Cell

Created @September 25, 2023 9:43 PM

Tags anatomy physiology self study

The Cell
basic unit of life

eukaryotic cells

organisms that have an enclosed nucleus and membrane-bound organelles

examples: plants, animals, protists, fungi

undergo cell division:

mitosis

a type of cell division that involves a single round of division where DNA
are duplicated and segregated to form two identical daughter cells

these daughter cells are identical to the parent cell that gave rise to
them

main purpose include growth, repair, and replace dead/worn-out cells

process:

prophase

chromosomes form a tight coil as a result of DNA replication

two copies of each chromosomes are called chromatids and

they are connected at the centromere

spindle fibres extend between the centriole pairs

Cell 1
 prophase ends with the disappearance of the nuclear envelope

metaphase

the chromosomes composed of chromatid pairs now move to

the metaphase plate (a narrow central zone)

anaphase

the chromatid pairs separate

daughter chromosomes move towards opposite ends of the cell

anaphase ends when the daughter chromosomes arrive near

the centrioles at the opposite sides of the cell

telophase

the nuclear membranes form and the nuclei enlarge as the

chromosomes gradually uncoil

cytokinesis is the process in which two daughter cells physically

separate

meiosis

a type of cell division that occurs in germ cells (which produces the
gametes)

involves two rounds of division that result in four unique daughter cells
with only one copy of each chromosome

produce gametes (sex cells) that are genetically unique from the parent
cell that gave rise to them, resulting to genetic variation

process:

1. meiosis I

prophase I

chromosomes shorten and thicken

the nuclear envelope and the nuclei disappear

mitotic spindle forms

Cell 2
 two sister chromatids of each pair of homologous
chromosomes (one pair of chromosomes with the same
gene sequence) pair off; this process is called synapsis

this results to four chromatids forming a structure called

tetrad

crossing-over occurs in which genetically different

chromatids exchange parts, resulting to genetic
recombination (formation of new combinations of genes)

metaphase I

tetrad line up along the metaphase plate of the cell, with the
homologous chromosomes side by side

anaphase I

the members of each homologous pair of chromosomes

separate as they get pulled towards the opposite side of the
cell; the paired chromosomes, held together by a
centromere, remain together

telophase I & cytokinesis

2. meiosis II

composed of prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, and

telophase II & cytokinesis which are similar to mitosis

produces four haploid (one set of chromosomes) gametes that

are genetically unique from the original diploid (two sets of
chromosomes) parent cell

prokaryotic cells

unicellular organisms that don’t have an enclosed nucleus and membrane-

bound organelles

example: bacteria, archaea and cyanobacteria

mainly undergo binary fission in which genetic material is copied and separated
to form two new identical cells

Cell 3
 The Human Cell

different types of cells:

stem cells

unspecialised cells that can differentiate into a specialised (particular) cell

specialised cells

cells that have special features which enable them to perform their specific
function

composed of different parts:

Cell 4
 1. plasma membrane

acts as a barrier separating inside and outside of the cell

lipid bilayer is the basic structural framework of the plasma membrane

it’s composed of two back-to-back layers of lipid molecules:

phospholipids that act as a barrier that protects the cell

cholesterol that helps maintain the structural integrity and fluidity of

the cell membrane

glycolipids that help maintain stability of the membrane and also

facilitate cell-to-cell interactions

the bilayer structure occurs because the lipids have both polar and non-
polar parts (amphipathic molecules); the “head” is hydrophilic (loves
water) while the two long fatty acid “tails” are hydrophobic (hates water)

composed of membrane proteins that helps in controlling the flow of

substances into and out of the cell, helps identifying the cell to other cells, and
participating in intercellular signalling

ion channel that lets specific ions (such as potassium ions) pass
through

carriers or transporters that selective move a polar substance or ion

from one side of the membrane to the other

receptors that act as cellular recognition sites

Cell 5
 enzymes that catalyse specific chemical reactions at the inside or
outside surface of the cell

linkers that anchor proteins in the plasma membranes of neighbouring

cells or to protein filaments inside and outside of the cell

cell-identity markers which enables the cell to (1) recognise other cells
of the same kind during tissue formation or (2) recognise and respond
to potentially dangerous foreign cells

movement of substances across the cell membrane:

passive transport

influenced by chemical or electrical gradients

doesn’t require energy or ATP

examples:

diffusion (gases)

movement of a substance from an area of high

concentration to an area of lower concentration

osmosis (water)

net movement of water molecules through a partially

permeable membrane from a solution with a high
concentration of water molecules to a solution with lower
concentration of water molecules

active transport

involves the use of energy or ATP

examples:

primary active transport

the source of energy is used directly in the transport of a

substance

secondary active transport

Cell 6
 mechanisms use energy derived from the primary active
transport of one substance for the co-transport of a second
substance

2. cytoplasm

has two components:

cytosol

the fluid part of the cytoplasm

also known as intercellular fluid

organelles

3. organelles:

centrosome

consists of two components:

a pair of centrioles

barrel-shaped organelles that play a role in organising

microtubules during cell division

help determine the locations of the nucleus and other

organelles within the cell

pericentriolar

contains tubulins that build microtubules in non-dividing cells

forms the mitotic spindle during cell division

cilia and flagella

aids movement

ribosomes

consists of two subunits: large and small

synthesise protein meant for specific organelles, for insertion in the

plasma membrane, or for export from the cell

free ribosomes synthesise proteins used in the cytosol

Cell 7
 some of the ribosomes are attached to the outer surface of the nuclear
membrane and to the endoplasmic reticulum

some ribosomes can also be found within the mitochondria, where they
synthesise mitochondrial proteins

rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER)

a series of folded and flattened sacs continuous with the nuclear

envelope

smooth endoplasmic reticulum (smooth ER)

extends from the rough ER to form a network of membrane tubules

synthesise fatty acids and steroids

Golgi complex

acts as a factory in which proteins received from the ER are further

processed and sorted for transport to their eventual destinations

lysosomes

composed of transporters that move the final products of digestion

(such as glucose, fatty acids etc.) into the cytosol

contains sixty kinds of powerful digestive and hydrolytic enzymes that

can breakdown a wide of variety of molecules

lysosomal enzymes help recycle worn-out cell structures through the

process called autophagy

lysosomal enzymes work best at pH conditions; thus, lysosomal interior

has a pH of 5

peroxisomes

contain oxidases which are enzymes that can oxidise various organic
substances

protesomes

contain myriad protease that digest proteins into smaller peptides

mitochondria

Cell 8
 composed of:

outer mitochondrial membrane

separates the inter membrane space from the cytosol

inner mitochondrial membrane

consists of:

mitochondrial cristae

a series of fold that allows (larger surface area) for

more chemical reactions to take place

mitochondrial matrix

a cavity that’s filled with central fluid

contains a variety of enzymes that play a role in cellular

respiration

nucleus

controls the cellular structure

directs cellular activities

consists of:

nuclear envelope

a double membrane that separates the nucleus from the

cytoplasm

nuclear pores

openings that extend though the nuclear envelope

control the movement of substances between then nucleus and

the cytoplasm

small molecules and ions move through the pores passively

though diffusion

Cell 9
 most large molecules, such as RNAs (ribonucleic acid) and
proteins pass through the pores using active transport

nucleoli

synthesise ribosomes

genetic material (DNA):

gene

hereditary units that transmit information

a collection of a small section of DNA that contains the

instruction (sequence) for a specific molecule

chromosomes

humans have 46 chromosomes, 23 of which are inherited

from each parent

each chromosome is a long molecule of DNA

(deoxyribonucleic acid) that’s coiled together with several
proteins (histones)

two types (as pair):

homozygous (identical)

heterozygous (different)

chromatin

a combination of DNA, proteins, and some RNA

genome

the total genetic information carried in a cell or an organism

genotype

the genetic make up of an organism

phenotype

observable traits (physical)

Cell 10
 Two Phases of Metabolism
Catabolism

stored nutrients and body tissues are broken down to produce energy

the breakdown of complex molecules (such as protein) to their constituent parts

(amino acids)

Anabolism

more complex molecules are formed from simpler ones in a constructive

process

metabolic pathway that construct molecules (such as carbohydrates) from

smaller units (glucose)

Cell Organisation
organelles → cells → tissues → organs → organ system → organism

cells

classification according to number of layers present

simple

one layer

stratified

two or more layer

pseudostratified

tissues formed by a single layer of cells that give the appearance of

being made from multiple layers

classification according to shape

squamous

Cell 11
 flat cells

cuboidal

columnar

tall and slender with oval-shaped nuclei located in the basal region,
attached to the basement membrane

tissue

the larger functional unit composed of organised cells

a gland can have more than one type of tissue

types of tissues:

connective or supportive tissue

most abundant tissue of the body

connects and binds various other tissues

examples:

areolar

reticular

adipose

muscle tissue

contains actin and myosin filaments

contracts and provides:

locomotion and movement of skeletal structures (voluntary)

pumping blood through the heart (involuntary)

contraction of blood vessels and visceral organs (involuntary)

epithelial tissue

found in the middle of glands and organs

forms sheets that function to:

cover the body’s outer surface

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 line internal surfaces

form glandular tissue

tissues involved in the production and release of different

secretory products

mucous to keep lining smooth

organ

composed of tissues that work together to perform one specific task

organ system

consists of various organs that work together to perform one large task

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