, University of
London, and an MLitt from Trinity College Dublin. She worked as a
lawyer in Dublin and London before entering academia and lectures in
Media Law in the School of Communications, DCU. She is co-founder
and co-organizer of the annual East Asia Film Festival Ireland.
Mariano Paz is Lecturer in Spanish at the School of Modern Languages and
Applied Linguistics, University of Limerick, Ireland, where he is also assistant
director of the Ralahine Centre for Utopian Studies. His doctoral thesis,
completed at the University of Manchester, was focused on the links
between dystopia and science fiction in contemporary film. His articles on
Hispanic cinemas have appeared in many books and journals.
Josep Pedro is Postdoctoral Researcher Juan de la Cierva-Formación at
Universidad Carlos III de Madrid (UC3M, FJC2018-036151-I). He is a
member of the research group Audiovisual Diversity at UC3M, and he collabo-
rates with the research group Semiotics, Communication and Culture at
Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM).
He holds a PhD in Journalism (UCM), and has been a visiting scholar at the
University of Texas at Austin and at Birmingham City University. He has pub-
lished articles in journals such as Atlantic Studies, Jazz Research Journal, Signa
and EU-topías, and has written chapters in the volumes Talking Back to
Globalization, Jazz and Totalitarianism and The Cambridge Companion to the
Singer-Songwriter.
Doru Pop is Professor of Film and Media Studies at Babeș-Bolyai University
in Cluj, Romania. In the United States, he has taught courses at Bard College
and Columbus State University. He has authored several books on visual cul-
ture, media, and politics and essays on film studies. His most recent pub-
lications are The Age of Promiscuity: Narrative and Mythological Meme
Mutations in Contemporary Cinema and Popular Culture (2018) and
Romanian New Wave Cinema: An Introduction (2014).
Laura Rascaroli is Professor of Film and Screen Media at University College
Cork, Ireland. Her interests span art film, modernism and postmodernism,
geopolitics, nonfiction, first-person cinema and the essay film. She is the author
of several monographs, including How the Essay Film Thinks (2017), The
Personal Camera: Subjective Cinema and the Essay Film (2009) and Crossing
New Europe: Postmodern Travel and the European Road Movie (with Ewa
Mazierska, 2006), and editor of collections including Antonioni: Centenary
Essays (with John David Rhodes, 2011) and the forthcoming Expanding
Cinema: Theorizing Film Through Contemporary Art (with Jill Murphy). She is
general editor of Alphaville: Journal of Film and Screen Media.
xvi NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Vicente Rodríguez Ortega is Senior Lecturer at Universidad Carlos III de

Madrid (Spain) and member of the Television-Cinema: Memory, Representation
and Industry (TECMERIN) research group. He is the co-editor of
Contemporary Spanish Cinema and Genre, and his articles have appeared in
journals such as Television & New Media, NESCUS: European Journal of Media
Studies and New Media & Society. He has also written chapters in books such
as A Companion to Spanish Cinema, A Companion to Pedro Almodóvar and
Tracing the Borders of Spanish Horror Cinema and Television. His research
interests include the relationship between media representations and Spain’s
history, cinema and digital technology and film genres.
Rubén Romero Santos is a PhD researcher at Universidad Carlos III de
Madrid (Spain) and member of the TECMERIN research group. He has con-
tributed to World Film Locations: Barcelona (2013), Ficcionando en el siglo
XXI: La ficción televisiva en España (2016) and Tracing the Borders of Spanish
Horror Cinema and Television (2017). He has been working as a film and tele-
vision journalist for almost two decades. He started his career at the counter-
culture publication Ajoblanco from where he jumped to editor-in-chief of the
film magazine Cinemanía. He combines his academic work with collabora-
tions in magazines like Rolling Stone, SModa/El País or Icon/El País and televi-
sion platforms such as Canal +.
Irena Sever Globan is Lecturer at the Catholic University of Croatia, Zagreb,
where she teaches a variety of modules on media studies and film. She holds a
PhD in Communications from the Salesian University in Rome, Italy, (2011)
with a thesis on women, religion and film. Her work on the representa-
tion of women in the media has appeared in many publications, and she
has recently co-authored the monograph Marija Magdalena: Od Isusove
učenice do filmske bludnice (with Jadranka Rebeka Anić, 2018).
Emily Torricelli is an independent scholar and adjunct instructor based in the
United States. She holds a PhD in Theatre, Film and Television from the
University of York (2017). Her areas of research interest include trans/
national cinemas, identity politics and labelling, reception theory and
British screen studies. She also holds a Master of Arts in Film Studies
from the University of Iowa and a Master of Fine Arts in Screenwriting
from Boston University. She has been published in Alphaville: Journal of
Film and Screen Media and Frames Cinema Journal.
Jill E. Twark is Associate Professor of German at East Carolina University in
North Carolina, USA. Her work on twentieth- and early twenty-first-century
German literature and culture has appeared in many books and journals.
After the monograph Humor, Satire, and Identity: Eastern German Literature
in the 1990s and the edited volume Strategies of Humor in Post-Unification
German Literature, Film, and Other Media, she shifted her focus to social jus-
tice dilemmas in Envisioning Social Justice in Contemporary German Culture,
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xvii

co-edited with Axel Hildebrandt. She is editing a book on German responses

to historical economic crises and writing on twentieth- and twenty-first-cen-
tury humour in the United States and Europe.
Adam Vaughan teaches in the School of Media, Arts and Technology at
Solent University and in the School of Arts and Humanities at the University
of Southampton in the United Kingdom. He holds a PhD from the University
of Southampton (2018). His research interests include performance and iden-
tity in documentary film and LGBTQ+ cinema. He is working on the mono-
graph from his PhD thesis titled Performative Identity in Contemporary
Biographical Documentary and has forthcoming chapters in edited collec-
tions on performative activism in the film Pride (2014) and the historical
biopics of Derek Jarman.
Andrea Virginás is Associate Professor of Film and Media Studies at Sapientia
Hungarian University of Transylvania, Cluj, Romania, with research interests
in mainstream cinema cultures and small national cinemas. She is the author of
Post/Modern Crime: From Agatha Christie to Palahniuk, from Film Noir to
Memento (2011) and editor of The Use of Cultural Studies Approaches in the
Study of Eastern European Cinema: Spaces, Bodies, Memories (2016). Her arti-
cles have appeared in Studies in Eastern European Cinema, European Journal
of English Studies, European Journal of Women’s Studies, Journal of European
Studies and in the volumes Popular Cinemas in East Central Europe: Film
Cultures and Histories (2017) and New Romanian Cinema (2019).
 List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Samuele’s desire to ‘see’ as symbolism for audiences

acknowledging the migrant crisis in Fire at Sea27
Fig. 2.2 Rosi’s mediated documentary gaze of the migrant ‘other’ in
Fire at Sea29
Fig. 3.1 The Chutney Queens’ performance costumes in
Nina’s Heavenly Delights46
Fig. 3.2 Written ingredients dissolve into curry in Nina’s Heavenly Delights47
Fig. 4.1 Driss handing over the mobile phone in Untouchable57
Fig. 4.2 The cramped bathroom in the Banlieue58
Fig. 5.1 Rare Exports undermines the cultural imagery of Santa Claus in its
critique of global consumerism 71
Fig. 5.2 An avalanche terrifies an international group of tourists and
fragments the façade of their superficial neoliberal safety net 81
Fig. 6.1 Rebecca Cohen’s monologue in front of a funerary urn for the
Holocaust victims of Macedonia in Darko Mitrevski’s
The Third Half (2012) 89
Fig. 6.2 The “vicarious witness” experience in female-directed films.
(Source: The author) 96
Fig. 6.3 Tomasz’s ghost from the past, dressed in a striped uniform,
invades Hannah’s present in Anna Justice’s Remembrance (2011) 99
Fig. 6.4 The encounter between Myriam and Oskar, symbolising the
dichotomy between memory and history, in Marceline
Loridan-Ivens’ The Birch-Tree Meadow (2003) 104
Fig. 8.1 The image of Isaac and Angélica which resembles the famous
paintings of Marc Chagall 138
Fig. 8.2 Henri’s discussion with the barman is artistically framed by a
mirror in Belle Toujours143
Fig. 9.1 Mr. Lăzărescu’s bedroom provides a naturalistic mise en scène
where authenticity accentuates the cinematographic realism.
(Courtesy of Mandragora) 160
Fig. 9.2 This ‘everyday life’ narrative is driven by the anti-heroic nature
of Mr. Lăzărescu and his apparent lack of traits allows a criticism
of large representation paradigms. (Courtesy of Mandragora) 162

xix
xx List of Figures

Fig. 10.1 The ‘ethical close-up’ in Son of Saul180

Fig. 10.2 The anti-racist triptych of Aferim!181
Fig. 11.1 British national symbols in Skyfall196
Fig. 11.2 Scottish cultural references in The Angels’ Share197
Fig. 12.1 Marina and Bella, Attenberg (2010). (Courtesy of Haos Films) 218
Fig. 12.2 Marina and her father, Attenberg (2010). (Courtesy of Haos Films) 220
Fig. 13.1 Racially diverse streets in Brooklyn (2015) are a backdrop to
interrogations of Irishness in (white) America 240
Fig. 13.2 Brooklyn (2015) may be set in New York, but Eilis’s sights are
more limited, as “All the skyscrapers are across the river” 241
Fig. 15.1 Winfried, posing as Toni Erdmann, handcuffed to Ines 271
Fig. 15.2 Zeki threatens to wake a Neonazi as his students look on 274
Fig. 16.1 An unknown masked male rapes Elle’s female protagonist,
violently interrupting the calm suburban atmosphere of her
bourgeois neighbourhood 291
Fig. 16.2 In Elle, immersed in a sadomasochistic relationship with her
rapist, Michèle hugs her attacker while enjoying sexual
intercourse on the hot basement’s floor 294
Fig. 17.1 Robert is subjected to a painful punishment for having
masturbated. The Lobster (2015) 311
Fig. 17.2 A Bactrian camel walks by in the woods as a group of Loners
spy on David. The Lobster (2015) 311
Fig. 18.1 The Spanish poster for The Orphanage328
Fig. 18.2 The international poster for The Orphanage329
 List of Tables

Table 6.1 Holocaust films directed or co-directed by women 94

Table 10.1 The model of small national cinemas 171
Table 10.2 Top five Hungarian films in terms of audience numbers in the
early 2010s 172
Table 10.3 Top five Romanian films in terms of audience numbers in the
early 2010s 172
Table 10.4 Hungarian box-office growth: audience numbers of the
most-viewed domestic releases for 2016–2017 173
Table 10.5 Romanian box-office growth: audience numbers of the
most-­viewed domestic releases for 2016 173
Table 10.6 Aferim! premier week in Romanian cinemas (9–15 March 2015) 176
Table 10.7 Son of Saul premier week in Hungarian cinemas
(11–17 June 2015) 176
Table 11.1 Successful NNE films released in Europe in 2012 193
Table 11.2 Key cultural and industrial characteristics of NNE films
by category of film 194

xxi
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction: The Identity of European Cinema

Ingrid Lewis and Laura Canning

What is contemporary European cinema? Given the indisputable richness of

Europe, comprising a variety of languages, cultures, nationalities, aesthetic can-
ons, and modes of production, can we still discuss European cinema as a unitary
concept? If so, how can we approach a category that clearly rejects rigid defini-
tions and classifications? And how do Western filmic traditions go together with
the ones emerging from Eastern and Central Europe? What are their similarities
and contradictions? What are the particularities of film production at the periph-
eries of Europe, and how do economic contexts impact on issues of style and
aesthetics? Moreover, does European cinema already exist as a transnational
phenomenon and not just as the sum of its national cinemas? How are landmark
historical events such as the Holocaust, the Yugoslav Wars, the fall of the Berlin
Wall, and subsequent collapse of communism in many Central and Eastern
European nations, depicted in European cinema? What role does the cinematic
medium play in reinforcing and challenging dominant discourses about the past
in various countries? How does the changing nature of European identity, due
both to historical events and contemporary social realities, such as increasing
migration and growing diasporas, affect the essence of European cinema itself?
This collection effectively addresses the key questions above which are very
much at the heart of ongoing critical debates in European film studies. In
doing so, it applies some of the most pressing inquiries in contemporary

I. Lewis (*)
Department of Creative Arts, Media and Music, Dundalk Institute of Technology,
Dundalk, Ireland
e-mail: Ingrid.lewis@dkit.ie
L. Canning
School of Film & Television, Falmouth University, Penryn, UK
e-mail: laura.canning@falmouth.ac.uk

© The Author(s) 2020 1

I. Lewis, L. Canning (eds.), European Cinema in the Twenty-First
Century, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33436-9_1
2 I. LEWIS AND L. CANNING

European cinema to a wide-ranging and diverse selection of twenty-first-­

century films from all corners of Europe. The book’s distinctive features are its
strong focus on the European cinematic output of the twenty-first century,
while still retaining a sense of inheritances from the last century, and its signifi-
cant inclusion of the often-neglected cinemas of Central and Eastern Europe.
However, in order to fully grasp the contribution and potential impact of this
collection, one needs to understand the impetus and pedagogical context from
which this book emerges.
This edited collection places the students and their needs at the centre of its
efforts. It also responds to an urgent need for an accessible and comprehensive
collection that can introduce students to the main concepts, discourses, direc-
tions, and genres of twenty-first-century European film. Moreover, it builds on
existing studies on European cinema, while moving further towards acknowl-
edging recent patterns and trends of production and representation through-
out the continent. These features are complemented by an accessible and
student-friendly structure in which each chapter discusses significant topics,
explains their context, and provides definitions of key terms. Each chapter also
encourages critical thinking by providing a case study that summarises and
applies the theoretical content and a set of reflective questions designed to help
students develop their contextual and critical understanding even further.
Modules on European cinema have become increasingly popular in univer-
sity curricula, both in European countries and overseas. However, knowledge
on the topic is often fragmented across a variety of studies, or centred around
specific national cinemas, which can act as a hindrance in discerning key trends
and assimilating the complexities of European film. Two key books that aim for
a more general approach on European cinema (Galt 2006; Wood 2007) are
indispensable class resources; yet they make little reference to highly successful
films from Eastern Europe. In one sense, this apparent ‘lack’ illustrates both
the value of this new volume and the immense complexity of the task at hand
in attempting to synthesise any approach to a continent’s cinematic output:
industry and representation transform swiftly, and a movement or tendency
which may be merely nascent at one moment can bloom fully in another. In the
(more than a) decade that has passed since the publication of Mary Wood’s
seminal monograph, European cinema has significantly changed and evolved,
and we see that the challenge of charting the field also shows us one of its
strengths; it is disinclined to stay ‘fixed’ for long.
Three recent studies acknowledge some of these changes: Mariana Liz’s
(2016) monograph discusses the images of Europe emerging from contempo-
rary cinema, Bondebjerg et al.’s (2015) edited volume takes a more production-­
related emphasis, while Harrod et al.’s (2014) comprehensive collection of
essays highlights the ‘European’ label as a marketing tool in the increasingly
transnational filmmaking emerging from Europe. Unfortunately, as with previ-
ous studies, the balance between the West and the East is significantly tilted
towards the former. This collection builds on extant scholarship in order to
 1 INTRODUCTION: THE IDENTITY OF EUROPEAN CINEMA 3

more accurately map the terrain and to bridge some of the gaps only identified
through the valuable work of others. For example, Dina Iordanova (2003) has,
in her highly significant work, already drawn attention to the peripheral posi-
tion assigned to Central-Eastern films and national industries in the overall
scholarship on European cinema. As Iordanova (2003: 1) tellingly states, “the
concept of European cinema is still more or less synonymous with West
European film-making, and the teaching of European cinema barely covers
East Central European traditions”. This monograph therefore applies a ‘trans-
versal’ approach to European film, bringing together the East and the West,
while providing a comprehensive picture of key trends, aesthetics, genres,
national identities, and transnational concerns.
Significantly, the inclusive approach adopted by this volume highlights both
the similarities and the discrepancies between national cinemas throughout
Europe. From a cinematic point of view, the acknowledgement of a wide vari-
ety of perspectives enables us to explore the mechanisms that foreground or,
on the contrary, overshadow certain cultural, historical, and political discourses
in Western versus Eastern Europe. Such a comprehensive outlook, which pays
tribute to filmic productions from Western, Central, and Eastern Europe, rep-
resents one of the crucial features of this collection and would have not been
possible without two editors of diverse cultural and professional backgrounds.
Ingrid Lewis was born and raised in Romania, thus having an acute awareness
of the regional cinemas of Eastern Europe and broader societal discourses
common to post-communist countries. Laura Canning grew up and studied in
Ireland, thus having an in-depth understanding of the practices and values that
impact on Western European film. Furthermore, Ingrid’s teaching and research
activities revolve around non-English-language films and are concerned with
highlighting discourses and representations in (non-Western) European cin-
ema, where Laura’s expertise centres on Western, mainstream, English-­
language films, with a strong interest in issues of genre, production, and
industry. Thus, Ingrid’s and Laura’s varied cultural backgrounds and areas of
specialism enhance and strengthen the quality of this book, offering a hetero-
geneous variety of perspectives. This further reconfirms Galt’s (2006: 4–6)
statement on the importance of a filmic and written discourse that not only
addresses the ‘changing spaces’ of Europe but also emerges from these very
own spaces.
Over the past couple of decades, various leading scholars such as Jill Forbes
and Sarah Street (2000), Mike Wayne (2002), Dina Iordanova (2003),
Elizabeth Ezra (2004a), Wendy Everett (2005a), Thomas Elsaesser (2005),
Rosalind Galt (2006), Luisa Rivi (2007), Mary Wood (2007), and Mariana Liz
(2016), among others, have published seminal monographs on European cin-
ema considered from different perspectives. One issue that resurfaces in most
of these studies is the impossibility of defining and delimiting European cin-
ema. Everett (2005a: 9) highlights the misconceptions behind equating Europe
with the European Union (EU) in terms of cinema. On the contrary, European
4 I. LEWIS AND L. CANNING

cinema needs to be an inclusive area of study that encompasses all countries

from West to East and North to South of Europe and everything in between.
As Rosalind Galt (2006: 5) argues, post-Berlin Wall cinema “maps the spaces
of Europe ‘today’, speaking both of and from the changing spaces of the con-
tinent”. Thus, as an academic area, any conception of European cinema needs
to be empowering, inviting all countries to be represented but also allowing
nationalities to re-present themselves, enriching the scholarly canon with their
own voices and perspectives.
Given that, from a geographical point of view, Europe is a mixture of lan-
guages, cultures, traditions, film schools, cinematic aesthetics, and industry
practices, one needs to acknowledge diversity and difference as the quintes-
sence of European cinema. Firstly, this book celebrates the complex identity of
European cinema as a sum of national cinemas, each the product of their own
particular realities. Every national film industry, whether emerging or well-­
established, auteur-centred or commercial, modern or traditional, is not only
different from others but often also a complex reality in itself. Reflecting this
diversity, for example, those countries at the margins of Europe such as Greece
and Ireland face additional challenges (and perhaps opportunities) in the pro-
cesses of film production as explained in Chaps. 12 and 13, respectively. Also,
as Luisa Rivi (2007: 4) acknowledges, cinema has played a pivotal role in artic-
ulating and reinforcing ideas of nationhood. A case in point in this book is
contained in Chap. 15, which discusses Germany as an example of commercial
filmmaking that draws on national history, politics, and collective memory in
its production of highly successful comedies catering to popular tastes. This
chapter also reinforces Wood’s (2007: xxi) claim that the popularity of genre
films in their own countries confirms that audiences “still prefer stories in their
own voices”.
Secondly, in the same vein as many scholars, this collection acknowledges
that European cinema is increasingly a post-national, pan-European, and trans-
national reality. According to Rosalind Galt (2006: 6–7), even by the 1980s
and 1990s, the landscape of the film industry in Europe was characterised by
an increased volume of co-productions coupled with an upsurge in television-­
funded films. Importantly, Rivi (2007: 4–9) highlights that co-productions are
“the most fertile terrain for redefining European identity” and attends to
the possibility that nowadays these are more culturally than financially moti-
vated compared to the past. In a similar vein, Wood (2007: xxi) describes co-­
productions and partnerships with national and privatised television networks
as “life-savers for the European film industries”. These trends already identified
by scholars in late twentieth-century European cinema are present, to a much
greater extent, into the twenty-first century as our book explains, particularly
in Chap. 18, which considers the significance of the liberalisation of the televi-
sion marketplace in the emergence of Spanish horror.
The significance of contemporary political-economic conditions,1 seen for
example in the 2008 economic crash and its impact on funding—particularly in
 1 INTRODUCTION: THE IDENTITY OF EUROPEAN CINEMA 5

the hardest-hit peripheral countries, Ireland and Greece—also points to an

increasingly varied mixture of often highly dynamic strategies facilitating pro-
duction, from national film policy, to EU funding, to formal and informal
regional, national, and international practices of cooperation. Some of these
may be viewed with caution in terms of their possible impact on the nature of
European cinema, if we acknowledge that “different ways of organizing and
financing communications have implications for the range and nature of media
content, and the ways in which these are consumed and used” (Hardy 2014:
7). For those European countries which are part of the EU, certain mecha-
nisms are in place, within wider audiovisual policy, to foster film as an element
of the audiovisual industries. With the contemporary field marked by fragmen-
tation of the market, where audiovisual culture has been seen in the past (albeit
sometimes problematically, as per Collins 1994, and Shore 2006) as a way of
fostering a common European heritage, the perspective has broadly shifted to
a more market-oriented policy of simultaneously advancing unity and diversity,
and taking the view that the promotion of national industries enables protec-
tion of cultural diversity.
Film in twenty-first-century Europe exhibits many of the complexities of
production and funding seen worldwide. The political economy of twenty-­
first-­century film production is marked by changes brought about by global
recession and by the shift to the digital. In general, the recession has caused
difficulties in accessing funding for independent filmmaking, in that the ‘pre-­
sales’ approach has reduced significantly (for a case study on Ireland’s experi-
ence, see Olsberg SPI 2017), and in that there is a trend for favouring
production of ‘known quantities’, such as franchises and adaptations.
Digitalisation has wrought changes to the distribution landscape, thus reduc-
ing the previously valuable DVD sales market, and with the increase in online
streaming further disrupting the production and distribution methods tradi-
tionally used within the film industry—a matter Olga Kolokytha discusses in
more detail in her reflection on the specific contexts of peripheral (Greek and
Scandinavian) production in Chap. 12.
Thirdly, this collection provides important insights into several key features
that unify European cinema: its potential ‘otherness’ in terms of opposition to
Hollywood, its inherent tensions between old versus new, and auteur versus
commercial. According to Everett (2005a: 10), “European cinema is often
defined by those characteristics that distinguish it from mainstream Hollywood”.
As various chapters in this book suggest, the preoccupation with Hollywood
remains at the heart of European cinema in terms of defining its identity.
However, given the increasingly transnational context that characterises the
twenty-first century, the reactions of national cinemas on the continent to
Hollywood dominance have been increasingly varied and complex: from per-
sistent rejection of its aesthetic canons as in the case of the Romanian New
Wave (Chap. 9), to identifying strategic allegiances in and between the popular
cinemas of small nations (Chap. 10), or instances in which this tension is nego-
6 I. LEWIS AND L. CANNING

tiated by looking towards but also away from Hollywood (Chap. 13). There is
a second dimension of otherness that needs to be discussed here and which
reflects Loshitzky’s (2010: 10) beautifully phrased idea of European films
being “unique sites of struggle over identity formation and meaning”. This is
an ‘otherness from within’ that emerges as a powerful discourse in contempo-
rary cinema as a result of growing migration and emerging diasporas across
Europe to a much greater extent than in the pre-Berlin Wall period (Chaps. 2
and 3). The preoccupation with ‘otherness’ seen as a source of difference and
threat is also present in discourses on disability, as Chap. 4 points out. This
book acknowledges an unceasing process of defining notions of ‘national’ and
‘European’ that lies at the heart of many cinematic debates in twenty-first-­
century films.
Moreover, it can be argued that European cinema is permeated by a certain
nostalgia for the past, translated in an ongoing battle between its progressive
and conservative features. Such pervasive nostalgia is evident in aesthetically
reinvigorating ‘New Waves’ as explained in Chap. 9 or in more regressive pro-
cesses reinforcing outdated representational paradigms, as pointed out in Chap.
8, discussing the recent auteur cinema of Manoel de Oliveira. However, this
longing for the past is paralleled by trends in European cinema that fully
embrace the reality of filmmaking in the twenty-first century, as explained
above. Also, European film is inevitably linked with questions of auteurism,
especially when thinking of the milestone movements that have marked its
existence thus far, such as Italian Neorealism, the French New Wave, New
German Cinema, Dogme 95, and so on. One can clearly observe that these key
movements do not belong solely to the ‘history’ of European cinema but
impact on many of its contemporary filmmakers and the aesthetics and style of
their newest films. Adding to this argument, some of the greatest auteurs that
emerged in the early- to mid-stages of European cinema have continued to
make successful films in the twenty-first century. It is not only the case of
Manoel de Oliveira but also Jean-Luc Godard and Agnès Varda, to name just a
few. However, as Wood (2007) points out, filmmakers—even those with the
status of auteur—are increasingly aware of the commercial and production-­
related aspects of their films. As several chapters in this book have acknowl-
edged, the twenty-first century brought an impressive influx of popular films,
and the dichotomy between auteur and commercial cinema is breaking down.
These constant dualities and tensions between old versus new, and auteur ver-
sus commercial, confirm European cinema as a highly dynamic and continu-
ously changing reality marked by, as Elizabeth Ezra (2004b: 16) claims, its
innovation and ability to reinvent itself over decades. They also reinforce
Everett’s (2005b: 33) argument that the identity of European cinema is “an
ongoing process” and any attempt to define it must be therefore recognised as
“temporary and unstable”.
Part I features six chapters concerned with establishing dominant discourses
that characterise the complex arena of today’s European cinema. That is, not
 1 INTRODUCTION: THE IDENTITY OF EUROPEAN CINEMA 7

only do their topics engage with trends in film, but they contribute variously—
on subjects as diverse as the environment, immigration, our interpretation of
‘the national’, the acknowledgement of diversity including disability, gendered
understandings of history, and how the envisioning/revisioning of war inter-
venes in discourses of nationalism—to our understanding of the practices
through which cultures constitute and produce knowledge, and the inextrica-
ble relationship that knowledge has with the power dynamics underpinning
society. Additionally, they do so in ways that foreground the transnationalisa-
tion of film production and consumption. Adam Vaughan in Chap. 2 interro-
gates how documentary films engage with and respond to issues of migration
and diaspora. Using the case study of Gianfranco Rosi’s Fire at Sea (2016),
Vaughan explores the role of filmmakers in highlighting the plight of migrants
fleeing their homes and examines the increasing ability of viewers to engage in
media debates on migration through the use of social platforms. In her contri-
bution on Scottish cinema, Emily Torricelli in Chap. 3 considers the way in
which ‘Otherness’ complicates our notions of the national and examines both
the historic othering of Scotland itself through cinema and the way in which
Scottish identity is simultaneously Other and not-Other—particularly perti-
nent in the current context of potential EU fragmentation post-Brexit. She
then goes on to examine the influence of diasporic cultures in the creation of
hybrid Scottish identities, using Pratibha Parmar’s 2006 Nina’s Heavenly
Delights to further unpack the place of race, religion, and sexuality in forming
diasporic identity.
In Chap. 4, focused on the ‘normality drama’, Eleanor Andrews questions
the representation of disability in four recent European films, including The Sea
Inside (2004), The Theory of Everything (2014), and Untouchable (2011),
before examining The Diving Bell and the Butterfly (2007) in more detail.
Andrews discusses to what extent the ‘triumph over tragedy’ narrative is the
norm in films of this type and considers the way in which they may emphasise
the representation of normality over that of impairment. Chapter 5 by Pietari
Kääpa outlines how Nordic countries, namely Finland, Sweden, Denmark,
Norway, and Iceland, are frequently viewed as some of the greenest in the
world; yet their economies and politics are based on unsustainable and perhaps
inequitable approaches. By focusing on four key representational themes in
Nordic film cultures (landscape, environmentalism, urbanity, and resource pol-
itics), Kääpa addresses the ways in which Nordic cinema capitalises on the envi-
ronment and the outwardly affirmative politics of these societies but effectively
uses them in ways that showcase an approach to the environment that is fraught
with contradictions.
The two final chapters of Part I focus on gendered discourses in recent
European cinema. Chapter 6 by Ingrid Lewis signals a representational shift in
twenty-first-century Holocaust films towards restoring women’s voices and
retelling women’s stories from their perspective. By discussing various films
about the Holocaust released throughout Europe, Lewis contends that recent
8 I. LEWIS AND L. CANNING

cinema creates valid premises for analysing the relationship between gender,
memory, and representation. Finally, Chap. 7 by Dino Murtic aptly contends
that post-Yugoslav cinema exhibits a predominantly anti-war stance. He claims
that the ‘warrior’ stereotype prevailing in pre-Yugoslav cinematic imaginations
has shifted towards discourses foregrounding a more nuanced figure, the ‘ordi-
nary man’, who may be an unwilling participant, a martyr whose sacrifice is
pointless, or an individual whose brutality is unleashed in service of
nationalism(s). Murtic situates this approach in the context of both the cine-
matic history and evolution of post-Yugoslav film and the overall democratisa-
tion process of the Western Balkans.
Part II brings together six critical perspectives on key developments and cur-
rent directions—in industrial and structural practices which foreground the
increasingly transnational character of European cinema, in formal and aes-
thetic tendencies, and in representation—that characterise the field since the
beginning of the 2000s. Ingrid Lewis and Irena Sever Globan in Chap. 8 inter-
rogate the way in which auteur cinema facilitates the persistence of antiquated,
patriarchal representations of women even into the twenty-first century. In
doing so, their chapter examines from a comparative perspective three films
directed by Portuguese auteur Manoel de Oliveira, namely Belle Toujours
(2006), Eccentricities of a Blonde-haired Girl (2009), and The Strange Case of
Angelica (2010). Their chapter argues that Oliveira’s female characters are par-
ticularly interesting—and controversial—since they challenge contemporary
canons by locating the woman within the outdated virgin/whore dichotomy.
The choice of Oliveira, whose career spanned from the silent era to 2015, is
crucial to understanding how these rigid and archetypal images of women have
been able to survive in more recent films. Following the thematic strand of
auteur cinema, Chap. 9 by Doru Pop overviews Romanian cinema, considered
to be the most recent addition to the Europe’s most influential movements in
film history, known as the ‘New Waves’. His chapter compares the work of
Romanian filmmakers with the stylistics of Italian Neorealism, French New
Wave, and other similar auteur-centred movements. Using the case study of
Cristi Puiu’s film The Death of Mr. Lăzărescu (2005), Pop’s chapter identifies
the style and aesthetics of this highly successful movement, which has brought
international acclaim to Romanian filmmakers over the past two decades. While
Doru Pop analyses Romanian auteur cinema in terms of its style and visuals,
Chap. 10 by Andrea Virginás foregrounds the commercial film industries of
Eastern Europe. According to Virginás, in the post-1989 period, art-house/
highbrow, and possibly also midcult/middlebrow films in Hungarian and
Romanian cinemas—in line with European art-house cinema in general—have
explicitly imagined their functioning as situated the farthest possible from
Hollywood-produced, globally distributed mainstream cinema. Meanwhile,
lowbrow, popular domestic Hungarian and Romanian cinema has been mobil-
ising on various levels—in terms of production organisation but also form and
aesthetics—what she describes as a ‘meso-level’ combination of small national
characteristics, European art-house allegiances, and Hollywood influences.
 1 INTRODUCTION: THE IDENTITY OF EUROPEAN CINEMA 9

Virginás develops her hypothesis based on two commercial films with the
greatest domestic film audience numbers of their respective countries in 2015:
Hungary’s Oscar-winning Son of Saul and Romania’s Berlin Silver Bear win-
ner Aferim!
The final three chapters of Part II focus explicitly on issues related to the
transnational dimension of many European films. Drawing on a database of
over 20,000 films released in Europe during the period 2005–2015, along with
focus groups conducted with over 140 participants in 5 European countries,
Huw Jones in Chap. 11 aims to determine why some European films travel
better than others. Jones’ research casts important light on the mechanisms
that enable films to travel across national and linguistic boundaries. His chapter
reveals that while ‘quality signals’—for example, an established ‘auteur’, major
awards, festival recognition, positive reviews—are crucial for securing the inter-
national distribution of European films, these are not necessarily the attributes
audiences look for. Jones illustrates this point with a case study on the French
comedy-drama Untouchable (2011), a film with almost universal appeal
amongst the focus groups’ participants, despite having few obvious ‘quality
signals’. Olga Kolokytha’s work (Chap. 12) on tendencies at the periphery
demonstrates that increasingly globalised conditions of production are inti-
mately linked with broader political and economic power dynamics relative to
core and peripheral national cinemas within Europe. She identifies collabora-
tive working practices designed to foster solidarity in the face of economic crisis
and fragmented funding opportunities as significant to the emergence of the
‘Greek Weird Wave’ and selects as her case study Attenberg (2010), a film
which displays many of these characteristics. In this chapter, too, she creates a
strong sense of the contrast between the Greek experience of peripherality and
regionality and Scandinavian policies designed specifically to foster regional
production. This notion of peripheral specificity is also seen in O’Brien and
Canning’s work in Chap. 13 on the way in which Irish cinema has, for a variety
of historical, cultural, and industrial-economic reasons, looked away from a
notion of common heritage with Europe and casts its gaze instead to America,
albeit in a way that may to some extent challenge the view of Hollywood as
exerting a one-way cultural domination over Europe, considering the possibil-
ity of a more ‘transnational’ exchange. It also foregrounds the particular nature
of Ireland’s diasporic history and culture, examining the internationalised
careers of some of Ireland’s emerging twenty-first-century filmmakers and in
its case study of Irish emigration drama Brooklyn (2015).
Part III scrutinises elements of genre and narrative in twenty-first-century
European cinema, grouped under five thematic strands: road movie, comedy,
neo-noir, science fiction, and horror. Chapter 14 by Laura Rascaroli focuses on
three French-language films, namely Far (2001), Since Otar Left (2003), and
Welcome (2009), which have the journey at the core of their narrative concerns.
As Rascaroli explains, these films explore the theme of travel not as liberation
but as tension—between places, identities, discourses, and psychological states.
Rascaroli contends that in these films, the journey becomes the locus of the
10 I. LEWIS AND L. CANNING

simultaneous manifestation and frustration of tensions that broadly belong to

contemporary French and European society, and that have to do with the pres-
sures created by borders and limits, immigration, cultural transformations, eco-
nomic junctures, and political discourses. Jill Twark reflects on the major
developments in German comedy and its—unexpected, in some quarters—dra-
matic rise in domestic and international popularity in the twenty-first century.
Examining several of the major films within the genre, she interrogates their
depiction of contemporary social problems and German history and considers
the place of ‘Hitler humour’ as well as the transcultural comedies of Turkish
German directors.
Chapter 16 by Begoña Gutiérrez Martínez and Josep Pedro explores the
genres of European film noir, neo-noir, and psychological thriller. In doing so,
they theoretically engage with these cinematographic categories by focusing on
the figure of the glamorous femme fatale and on the corresponding crisis of
masculinity often associated with it. Taking as their case study the French,
German, and Belgian co-production Elle (2016), Gutiérrez Martínez and
Pedro claim that the film delivers a challenging and original representation of
the twenty-first-century femme fatale. In Chap. 17, Mariano Paz discusses the
rebirth of science fiction genre that has taken place in European cinemas since
the early 2000s. As he argues, the twenty-first century has witnessed the emer-
gence of a significant corpus of science fiction films that includes elaborate
works from a wide range of European nations, including Cargo (2009), Eva
(2011), Ex Machina (2014), Wang’s Arrival (2011), and Timecrimes (2006).
Taking as his central case study Yorgos Lanthimos’ The Lobster (2015), Paz
discusses how the film deals with social fears and anxieties about the future of
Europe through an exercise in contemporary dystopian imagination and argues
that even when relying on sophisticated visual effects and CGI sequences that
would not be out of place in Hollywood cinema, these films belong, by and
large, to a more historically ‘European’ intellectual form of science fiction,
centred on speculation and narrative. Finally, in Chap. 18, Vicente Rodríguez
Ortega and Rubén Romero Santos explore the political-economic as well as
textual contexts of Spanish horror, demonstrating how the 1990s wave of lib-
eralisation and privatisation of television networks facilitated—or forced,
depending on one’s perspective—television operators into a variety of complex
engagements with film production and/or distribution. This chapter, too, sig-
nals the industrial importance of popular genre as both a way of articulating the
specifically indigenous cultural preoccupations of a nation and a way of attempt-
ing to harness ‘internationalised’ genre attributes in order to negotiate increas-
ingly globalised film markets in the institutional shadow of the Hollywood
industry.

Note
1. With sincere thanks to Maria O’Brien for guidance and data in relation to EU
funding and policy.
 1 INTRODUCTION: THE IDENTITY OF EUROPEAN CINEMA 11

References
Bondebjerg, Ib, Eva Novrup Redvall, and Andrew Higson, eds. 2015. European
Cinema and Television: Cultural Policy and Everyday Life. Basingstoke: Palgrave
Macmillan.
Collins, Richard. 1994. Broadcasting and Audio-Visual Policy in the European Single
Market. London: John Libbey.
Elsaesser, Thomas. 2005. European Cinema: Face to Face with Hollywood. Amsterdam:
Amsterdam University Press.
Everett, Wendy, ed. 2005a. European Identity in Cinema. 2nd ed. Bristol: Intellect.
———. 2005b. Re-framing the Fingerprints: A Short Survey of European Film. In
European Identity in Cinema, ed. Wendy Everett, 2nd ed., 15–34. Bristol: Intellect.
Ezra, Elizabeth, ed. 2004a. European Cinema. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
———. 2004b. Introduction: A Brief History of Cinema in Europe. In European
Cinema, ed. Elizabeth Ezra, 1–17. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Forbes, Jill, and Sarah Street. 2000. European Cinema: An Introduction. Basingstoke:
Palgrave Macmillan.
Galt, Rosalind. 2006. Redrawing the Map: The New European Cinema. New York:
Columbia University Press.
Hardy, Jonathan. 2014. Critical Political Economy of the Media: An Introduction.
Abingdon: Routledge.
Harrod, Mary, Mariana Liz, and Alissa Timoshkina, eds. 2014. The Europeanness of
European Cinema: Identity, Meaning, Globalization. London: I. B. Tauris.
Iordanova, Dina. 2003. Cinema of the Other Europe: The Industry and Artistry of East
Central European Film. London: Wallflower Press.
Liz, Mariana. 2016. Euro-Visions: Europe in Contemporary Cinema. New York:
Bloomsbury Academic.
Loshitzky, Yosefa. 2010. Screening Strangers: Migration and Diaspora in Contemporary
European Cinema. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Olsberg SPI & Nordicity. 2017. Economic Analysis of the Audiovisual Sector in the
Republic of Ireland. https://www.o-spi.co.uk/recent-reports/. Accessed
15 May 2019.
Rivi, Luisa. 2007. European Cinema After 1989: Cultural Identity and National
Production. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Shore, Chris. 2006. In uno plures(?) EU Cultural Policy and the Governance of Europe.
Cultural Analysis 5: 7–26.
Wayne, Mike. 2002. The Politics of Contemporary European Cinema: Histories, Borders,
Diasporas. Bristol: Intellect.
Wood, Mary P. 2007. Contemporary European Cinema. London: Hodder Arnold.
 PART I

Discourses
 CHAPTER 2

Documenting Difference: Migration

and Identity in European Documentaries

Adam Vaughan

Definitions

Documentary Film
Also known as ‘nonfiction film’ or ‘factual output’, a film text that typically
presents a factual record of the ‘real’ world.

Migration
The movement of people from one location to another. This could be volun-
tary, such as an individual moving to a different country for economic reasons,
or forced, such as the displacement of individuals as a result of the 2011
Arab Spring.

Refugee
A person who has been forced to leave their country due to war, poverty, per-
secution or natural disasters.

MEDIA
Part of the Creative Europe initiative, this sub-programme aims to facilitate
European-inflected projects and introduce them to global film markets.

A. Vaughan (*)
University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
e-mail: av4v07@soton.ac.uk

© The Author(s) 2020 15

I. Lewis, L. Canning (eds.), European Cinema in the Twenty-First
Century, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33436-9_2
16 A. VAUGHAN

Introduction
Documentary film is arguably as old as cinema itself. When Auguste and Louis
Lumière demonstrated their cinematograph on 28 December 1895 in Paris,
the brothers not only conceived of cinema as we now know it, they also origi-
nated documentary’s desire to record the ‘real’. Later called ‘actualities’, these
short films initially depicted ‘ordinary’ events, such as workers leaving a factory
and a locomotive entering a station. In these early one-shot films, we can see
the beginnings of what we now understand as documentary cinema: a treat-
ment of a subject from reality; little or no use of fictional techniques, such as
sets, actors or special effects; and the purpose of recording images from the
world without distortion or bias.
That said, one of the fascinating attributes of the nonfiction film form in the
decades that followed is its flexibility and fluidity, often transformed by film-
makers to suit their particular needs at a particular time and in a specific place.
Some of the most significant changes to documentary cinema have been intro-
duced by European directors and producers—John Grierson’s social-minded
films in Britain in the 1930s and 1940s, Sergei Eisenstein’s blurring of fiction
and nonfiction forms to represent Soviet Russia, cinema verité techniques in
1960s France—and these continue today.
However, in the twenty-first century, a series of socio-political events,
including Russia’s annexation of the Crimea, Brexit and the ongoing migrant
crisis, have triggered a re-evaluation of what it means to be ‘European’. This
chapter takes this question as a starting point and specifically analyses how
documentary filmmakers have responded to the issue of migration and dias-
pora, in terms of both representation and the national implications this has for
contemporary Europe. In what ways are documentary films especially suited to
representing this challenge? Furthermore, what impact do smartphone video
technology and social media platforms have on spectators’ ability to participate
in these debates? However, before examining the status of European documen-
tary film in the twenty-first century, it will be necessary to provide a brief over-
view of some of the key historical turning points for the form, in terms of
filmmaking practice, cultural policy and the representation of migration.

The Migrant in Documentary: A Brief History

From the beginning, documentary filmmaking helped shape, contextualise and
define national identity, determining the ways spectators understood contem-
porary Europe and the wider world. Once film spectators began to tire of the
early actualities, filmmakers brought new and exciting innovations to their
­stories in what Tom Gunning (in Elsaesser 1990: 56–62) later termed the “cin-
ema of attractions”. The fiction film displayed magic tricks, performance and
the drama of a chase—such as those found in the films of George Méliès—
while the nonfiction type supplied the attractions of the world, which brought
the wonders of travel and the sights of far-flung places to the cinema audience.
 2 DOCUMENTING DIFFERENCE: MIGRATION AND IDENTITY IN EUROPEAN… 17

While these travel documentaries allowed film viewers to temporarily migrate

from their ordinary lives into foreign lands in far-off places, nonfiction films
also took migrants and migration as their subject matter. Directed by Merian
C. Cooper and Ernest B. Schoedsack (who would go onto make King Kong
[1933] in Hollywood), with assistance by Marguerite Hamilton, Grass: A
Nation’s Battle for Life (1925) documents members of the Bakhtiari tribe as
they undertake a journey to new pastures with their herds in central Persia.
Made three years after Nanook of the North (1922), Grass differed from
Flaherty’s film by not focusing on specific members of the tribe. Instead, it
“captures the beauty and the dangers of a tribal culture from an almost objec-
tive point of view” (McLane 2012: 37). After completing the project, Cooper
toured with the film on the lecture circuit to much acclaim. This led to
Paramount’s Jesse Lasky offering to theatrically release the film whereupon it
became a box-office hit. According to Ron Haver (1976: 17), Grass helped to
conceive “a completely new kind of film, the documentary-nature-film-­
travelogue”, and the migrant was at its centre.
This early educational purpose of documentary was picked up in Great
Britain in the late 1920s by John Grierson, who saw in cinema the potential to
mediate between governments and citizens across a vast Empire. Therefore,
Grierson understood documentary film as both a sociological and aesthetic
tool. According to Ian Aitken (2001: 165), Grierson’s approach to documen-
tary was “sociological, in that it involved the representation of social relation-
ships; and aesthetic, in that it involved the use of imaginative and symbolic
means to that end”. As a reflection of this sociologically grounded mode,
instead of operating as chief filmmaker, Grierson established a group of film-
makers and creatives to collaborate with for his vision of documentary film.
These included Humphrey Jennings, Edgar Anstey, Basil Wright and Alberto
Cavalcanti, who, with the support of the Empire Marketing Board (EMB),
aimed to “promote the marketing of products of the British Empire and to
encourage research and development among the member states” (McLane
2012: 75). The issue of migration was not always the focus of these films, but
their wider aim at bringing a vast Empire together represents a certain cine-
matic migratory discourse.
Such socially committed themes and topics became even more important
once the Second World War began in 1939, and many of Grierson’s
‘Documentary Boys’, as they became known, contributed their technical
expertise to the war effort as part of what was now known as the Crown Film
Unit. In some of these films, colonialism and documentary filmmaking are
connected with the aim of creating a comprehensible and comprehensive map
of the British Empire. The Second World War, and the Nazis’ forcible
­displacement of Jews to concentration camps, saw documentations of migra-
tion in newsreels. And once the war had ended, documentaries such as Claude
Lanzmann’s monumental Shoah (1985) included some of the survivors’ stories
and their return home.
18 A. VAUGHAN

European Documentary Production Policies

It was really during the 1980s, when geopolitical events began to reshape the
borders and idea of Europe, that changes to film production (including docu-
mentary) took hold and have remained a part of contemporary nonfiction film
output. Rosalind Galt (2006: 1) writes “that as the physical and political terri-
tory of Europe altered in the post-Cold War years, so, too, did its cultural
imaginary”. It was in this decade that the European Union (EU) began to
introduce media policies that would encourage a move away from solely indi-
vidual national productions to a more cooperative cultural strategy that would
showcase what Europe had to offer.
And such policies are equally applicable to documentary. Eurodoc, a part of
the EU’s MEDIA strategy (which became Creative Europe in 2014),1 and the
European Documentary Network (EDN) are designed to bring nonfiction
filmmakers and producers together to share their skills in a spirit of coopera-
tion. But it is not just supranational cultural policy that has impacted documen-
tary film towards the end of the twentieth century and into the twenty-first
century. Film festivals dedicated to documentary cinema have enabled some
select few to enjoy successful theatrical runs. Continental successes like Touching
the Void (2003) and To Be and To Have (2002) came to prominence on the
festival circuit. The International Documentary Film Festival Amsterdam and
Sheffield’s DocFest in Britain attract large audiences and prestigious films as
well as functioning as a film market for distribution sales (McLane 2012: 360).
In the twenty-first century, documentary film’s long tradition of flexibility in
form has been further highlighted by technological advancements. For some
theorists, like Craig Hight (in Winston 2013: 198), the rise of Web 2.0 and 3.0
and the participatory viewing cultures it encourages has fostered a documen-
tary cinema that is “arguably less coherent” than at any other time in its one-
hundred-­ year history. Allied with the discourses of post-structuralism and
postmodernism, John Corner (2002) posits the term “post-documentary” to
explain the recent popularity of reality TV and docusoaps involving Joey Essex,
the Kardashians and their ilk, and the ‘documentary-as-diversion’ purpose they
seem to serve. Furthermore, digital cameras, smartphones and digital platforms
like YouTube, Vimeo and Facebook make new forms of autobiographical doc-
umentary possible for almost anyone to produce with its accompanying ‘share’
culture opening up opportunities for content to be viewed by large numbers of
people. Jon Dovey and Mandy Rose (Winston 2013: 366) provide a helpful
summary of online documentary:

We argue that this new context for documentary challenges its traditional episte-
mologies. Where twentieth century documentary depended for its functionality
on an idea of the observer fixing the world with his [sic] camera, this new episte-
mology is entirely relational. It accepts that all knowledge is situated in particular
embodied perspectives, the ‘actualities’ of online are the symbolic expression of
this multi-perspectival, relational knowledge.
 2 DOCUMENTING DIFFERENCE: MIGRATION AND IDENTITY IN EUROPEAN… 19

This more interactive form of documentary can be seen in the cinema vérité
tradition in France during the 1960s. However, that documentary style visual-
ised the interaction between documentary filmmaker and documentary sub-
ject. The digital connections and networks we can make on a day-to-day basis
can lead now to interactions between audiences and films/filmmakers which
can then lead into traditional theatrical formats, such as those seen in Life in a
Day (2011) and Britain in a Day (2012). For Helen de Michiel and Patricia
R. Zimmermann (in Winston 2013: 355), these developments are emblematic
of what they define as “open space documentary”. These films are “fluid, col-
laborative, shape-shifting”, combine theatrical exhibition forms with those of
performance and community art and speak to technological as well as geopo-
litical changes related to transnationalism and the results of increased migration
(De Michiel and Zimmermann in Winston 2013: 355). These topics will now
be discussed further before moving into close textual analysis of the chosen
case-study documentary.

Documenting Migration: Some Current Trends

Documentary production in twenty-first-century Europe has to be seen as part
of wider effects of globalisation, where digital technologies and social media
platforms actively promote self-documentation, what Hight (Winston 2013:
200) also terms “self-surveillance”, leading to a perceived collapsing of national
borders. On the other hand, physical, geographical borders do still exist and
can be understood in terms of the EU’s audiovisual policies to encourage
cross-­fertilisation of filmmaking talent and skills across these borders with the
goal of establishing a unified visual representation of Europe at the same time
as celebrating its cultural diversity. These apparently diverse discursive streams—
the idea of the individual publicly displaying forms of autobiography and
European co-productions in the industrial context—interact and inform one
another. Self-presentation, such a ubiquitous presence in our daily lives, fuels
the documentary process and affects the form’s style and how audiences
respond to nonfiction films. Meanwhile, the production of documentary fea-
ture films in Europe is unsurprisingly diverse. Different national government
departments have their own media strategies. However, at the supranational
level, the European Commission has its own policies in place. Furthermore, it
should be understood that these cultural policies demonstrate a form of perfor-
mative migration, with filmmakers supposedly able to cross national borders to
collaborate on projects. It is logical then that some of the documentaries that
have resulted from Eurodoc and EDN since the year 2000 should tackle issues
of migration as their main subjects.
Part of the Creative Europe initiative, the MEDIA sub-programme aims to
help “launch projects with a European dimension” and introduce audiovisual
works, including documentaries, to “markets beyond national and European
borders” (Creative Europe website 2018). Its Eurodoc programme is specifi-
cally aimed at documentary producers and facilitates meetings between its over
20 A. VAUGHAN

1000 members from 60 countries worldwide during the course of three train-
ing sessions. Some recent diverse films to be completed from the programme
include Kinshasa Makambo (2018), a Congolese/French/German/
Norwegian/Qatari/Swiss co-production, and The Prince of Nothingwood
(2017), a French-German production about Afghan filmmaker Salim Shaheen.
Other documentaries produced since 2000 take the issue of migration as
their central issue. Si-Guériki: La Reine-Mère (2002) is Idrissou Mora Kpai’s
documentary about the Wassangari tribe of northern Benin, of which he is a
member. After decades living in Europe, he returns to the region and observes
the changes that have occurred in his absence. 12 Tangos—Return Ticket to
Buenos Aires (2005) recounts the stories of Italian and Spanish immigrants who
came to Argentina and is told against the backdrop of a concert. And Global
Family (2018) concerns a Somali family living in exile in different parts of the
world following the civil war.
Similarly, the European Documentary Network, sponsored by Creative
Europe MEDIA, encourages cooperation and informs members about funding
and co-production opportunities. However, EDN provides individual consul-
tations with its members through conferences, seminars and workshops (EDN
Network website 2019). In both examples, the aim is to connect documentary
creatives across national borders and to encourage transnational production
opportunities. As digital technologies and cultural policies continue to under-
mine strict national boundaries, it is significant that these developments have
coincided with the European migrant crisis, the documenting of which by
news outlets and individuals demonstrates the importance nonfiction audiovi-
sual forms have for our understanding of Europe as a space.
The continent of Europe has witnessed centuries of colonisation and mobil-
ity that, coinciding with the movement of people, has helped nurture a migrant
and diasporic tradition of filmmaking; that is a cinema addressing “questions of
identity formation, [which] challenges national and ethnocentric myths, and
revisits and revises traditional historical narratives” (Berghahn and Sternberg
2010: 2). These can be stories told about migrants or by people who have
experienced exile themselves, and they often present a challenge to precon-
ceived ideas about Europe as a physical location. According to Yosefa Loshitzky
(2010: 8):

The media and the arts have become a new site of articulation of Europe’s new
sociocultural space, shaped and negotiated by the experience of displacement,
diaspora, exile, migration, nomadism, homelessness, and border crossing,
­challenging the traditional notions of ‘Europe’ and ‘Europeanness.’ The growing
migration to Europe and the emergence of large diasporas at the heart of the
European metropolitan centers further enhance the questions of “Where is
Europe? Whose Europe?”

And this link between Europe as a ‘cinematic space’ and a ‘geopolitical

space’, including the ways the space in the film frame corresponds to physical
 2 DOCUMENTING DIFFERENCE: MIGRATION AND IDENTITY IN EUROPEAN… 21

space, is crucial for Galt (2006: 231) in order to fully understand the “dis-
courses of homelessness and belonging” that are so central to these stories.
European fiction films released in the twenty-first century that deal with some
of these themes include Dirty Pretty Things (2002), Head-On (2004) and Le
Havre (2011). To varying degrees, films such as these visualise dominant opin-
ions of the European migrant who are usually represented in negative terms, as
threatening and “other” (Loshitzky 2010: 2). Loshitzky (2010: 2) proposes
the dual meaning of “screening”—the process of allowing or refusing an indi-
vidual entry and projecting an image—as an appropriate metaphor for the
migrant experience as told in cinema in order to allow us to critically analyse
representations. One of the conclusions she draws is that these images of
migrants in film lead to a destabilising of coherent and straightforward defini-
tions of ‘Europe’ as a geographical or cinematic space. Instead, these films
serve as reminders that the contemporary experience of the region is based on
a continual “negotiation over identity” (Loshitzky 2010: 14).
However, due to its assumed closer connection to the ‘real’ world, docu-
mentary film is perhaps ideally suited to capturing these spatial implications
with immediacy. Duncan Petrie (1992: 3), speaking at the Screening Europe
conference organised by the British Film Institute in the early 1990s, sum-
marised some of the issues Europe faced after the fall of the Berlin Wall. Petrie
(1992: 3) explains that cinema produces images that make something visible
and forces “an audience to look, to question and to reassess the nature of the
world around them”, in this case Europe’s cultural diversity. However, docu-
mentary film can visualise the ‘real’ world of these issues without a fictional
narrative frame. This can bring the spectator closer to events and topics
depicted, just as documentary forms like videos captured on smartphones and
live streaming can collapse distance and time even more radically. A powerful
example of the latter was the photo of drowned three-year-old Aylun Kurdi,
who was found washed up on a Turkish beach after fleeing Syria with his family
in September 2015. This image galvanised public opinion on the migrant crisis
and demonstrated the role news media and social platforms play in connecting
audiences to contemporary socio-political events; a part that documentary film
also performs.
The ideological power of such images comes from the immediacy with
which they are delivered to global audiences and the speed at which they are
shared. They present instantaneous concrete visual evidence for discussion of
what could otherwise be quite abstract themes of cultural identity, borders and
exile. As Eva Rueschmann (2003: xxi) notes, film images of migration display
a tension between “the local and the global, national and transnational, the
meanings of ‘here’ and ‘there’”. These stories of individuals journeying in
order to belong somewhere are characteristic of Thomas Elsaesser’s (2005: 92)
definition of “double-occupancy”:

Blood and soil, land and possession, occupation and liberation have to give way
to a more symbolic or narrative way of negotiating contested ownership of both
22 A. VAUGHAN

place and time, i.e., history and memory, for instance, inventing and maintaining
spaces of discourse, as in the metaphoric occupation of Alsace or the increasing
prominence achieved by hyphenated European nationals (German-Turkish,
Dutch-Moroccan, French-Maghreb, British-Asian) in the spheres of literature,
filmmaking, music and popular television shows.

Elsaesser’s is a call for a definition of identity no longer based on geographi-

cal associations. The “hyphenated European national” is a first step to this
(arguably utopian) reinterpretation of the self which could be extended to
include identifiers of race, ethnicity, gender, sexuality or class. As already men-
tioned, for many years European film production has echoed this hybridity in
terms of how one characterises the national provenance of co-productions, and
this is no different for European documentary film. Of the documentaries that
have won the Best Documentary prize at the European Film Awards so far in
the twenty-first century, 2000–2018, nearly half have been co-productions
(European Film Academy 2019). Some of these combine production compa-
nies from Europe and elsewhere in the world. Cambodia-born filmmaker Rithy
Panh’s S-21: The Khmer Rouge Death Machine (2003) is a French-Cambodian
production, and Nostalgia for the Light (2010) is a documentary that fuses the
history of the cosmos and the search by mothers and wives for the ‘disap-
peared’ relatives of the Pinochet regime in Chile’s Atacama Desert and is a
French/German/Chilean/Spanish project. Here, the international nature of
such documentary productions can be seen as an albeit simplistic sign of our
increasingly globalised world.
But, significantly for this chapter, documentary can also help shape, change
and produce discourses on migration. According to critic Randolph Lewis
(2007: 83–84), channelling Lithuanian-born philosopher Emmanuel Levinas,
documentary film plays a pivotal role in “putting a face on abstractions” and
allows us to “glimpse ‘the face of the Other’”. As such, Lewis proposes a dis-
tinctly political purpose for contemporary documentaries. However, he is quick
to qualify his assessment of the form, writing that “to the extent that documen-
tary encourages this ethical rapport with the Other, it is a beautiful thing. To
the extent that it substitutes for it, it is a travesty of Levinasian ethics” (2007:
83–84). Therefore, recent films that highlight the plight of migrants who flee
to Europe in search of safety and a better life are only effective or successful, in
Lewis’ view, if they lead to substantial change. There are parallels here with Jill
Godmilow’s (1999: 92) critique of what she calls the “liberal documentary”,
that is, nonfiction works that “produce desire for a better and fairer world, but
not the useful knowledge required to change anything”. The spectator is
expected to be moved or angered by what they see, but this often does not lead
to any action on their part.
This has led to some documentary filmmakers constructing works of nonfic-
tion about the migrant crisis in non-traditional ways. For artist and writer,
Ursula Biemann (in Juhasz and Lebow 2015: 121), the video essay form of
documentary is best placed to tackle complex socio-political issues, precisely
 2 DOCUMENTING DIFFERENCE: MIGRATION AND IDENTITY IN EUROPEAN… 23

because it does not attempt to provide a complete and linear discussion that
instead understands migration as a “shadowy, supplementary system, organiz-
ing a transitory moment”. Serbian-born filmmaker Iva Radivojevic describes
her 2014 film Evaporating Borders as a “visual essay” (Macaulay 2013) com-
posed of five parts. Elsewhere, her approach has been received as both “a work
of visual ethnography and as a provocation towards collective action” which
provides an unflinching view of a search for common identity and belonging
(Imre and Zimanyi 2016: 120).
Other artists and filmmakers deliberately blur the boundaries of fiction and
nonfiction in their modes of address. Steve McQueen’s short film Western Deep
(2002) made use of innovative sound design and crosses the art installation/
film divide to provide an account of the dangerous conditions migrant workers
endure in the Tautona gold mine of South Africa. Meanwhile, a filmmaker such
as Michael Winterbottom organises elements of docudrama for In This World
(2002) to create the impression that “his film is not just about the plight of a
fictional character, but bears a testimony to a broader political phenomenon”
(Loshitzky 2010: 120). Loshitzky (2010: 122) explains that using nonfiction
techniques as part of a docudrama (such as non-professional actors, verbal tes-
timony from ‘real’ migrants, handheld cinematography) has a distinctive impact
upon the film’s spectator, which means that they are unable to “disavow the
horrible reality and escape to a more tantalizing fiction, nor can he or she be
deluded that ‘this is only a movie’ when it, too, becomes unsettling to the
comfort zone of the suspension of disbelief”.
T. J. Demos (2013: xvi) usefully summarises how documentary and con-
temporary politics converge within the image of the migrant, writing “that
artists confront geopolitical conflicts by also throwing documentary conven-
tions into crisis. The resulting documentary-fictions of diasporic identities
interweave the factual and the imaginary registers of the image for critical and
creative effects”. Mieke Bal (Juhasz and Lebow 2015: 136) goes further in
theorising “migratory aesthetics” to account for documentaries that take
human migration as their subject:

In this phrase, I use ‘aesthetics’ not so much as a philosophical domain, but rather
as a term to refer, according to its Greek etymology, to a plural experience of
sensate binding, a connectivity based on the senses. ‘Migratory’ refers to the
traces, equally sensate, of the movements of migration that characterize contem-
porary culture… Migratory aesthetics is an aesthetic of geographical mobility
beyond the nation-state and its linguistic uniformity.

Bal’s term emphasises the relationships and connections made in the process
of filming documentaries about migrants. These can relate to encounters
between filmmaker and migrant, or documentary text and spectator.
Nevertheless, this means that documentary filmmakers have the opportunity to
frame discourses on migration in various ways in their films in order to decon-
struct simplistic geographical barriers to human coexistence. The rest of this
24 A. VAUGHAN

chapter analyses Gianfranco Rosi’s Fire at Sea (2016), the 2016 Best
Documentary winner at the European Film Awards, as an example of how
contemporary documentary negotiates the urgent plight of migrants travelling
to Europe and ideas of nationhood.

Case Study: Fire at Sea (Gianfranco Rosi, 2016)

Fire at Sea, directed by Gianfranco Rosi, centres on the Italian island of
Lampedusa. Located in the Mediterranean Sea, it is the southernmost part of
Italy and covers roughly 7.8 square miles. Although belonging to Italy,
Lampedusa is nearer to Tunisia in North Africa (approximately 70 miles off the
coast compared to 127 miles from Sicily) which explains its recent media focus
as being the site on which most North African migrants land. Sparsely popu-
lated and characterised by rocky cliff faces, sandy beaches and barren land-
scapes, it relies on tourism and fishing as the basis for its economy (Kushner
2016: 62). Travel websites that market the island based on its sandy beaches
bely both its current status as the gateway for North African migration into
Europe and its history as a penal colony during the late nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries (Kushner 2016: 63). In this way, Lampedusa has a long
history of being a place for holding individuals who do not have a clear identity
or home in the rest of the world.
The Italian island is often described as the frontline in the current European
migrant crisis. In 2014, reports estimated that as a whole over 200,000
“undocumented migrants came to Europe by sea, thousands drowning in the
Mediterranean attempting to do so” (Kushner 2016: 60–61). In the previous
year, “close to 15,000 migrants were processed through Lampedusa, most flee-
ing from Eritrea” meaning that at numerous times in recent years the number
of migrants outnumbered the island’s native residents (Kushner 2016: 66–67).
For writers such as Tony Kushner (2016: 64), “no place came to symbolise
more the intense human tragedy and drama of modern migration, evoking
sentiments of pity, shame and fear in equal measures”. To accommodate these
large numbers of refugees, beginning in the late 1990s, a reception centre was
built to help process the arrivals, which then expanded into a larger official
detention centre near the island’s airport. Once there, they “were ‘distributed’
by plane to other facilities in Sicily or mainland Italy or deported to Libya”
(Kushner 2016: 67). Kushner (2016: 75) outlines the impact this had on the
local residents:

In the detention centres of the island and in its everyday life, the migrants have
both resisted and formed alliances with the local inhabitants. In February 2014
this led to the creation of the Charter of Lampedusa which was not ‘intended as
a draft law’ but as the expression ‘of an alternative vision’ where ‘Differences
must be considered as assets, a source of new opportunities, and must never be
exploited to build barriers’.
 2 DOCUMENTING DIFFERENCE: MIGRATION AND IDENTITY IN EUROPEAN… 25

It is evident that the rapid increase in migration from North Africa to

Lampedusa in recent years has had a direct effect on the migrants, the island’s
inhabitants and spectators to the crisis reading about or watching the events
through the media. However, it also draws attention to and prompts discus-
sions about borders. Are they physical barriers or more imaginary zones that
help constitute notions of nationhood and individual identity? With these ideas
in mind, Lampedusa becomes a liminal space where these questions can be
developed. After all, is it “where Italy ends and Africa begins”, as human rights
journalist Caroline Moorehead (Kushner 2016: 62) has described, the out-
skirts of the European border, or one of Alison Mountz’s (Kushner 2016: 67)
“stateless spaces”? The mobility of borders was strikingly demonstrated when
government operations caused Lampedusa’s border to be moved offshore so
that the Italian navy could intercept migrant boats at sea (Ponzanesi 2016:
160). Rosi’s documentary can help us approach these complex issues and
engage with some of the contemporary attitudes to the crisis.
Fire at Sea takes its title from a Sicilian folk song that describes the bombing
of an Italian warship docked in the port of Lampedusa during the Second
World War (Ponzanesi 2016: 160). The tune is played in the documentary
when a listener to the island DJ requests it. As a way of bridging the traumatic
memory of the Second World War past with the ordeals of North African
migrants, the song could also be interpreted as a reference to a migrant boat of
Somalian and Eritrean refugees on 3 October 2013. The vessel caught fire and
sank half a mile off the coast of Lampedusa, killing an estimated—the full fig-
ure will never be known—350 of its 500 passengers, in what some commenta-
tors called “the most dramatic human disaster in the Mediterranean Sea since
the Second World War” (Kushner 2016: 67). As well as alluding to the parallels
of national history, the song connects the island’s residents with the victims of
contemporary forced and voluntary migration and the perils they face in trying
to reach safety.
Rosi, himself born in Eritrea, spent around 18 months on the island in order
to familiarise himself with daily life, how the coast guard dealt with the migrant
boats, and to earn the trust of some of the inhabitants that would serve as prin-
cipal subjects for his documentary (Ponzanesi 2016: 160). Fire at Sea is divided
between the island inhabitants’ daily lives and the arrival of migrant ships over-
seen by the coast guard, with these two sections often remaining separate. So
we follow 12-year-old Samuele as he struggles to follow in his father’s footsteps
as a fisherman (he gets terribly seasick), preferring instead to terrorise birds
with his homemade slingshot. From the documentary, there is no indication
that Samuele is aware of the migrant crisis’ effect on his island home as he is
not shown interacting with or discussing the topic. The closest link between
these two threads is provided by the local doctor. He treats the migrant arrivals,
including a pregnant woman, and reflects to camera about some of his harrow-
ing experiences. He also sees Samuele who comes to him complaining about
shortness of breath which he thinks might be related to anxiety.
26 A. VAUGHAN

Shot in long takes, with often a static camera and no voiceover, Fire at Sea
belongs to the art film tradition of European cinema and the observational
mode of documentary. It is interesting also that some analyses of the film
describe it as neorealist in style (Ponzanesi 2016: 152). This is perhaps unsur-
prising considering that European forms of observational documentary, such as
Free Cinema, emerged out of popular European fiction film styles, such as
Neorealism in Italy. Coming to prominence during the 1940s and 1950s,
Italian Neorealism privileged the representation of human reality and often
resorted to location shooting and non-professional actors to achieve this real-
ism. With this in mind, Samuele could be viewed as a more precocious, equally
listless, variant on Bruno from Vittorio De Sica’s Bicycle Thieves (1948).
Regardless of intent, perhaps Rosi is recalling past Italian cinematic modes as
much as he is commenting on contemporary geopolitical movements.
Fire at Sea premiered in February 2016 at the Berlin Film Festival, where it
went onto win the Golden Bear, the first time a documentary had ever won the
top prize at the festival. Jury President, actress Meryl Streep, praised the film
for its “urgent, imaginative and necessary filmmaking” and said that it “com-
pels our engagement and action” (The Guardian 2016). After a successful run
at international film festivals, including Telluride and Toronto, the documen-
tary was named as Italy’s entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 2017
Academy Awards and was nominated for the Best Documentary Oscar.
Therefore, the high-profile critical praise and subsequent media attention
Rosi’s film received allows us to examine how it communicates its message
about the migrant crisis through documentary modes.
As already mentioned briefly above, the documentary intercuts between the
two threads of local residents’ daily lives and the arrival of migrants by boat
with only the slightest of obvious connections between them. The island doc-
tor, a compassionate and patient man, serves as the mediator between these
two worlds. He helps process the refugees, checking their hands for signs of
disease, and goes aboard the boats to inspect the corpses of those who have
perished en route. He also treats Samuele for symptoms of anxiety. The only
other time there is an overt connection between the residents and the migrant
crisis it is kept at a distance through the island’s radio news broadcast. A woman
listens to the latest bulletin which describes the details of a migrant vessel
including loss of life as she prepares a meal. As she does so, she mutters “poor
souls”. However, Rosi introduces symbolism to suggest links between his two
narrative sequences. For the numerous migrant boats we see, Samuele and his
father are filmed aboard the family fishing vessel. As counterpoint to the danger
and uncertainty of the refugees’ sea-crossing to Lampedusa, Rosi captures the
exploits of a lone scuba diver beneath the waves. And the local radio station
finds its echo in the crackling of navy ship radios receiving distress calls from
sinking migrant boats (Ponzanesi 2016: 152). Because Rosi does not resort to
voiceover narration, a mainstay of mainstream educational documentary, his
technique seems to be inviting the spectator to make these connections, to
think for themselves and, most significantly, to see.
 2 DOCUMENTING DIFFERENCE: MIGRATION AND IDENTITY IN EUROPEAN… 27

Fire at Sea is full of visual metaphors for ‘seeing’, what Ponzanesi (2016:
151–152) describes as “an intriguing aesthetic language of high symbolism”.
Its clearest example is seen in the narrative journey of Samuele. It is notewor-
thy that he is the first ‘character’ we see in the documentary. Rosi films him
walking towards the camera, inspecting a nearby tree and cutting off some
branches to make his slingshot which he later uses to shoot cans, cactuses and
birds. He is clearly quite skilled. However, later in the film Samuele visits an
optician who informs him that he has a lazy eye as a result of closing it to aim
his slingshot. He has to wear an eye patch over his good eye to encourage the
lazy one to work harder and, therefore, see better.
The composition of the image, as seen in Fig. 2.1, further emphasises the act
of looking. Rosi depicts Samuele in close-up as he pulls the elastic of the sling-
shot back against his right cheek. The resulting horizontal lines draw the spec-
tator’s gaze towards Samuele’s eyes, one visible, the other obscured and closed
as he takes aim. The position of the camera, with Samuele aiming beyond the
frame of action, means that we are not encouraged to identify with him; we are
observing Samuele’s actions without him indicating any awareness of
the camera.
Rosi intersperses Samuele’s mundane travails with the life or death journeys
of the migrants. We are encouraged to “connect the everyday of Samuele with
the ‘normality’ of plucking dead or nearly dead bodies from the sea” (Kushner
2016: 91). Additionally, Samuele’s aimlessness, his inability to row a boat and
seasickness make him seem apart from traditional island life in a way that paral-
lels the migrants’ homelessness. And, for Ponzanesi (2016: 153), this tech-
nique has political implications: “[t]he perspective through the eyes of a young

Fig. 2.1 Samuele’s desire to ‘see’ as symbolism for audiences acknowledging the
migrant crisis in Fire at Sea
28 A. VAUGHAN

boy has the purpose of recalibrating the distorted view of political opportunism
that uses migration as a scarecrow. It functions also as a warning against the
rising indifference, apathy and short-sighted policy of the European Union”.
Therefore, is Samuele’s anxiety related to the migrant crisis which, due to his
inability to see clearly with both eyes, remains blurred and on the peripheries
of his understanding?
Finally, the metaphor of seeing and not-seeing is suggested in the differing
representations of the individuals of these two worlds. The island residents,
including Samuele, his grandmother, the doctor and the radio DJ, are more
rounded personalities, compared to the migrants who are rarely individualised
or even heard to speak. Consequently, the documentary’s visual representation
of the migrants is synonymous with numerous EU countries’ reluctance to
identify them. Furthermore, because the film encourages us to identify with
the island inhabitants, and Samuele especially, the spectator is expected to
adopt this Eurocentric viewing position with the expectation that, after seeing
the horrific images of migrant corpses piled on top of one another in a boat’s
hold, they will finally begin to see the plight of refugees.
The cinematography and editing of Fire at Sea continues the call for specta-
tors to ‘see’. Rosi often utilises static camera shots allied with a “poetically
slow” (Ponzanesi 2016: 153) pace of editing, such as when a navy helicopter is
prepared for take-off or when lines of migrants arrive to be screened at the
island detention centre. The spectator thus has a fixed view of an event,
restricted to whatever is contained within the frame. This is then contrasted
with the more handheld, mobile shots of boarding the migrant boats which
create immediacy. Rosi incorporates an additional visual quirk, summarised as
follows:

Throughout the film, Rosi often opts to mediate his gaze, letting us observe, or
peep through, the right eye of Samuele hitting a target with his slingshot, through
military monitors, mirrors, wet portholes encrusted with dried salt, through
scuba-diving glasses searching the marvellous beauty of the island’s abyss at night,
through the torchlight of the navy boats piercing the Mediterranean in search of
survivors to be rescued. This ‘looking with’ and ‘looking through’ conveys the
indirect gaze, albeit non-intervening, of the filmmaker. (Ponzanesi 2016: 161)

This mediated documentary gaze is best articulated during a sequence in

which Rosi travels back to Lampedusa on a navy boat which has just rescued a
group of migrants (see Fig. 2.2). He silently observes some of the passengers
through a transparent plastic sheet, sea spray forming droplets on the see-­
through cover. The lens settles on one male migrant who looks directly at the
camera with a blank expression, the sheet separating him, Rosi and us from one
another. Through such a composition, where the image that is presented is
mediated by the plastic sheet and the film camera, the spectator is forced to
look at the migrant whose exhausted and helpless gaze looks back at us. This is
in stark contrast to the third-person identification the viewer has with Samuele.
 2 DOCUMENTING DIFFERENCE: MIGRATION AND IDENTITY IN EUROPEAN… 29

Fig. 2.2 Rosi’s mediated documentary gaze of the migrant ‘other’ in Fire at Sea

In the latter, an unobtrusive, observational function of documentary is pre-

ferred compared to the direct address and challenging gaze of the migrant. A
similar shot is repeated later in the film when the migrants are being processed.
Each stands in front of a digital camera holding a number for their photo to be
taken. The sequence shows human beings being depersonalised to mere num-
bers. Rosi cuts between each ‘portrait’ with some of the migrants feigning a
slight smile for the camera, others clearly distressed. The sequence ends with
another male refugee not looking at the digital camera, but Rosi’s film camera
as if directly addressing the audience to pay attention.
In each of these examples, the film spectator is required to ‘look with’ or
‘look through’ in order to fully perceive the documentary image and under-
stand the socio-political suffering these individuals are experiencing. Rosi’s
decision to film Lampedusa’s residents and the migrants in such different ways,
with the former more clearly identified than the latter, could have laid his docu-
mentary open to criticism for bias. However, Rosi seems to be suggesting that
it is only by accepting that we as spectators are complicit in similar processes of
‘othering’ refugees that we will be able to see the reality of the European
migrant crisis with both eyes open.

Conclusion
This chapter has provided an overview of the state of European documentary
in the twenty-first century. By summarising some of the key points from the
history of European documentary, including significant movements such as
Free Cinema and cinema vérité, we can see how the past still influences the
documentary style of the present. However, the rise in digital communications
on the global stage has also impacted on the ways filmmakers produce nonfic-
30 A. VAUGHAN

tion and spectators consume it, with social media especially contributing to
autobiographical forms of documentary in a culture of self-presentation.
EU-backed media production strategies beginning in the 1980s also influ-
enced documentary production. Policies like Eurodoc facilitate the EU’s
objective to create a recognisable European media culture that seeks to retain
culturally specific characteristics. Co-productions, documentary networks (like
the EDN) and funding opportunities help to make this aim a reality, even
though nationally specific documentary production policies still exist. On a
broader scale, these policies as well as Web 2.0 highlight questions about the
integrity of European borders in the twenty-first century. Contemporary
European documentary has responded with filmmakers producing documenta-
ries that dramatise the ‘real’ world stories of migration to the continent.
By using Gianfranco Rosi’s Fire at Sea as a case-study example, it was shown
how a recent documentary represents and reflects upon the European migrant
crisis. Rosi deftly combines observational documentary techniques with a rich
symbolism based on audiences’ in/ability to ‘see’ the plight of these refugees
which further characterises his cinematography and editing. The decision to
build the documentary around the binary of the island residents and the
migrants serves to problematise political rhetoric surrounding the crisis and the
failure by governments to accept responsibility. Here, the “island becomes a
microcosm for Europe where the liminal and precarious existences, of both
fishermen and refugees, convey an idea of Europe from the South where differ-
ent marginalities coexist and interweave, avoiding celebratory discourses on
Europe as the ideal haven” (Ponzanesi 2016: 165). As a result, the documen-
tary constructs the possibility of a Europe that does not disavow the migrant
‘other’ (a role the popular media seem so eager to attribute to refugees) but
makes it clear that it is up to the spectator to create such a place.

Questions for Group Discussion

1. What responsibilities do European documentary filmmakers have? Why
are they significant?
2. What are some of the challenges facing European documentary filmmak-
ers in the twenty-first century? (Consider technology, audiences, other
audiovisual content)
3. What other twenty-first-century European documentaries have you seen?
How do they correspond to or engage with ideas of ‘Europeanness’?
4. How do you see documentary forms changing in the next decades? What
types of social, cultural, political, technological changes will documen-
tary need to respond to?
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 Transcriber’s Note (continued)

The many conversations in Scots, along with archaic spelling and

inconsistencies in hyphenation, have been left unchanged except where
noted below. Minor typographical errors have been corrected without
note.

Page 6 – “offhand” changed to “off-hand” (the usual off-hand

remark)

Page 297 – “goodbye” changed to “good-bye” (after bidding good-

bye)

There are a small number of footnotes in the book. Most of these

provide a helpful translation into English of words expressed in Scots.
For that reason, all footnotes have been reindexed and placed
immediately below the paragraph in which they are referenced.

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