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Standard Aircraft Engines Handbook Ronald Sterkenburg All Chapter
Standard Aircraft Engines Handbook Ronald Sterkenburg All Chapter
Standard Aircraft Engines Handbook Ronald Sterkenburg All Chapter
Ronald Sterkenburg
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About the Authors
Dr. Ronald Sterkenburg is a professor at the School of Aviation
and Transportation Technology at Purdue University. He is an author
and co-author of 14 books and more than 80 publications in national
and international journals and conference proceedings. The focus of
his research is the manufacturing and repair of advanced aircraft
structures. He is a certificated A & P mechanic, holds an inspection
authorization (IA), and performs the duties of an FAA Designated
Mechanic Examiner (DME).
ISBN: 978-1-26-425915-1
MHID: 1-26-425915-8
The material in this eBook also appears in the print version of this
title: ISBN: 978-1-26-425914-4, MHID: 1-26-425914-X.
TERMS OF USE
Preface
Acknowledgments
1 Reciprocating Engines
Reciprocating Engine Classification
Rotary Type Radial Engines
Inline Engines
V-Type Engines
Radial Engines
Opposed and Flat Type Engines
Other Engine Types
Engine Designations
Engine Cooling: Air Cooled and Liquid Cooled
Engine Components
Crankcase
Bearings
Crankshaft
Connecting Rod
Piston/Piston Rings
Cylinder Assembly
Valves
Valvetrain
2 Turbine Engines
Basic Gas Turbine Theory
Types of Gas Turbine Engines
Gas Turbine Engine Construction
Air Intake Section
Compressor Section
Types of Compressors
Combustion Section (Burner Section)
Turbine Section
Exhaust Section
Accessory Section
Engine Bearings and Seals
Turbo Engine Thrust Calculation
Engine Performance
6 Lubrication Systems
Reciprocating Engine Lubrication System
Wet Sump and Dry Sump Lubrication Systems
Lubrication Oil Characteristics
Turbine Engine Lubricating System
Spectrometric Oil Analysis Program
Function of the Lubrication System
Turbine Engine Lubrication Components
Oil Tank
Oil Pressure Pumps and Scavenge Pumps
Oil Filter and Bypass Valve
Air/Oil Heat Exchanger
Fuel/Oil Heat Exchanger
Low Oil Pressure Switch and Warning Light
Oil Pressure Transducer/Indication on MFD
Oil Temperature Sensor
Oil Jets
Chip Detector
Deoiler
12 Propellers
Propeller Blade Terminology
Propeller Theory
Blade Stations
Propeller Forces
Aerodynamic Factors
Propeller Controls and Instruments
Types of Propellers
Fixed Pitch Propellers
Wood Propellers
Aluminum Propellers
Composite Propellers
Constant-Speed Propellers
Propeller Governor
Underspeed Condition
Overspeed Condition
On-Speed Condition
Feathering Operation
Auto Feathering System
Unfeathering Operation
Anti-Icing and De-Icing Systems
Propeller Synchronization and Synchrophasing
Alpha and Beta Range on Turbo Prop Engines
Propeller Inspection
Propeller Vibration
Blade Tracking
Propeller Balancing
Cleaning Propeller Blades
Turbo Prop Engines
Propeller Controls
Propeller Brake
Propeller Reduction Gearbox
Index
Preface
Inline Engines
Inline engines as seen in Fig. 1-2 were widely used from around
World War I to World War II. Inline engines have individual cylinders
arranged in a row that is parallel to the engine’s crankshaft. The
cylinders are mounted either above or below the crankshaft. When
the cylinders are mounted above the crankshaft, the engine is
referred to as an upright inline engine. When the cylinders are
mounted below the crankshaft, the engine is called an inverted inline
engine. Many of the inline engines used during World War I were of
the inverted inline engine configuration due to the engine’s ability to
be mounted lower in the airframe. The lower mounting greatly
improved the pilot’s forward visibility. The main advantages of the
inline engines are that they were simpler and had a much smaller
frontal area. The smaller frontal area of the engine allowed for
engine nacelles with better streamlining and lower drag. However,
the disadvantages of inline engines are that they were typically
limited to six cylinders to maintain adequate engine cooling, engine
length, and to avoid excessive weight. The cylinder limitation
constrained inline engines to primarily low and medium horsepower
applications.
FIGURE 1-2 Inverted inline engine.
V-Type Engines
V-type engines as seen in Fig. 1-3 were the solution for the inline
engines’ limitations. Similar to inline engines, V-type engines also
have individual cylinders arranged in a row that is parallel to the
engine’s crankshaft. However, different from inline engines, V-type
engines employ an additional bank of cylinders, forming the letter V
when viewing the engine from the front. The angle between the two
banks of cylinders can vary from 90° to 45° depending on engine
design. Some of the notable V-type engines include the Rolls-Royce
V12 and the Liberty V12. V-type engines were also designed with
upright and inverted configurations depending on their application.
The advantages of V-type engines over inline engines are that the V-
type engines have double the number of cylinders while only slightly
increasing the engine’s frontal area. The additional cylinders allowed
for increased engine displacement and performance. The
disadvantages of V-type engines are that they are heavier and
slightly more mechanically complex compared to inline engines.
FIGURE 1-3 V-type engine.
Radial Engines
Radial engines can come in a variety of different configurations
including single row, double row, and multiple row as seen in Figs.
1-4 to 1-6. Similar to the rotary type radial engines, radial engines
have an odd number of cylinders typically ranging from 5 to 9
arranged radially from the centerline of the engine. However,
opposite from rotary type radial engines, radial engines have the
engine statically mounted onto the airframe and the crankshaft
rotates. This stationary engine design reduces the torque caused by
the engine’s gyroscopic effect, allowing for larger and more powerful
applications. Double-row radial engines resemble two single-row
radial engines operating on a single crankshaft. The two rows of
cylinders are often staggered to allow the second row of cylinders to
receive incoming cooling air. With an odd number of cylinders per
row, double-row radial engines typically range from 10 to 18
cylinders total. The same overall configuration of odd number of
cylinders per row carries over onto multiple-row radial engines. Any
radial engines with more than two rows of cylinders are considered a
multiple-row radial engine. Multiple-row radial engines were popular
toward the end of World War II and were the largest and most
powerful reciprocating engines produced. One of the notable
multiple-row radial engines was the Pratt & Whitney R-4360.
Compared to all other engine types discussed earlier, radial engines
had the highest power to weight ratio. However, with the
advancements in turbine engine technology coupled with the
disadvantages of radial engines including the engines’ large frontal
area creating large amounts of drag, difficulties in efficient cooling,
and maintenance complexity, reciprocating engines were rendered
obsolete for high-power and long-range applications.
FIGURE 1-4 Single-row radial engine.
FIGURE 1-5 Double-row radial engine.
FIGURE 1-6 Multiple-row radial engine.
Engine Designations
Engine model numbers located on the engine’s data plate often give
a reliable indication of what type and configuration the engine is.
Letters on the model number are often employed to describe the
engine’s characteristics, while numbers indicate the engine’s
displacement. Using Continental Aircraft Engine’s designation as an
example, an IO-470-K stands for a fuel-injected opposed, 470 cubic
inch engine. The K in the engine’s model number refers to the
engine’s submodel within the IO-470 series engine. A list of other
commonly used model number letters is as follows:
• T: Turbocharged
• S: Supercharged
• I: Fuel injected
• O: Opposed cylinders
• R: Radial engine
• L: Left hand rotating
Cooling liquid is circulated around the areas within the engine that
requires heat removal. As the cooling liquid contacts the heated
areas, heat is transferred to the liquid and the heated liquid is then
cooled as it travels through a heat exchanger. After cooling, the
cooled liquid cycles back into the engine to repeat the cooling
process. The advantages of a liquid cooling system are that it is very
efficient at extracting heat and maintaining the engine’s
temperature. A disadvantage is the increase in total engine weight
due to the extra liquid cooling components and cooling fluid.
Engine Components
Crankcase
The crankcase as seen in Fig. 1-11 serves as the foundation of a
reciprocating engine and is designed to have the strength and
rigidity to support itself and maintain alignment for all the other
engine components mounted on it. The crankcase also provides
provisions for the mounting of the engine’s cylinders and mounting
supports for the crankcase itself to the airframe. Inside the
crankcase are dedicated passageways used by the lubricating oil to
circulate within the engine and mounting points for bearings in
which the crankshaft revolves. Generally built utilizing aluminum
alloys, the design of the crankcase is heavily influenced by the
engine type it is destined for. There are three broad groups of
crankcases including the opposed engine crankcase, radial engine
crankcase, and inline and V-type crankcase.
FIGURE 1-11 Crankcase.
Bearings
Bearings are utilized in areas where components turn or revolve on
such as journals, pivots, pins, and shafts. Bearings are designed to
help reduce the friction between the revolving components to a
minimum and also provide maximum wear resistance between the
components. For the bearing to provide maximum component
protection, some characteristics are required. The bearing needs to
be made from a material strong enough for its intended application
and able to withstand the pressure imposed on the bearing. The
bearing must allow the other surface to move with minimum wear
and minimum friction. The bearing also needs to be able to hold the
required tolerances while maintaining quiet and efficient operation.
On top of reducing friction between moving components, some
bearings can also be designed to withstand thrust loads, radial loads,
or any combination of both.
Plain bearings as seen in Fig. 1-12 can be considered as the
bearing associated with the lowest cost. Generally found in lower
horsepower engines, plain bearings are designed to take radial
loads, although some plain bearings can be designed with flanges
for thrust load capabilities. Roller bearings as seen in Fig. 1-13 are
meant for high power applications. The roller bearings are made up
of multiple components. The inner and outer bearing race provides a
groove for the rollers to travel in and the individual rollers travel
along these grooves to reduce friction between the two revolving
engine components. Designed with a wide variety of shapes and
sizes, roller bearings can be utilized in many different applications.
Straight roller bearings are designed to withstand radial loads, and
tapered roller bearings are designed for a combination of radial and
thrust loads. Above the plain bearing and roller bearing in terms of
cost and performance is the ball bearing. Ball bearings as seen in
Fig. 1-14 are capable of providing the least amount of friction
compared to other types of bearings. Similar to the roller bearings,
ball bearings are also made up of multiple components. These
components include the inner race, outer race, a full set of polished
steel balls, and a ball retainer. The inner and outer race again
provides a groove for the polished steel balls to travel on while the
ball retainer contains the steel balls in separate evenly spaced slots
to minimize friction between the steel balls.
Crankshaft
The crankshaft as seen in Fig. 1-15 transforms the reciprocating
motion of the piston into rotary motion to turn the propeller. The
tachometer for reciprocating engines displays rpm based on the
crankshaft rpm. The crankshaft is subjected to all the forces acting
within the engine. Therefore, the crankshaft requires a very strong
construction and is usually made of forged steel alloy. The main
parts of the crankshaft include the main journal, crankpin, crank
cheek, counterweights, and dampers.
Connecting Rod
The purpose of the connecting rod as seen in Fig. 1-16 is to provide
the connection between the piston and the crankshaft, converting
the liner movement of the piston into the rotational movement of
the crankshaft. Generally, constructed out of steel alloy for rigidity
and strength, aluminum alloy can also be used for lower horsepower
applications. The connecting rod consists of three major sections:
the big end, the center section, and the small end. The big end, or
crankpin end, is the end of the connection rod that is attached to the
crankpin of the crankshaft. The center section provides the
connection between the big end and the small end and commonly
employs a cross-section resembling the letter I or H depending on
orientation. The I or H cross-section allows the connecting rod to
remain strong and rigid while keeping the connecting rod
lightweight. The small end, or piston pin end, of the connecting rod
connects to the piston pin.
There are three types of connecting rod designs. The plain type,
fork and blade type, and the master and articulated type. The plain
type connecting rod is commonly found in inline and opposed
engines. Each plain type connecting rod consists of a big end, a
center section, and a small end. The fork and blade type connecting
rods are used for V-type engines. The fork rod is split at the big end
and has one small end. The blade rod’s big end fits in between the
fork rod’s split big end and also has one small end. Lastly, the
master and articulated type connecting rods are found in radial
engines. The master rod provides the attachment points for all the
other articulated rods on its big end. With steel knuckle pins, the
articulated rods are attached to the master rod. A lock plate on each
side of the knuckle pins is used to restrict the pins’ lateral
movement.
Piston/Piston Rings
The piston as seen in Fig. 1-17 harnesses the energy of the
expanding gases in the combustion chamber and converts the
energy into linear motion. Although the design of the pistons can be
heavily influenced by the engine’s application, there are five common
types of pistons. These five types are flat, recessed, concave,
convex, and truncated cone. The five types of pistons were named
based on the physical appearance of the pistons’ top face.
Piston rings are installed around the piston and can be classified
into compression rings and oil rings. Commonly made of cast iron,
the compression rings prevent the leakage of combustion gases past
the piston during engine operation. Compression rings are installed
in the grooves immediately below the piston head. Most aircraft
reciprocating engines use two compression rings. However, the
number of compression rings may differ due to engine design. The
cross-section of the compression rings is either rectangular or wedge
shaped with a tapered face. The tapered face on the compression
rings reduce friction and provide better sealing.
Oil rings include both oil control rings and oil scraper rings. Oil
control rings are installed in grooves below the compression rings.
Similar to the compression rings, the number of oil control rings also
depends on the engine design. The purpose of oil control rings is to
regulate the oil film thickness on the cylinder wall. Too much oil on
the cylinder wall will burn and leaves a thick coat of carbon deposits
on the combustion chamber walls, the piston head, the spark plugs,
and the valve heads. Carbon deposits can cause the valves to stick,
spark plug misfire, detonation, pre-ignition, or excessive oil
consumption. Holes are drilled in the oil control ring grooves to
provide the surplus oil a return route to the crankcase. Oil scraper
rings are installed in the groove at the piston skirt. Scraper rings
retain the surplus oil above the ring on the upward piston stroke,
and this surplus oil is then returned to the crankcase by the oil
control rings on the downward stroke. Typical indications of worn or
defective piston rings include the loss of cylinder compression, high
oil consumption, and excessive blue smoke in the exhaust stream.
Cylinder Assembly
The cylinder assembly as shown in Fig. 1-18 is required to be light
weight but also provide sufficient strength to withstand the
pressures created from the combustion process. The cylinder
assembly is also responsible for conducting the heat generated from
the combustion process and dissipating them. The cylinder assembly
consists of the following:
FIGURE 1-18 Cylinder assembly.
• Cooling fins
• Cylinder head
• Cylinder barrel
• Valve guides
• Valve seats
• Spark plug mount
Valves
A valve is responsible for opening and closing a passageway or port
to control the flow of a liquid or gas. Inside the cylinder, valves are
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Title: Pescara
Novelli
Language: Finnish
Novelli
Kirj.
Joel Lehtonen
— Borboni.
Sekä herttua että kansleri tunsivat miehen kohta. Hän oli Pescara.
Helposti arvasivat he myös kuka oli nainen. Kukapas muu kuin
Victoria Colonna, Pescaran vaimo, Italian helmi! Ho olivat kuin
lumoutuneet tuohon tauluun. He tunsivat, että sen suurin sulous oli
siinä korkeassa ja hellässä rakkaudessa, jonka kautta sulivat
lämpöiseksi elämäksi runoilijattaren vienona ja ja soturin ankara
vakavuus, ja myös molempain nuoruudessa, sillä päivän paahtama
ja arpinen Pescarakin näytti vain sankarilliselta nuorukaiselta.