io mm STATE ELECTRICITY COMMISSION OF VICTORIA PRODUCTION SERVICES DEPARTMENT BASIC PRINCIPLES OF POWER PLANTBASIC PRINCIPLES OF POWER PLAXT conrent ( SECTION 1 U FUNDAMENTALS La | u section 2 FUEL HANOLINS ft 21 a2 L Pa ea ; a (] 28 ay ni secrion 3 u THe ouuen . 4 {j 2 3 : zi > $ 8 [ a3 u Ba a8 Suto ; cu j a2 338 1 U SECTION 4 THE TURBINE a 43 tt a2 u a3 oa : as | as ! aa aa as ao on an a8 ane Properties of Matter. Work = Power ~ Energy. Heat, Tenperature and Pressure. Fuels. Contust ion Working Fluids. Fluid Fow. Pumps. Fans. Instruments. futonatic Control. Lubrication ~ Theory. Lubrication - Practice. Introduction. Essentials of a Fuel Handling Plant. Transport of Fuel. Conditions and Preparation of Fuel. Storage of Fuel. Flow of Solid Fuels. Typical Coal Handitag Plant. Introduction. The Furnace. Bofler Heating Surface. ' Steam and Water Separation. The Superheater.. The Reheater. The Economisér. The Air Heater Draft Equipnent.. Firtng Equipment. Botler Control Equipment. Feed and Softer Water. Ash Handling. Introduction. Types of Turbines. Steam Turbine Effictency. Compounding. Turbine cylinders. Turbine Rotors. Blading. Bearings and Couplings. Stands. Barring Gear. Governing of the Steam Turbogenerator. Supervisory Gear for Turbogenerators. Turbine Protective Devices. Turbo-generator Lubricating O11 System, 1995 Vane YD OhlerCONDENSING PLANT AND CIRCULATING HATER SYSTEM FEED WATER SYSTEM ( Cc C Introduction, Condensing Piant. Circulating Water systen. Operation of Condensing Plant and CH Systen. Performance of Cooling Towers. Introduction. Feed Heating. Deaerators. Feed Control and Storage. Drain Equipment. Evaporators. Deminaralisation. Chemical Injection. Developnent of Large Generators. Mechanical Developments. Rotor End Rings. Journal Bearings and Shaft Seals. Rotor Slip Rings and Brushgear. Ventitetion System Developments. Hydrogen Cooling Systems, Liquid Cooling Systens. Excitation Developments. Charging and Discharging Hydrogen Systems. Future Trends.fo Cc wh hi 2 ee — eee c & c fot BASIC PRINCIPLES OF POWER PLANT SECTION 1: FUNDAMENTALS INTRODUCTION Purpose of Steam Power Station ‘The purpose of a Steam Power Station is to convert the chemical energy of a fuel into electrics] ‘energy at the lowest possible cost, subject to the considerations of safety and systen requirenents. LiL PROPERTIES OF MATTER LLL Introduction In the construction and operation of a power station, various materials are used. Those used to form the structure of the plant, such as steel, iron, concrete, bricks, etc, are chosen for their economic suitability for the purpose. Other materials are used to enable the processes to function, Such as the fuels for the supply of eneray and the working fluids for the transfer of energy. ATT materials, however, can be regarded as matter in one form or another. Scientific. investigation into the nature of matter has shown that there exists naturally, on this planet, a nusber of ‘pure substances’ fron which all other substances are formed. These are known as elements. Every element in turn fs made up of atoms and recent discoveries have thrown sone Light on the Construction of atoms and the energy stored within then. for the purpose of these notes, however, it fs only necessary to consider in a simple way the structure of sone of the substances in common use and the chemical changes which take place in sone of the processes. ‘The following explanations will provide a basis for further stud) 1.1.2 Structure of Elements. An element is sonathing which, however mich it 1s divided into smaller pieces, can be recognised as ‘the same until the stage of one atom of the substance is reached. ‘There are more than 100 separate elenents and the following table gives the nane of 10 of these with ‘the symbol by which they are represented. In Chemistry, a11 the elenents are given symbols to avoid writing the name in full. Table 1/1 ~ Chemical Symbols Nane symbot ature Carbon c Hard black solid Chlorine a Green gas - poisonous, pungent smell Copper Cu Solid Hydrogen # Light gas - colourless, odourless Iron Fe Solic Mercury Hg Liquid metal - heavy Nitrogen N Gas - colourless, odourless Oxygen 0 Gas ~ colourtess Sodium Ne Solid silver metal - fairly soft Sulphur 8 Yellow powder or crystals. ‘The term atom has been used, and this can be defined as ‘the stallest particle of an element which can take part in a chemical’ reaction’. 1.1.3 Reactfons between Elenents If sone of these elements, say, carbon, sulphur and oxygen, were put together in some suitable container and shaken vigorously, the result would be a rather cloudy substance in the container, but the yellow specks of sulphur and the black pieces of carbon could still be seen as separate particies.If left to settle, the oxygen could be tapped off and the carbon particles separated from the sulphur. £11 three original elements would be quite unchanged. "The experiment has nade what the Chemist calls 2 mixture. Now suppose that inmediately after making the mixture of carbon, sulphur and oxygen, a match was put to its a flane would be produced, heat vould be given off, and'a chemical reaction would take place. On examining the results of this Second experinent, it would be found that the original chemicals had formed into quite new substances during the rection. These would be CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS, wich are substances containing two or more elements chemically united, and usually quite different’ in appearance from the elenents from which they were nade, Exanples of compounds are water, caustic soda, etc. The smallest quantity of an elenent or a compound which can exist separately is called a molecule. ‘olecules in turn are composed of atons, or it could be said that atons are grouped together to form molecules. ‘The chemical reaction described is really a rearrangenent of the atoms of the elements, carbon, sulphur and oxygen, to forma different conbination of molecules, Molecules of some of the gases, such as oxygen. nitrogen and hydrogen, are each nade up of to atoms. The symbol of these gases have a small figure 2 attached to them to show that. two ators. are present, thus Oz» Ne and Ha, If three or four atons make up a molecule of gas, then the attached figures would Be 3 ord and so on. In the previous section, it was shown that when elements were shaken together, @ mixture could be nade. The mixture of carbon, sulphur and oxygen could be shown by the use of the symbols of these elements, Tike this ~ c+s4+o, In chemfcal reactions, the chemical unions of the elements taking part may be shown by what 1s known a5 an equation, which’ is a mathenatical term for two expressions which are equal to each other and 50 are connected by the equal sign thus =, Using the symbols alreedy learnt for the various elements and gases, the reaction or union of one aton of carton with one molecule of oxygen would be shown as ~ C0, = COsy a new substance, carbon dioxide, made up af one atom of carbon ‘and two atoms of oxygen, three atons in all. Similarly, one aton of sulphur uniting with one motecute of oxygen can be shown as - 5 +0, © 80p, sulphur dioxide, made up again of three atons. If, in the case of the carbon, two atoms of carbon had been present to the one molecule of oxygen, then 2 different result would’ be obtained and would be shovn 2s = 20 +0 = 260 which shows that two atons of carbon have reacted or combined with the ona motecule of oxygen to form two molecules of the gas CARBON ONOKIOE. The terms, dioxide and monoxide, are used frequently, but in order to avoid any confusion, @ simple explanation of these terms should be given. First of all, an oxide is 2 compound of oxygen with another element, A dioxide means stmply One atom of an elerent conbined with two atons of oxyoen, "ai" meaning ‘two’ or ‘twice’. A monoxide, on the other hand, is an oxide where one atom of oxygen is in combination with one atom of an element, ‘aon’ meaning ‘one’ or ‘alone". So then, carbon dioxide is a gas made Up of molecules, each having one carbon and two oxygen atoms, and carbon monoxide isa ces made Up of molecules each having one carbon and one oxygen atom. 1.1.4 Atosic and Molecular Weights of Elenents and Gases hen substances unite chemically to form a new combination, they do so in definite proportions by weight and the new molecules are formed by 2 redistribution or regrouping oF the etors. Hydrogen, which 1s the lightest elesent known, wat given the atomic weight of one, and the atomic weights of the other elenents were fixed in relation to hydrogen by Finding how many hydrogen atens weigh equal to one atom of the other elements. The atoms of any one elenent a11 weigh exactly the same, for example, every aton of carbon weighs exactly the sane, but this weight is different fron the weight of an atom Of any other elements O Power Chemical |» | Heat > [Mechanical | __» |Etectrical Energy [Everay Eneray Enersy Figure 1/3 ~ Simple Energy Diagran 1.2.6 Thermal Efficiency ‘The thermal efficiency of @ station expresses the ratio of - Electrical Energy Sent Out ‘henfeat Energy in FueT Consumed and of course is the main criterion of station economics, the higher the thermal effictency, the Tower the quantity of fuel used and the loner the cost of power produced, Now obviously @ high thermal efficiency requires - That 211 the heat energy available from the fuel is Tibereted in the boiler. (This is the essence of good combustion and is discussed in Section 1.5.) 7 That the eneroy list is a minfnun, ‘This last stom is a very significant factor and throughout the history of power stations, the constant aim in the design and operation has beon to reduce this as nich as possible. 1.2.7. Simple Open cycle In the early sinple forn of power station, the thermal efficiency was very Tow. A typical example Of such a cycle 4s shown in Figure 1/4. As can be seen, fresh water is introduced into the boiler where it fs boiled to produce steam at a Pressure higher than atmospheric pressure and piped to the steam engine. In the stean engine, the steam 18 expanded in the cylinder, so doing work on the piston and driving the shaft connected toe generator. "After expansion in the cylinder) the steam is exhausted to waste at atmospheric Pressure. In this case, the working flutd (as water or stean) is said to pass through an open cycle since it leaves the system after having been once through the plant, wor oans } sone sree . te ' atweraron we —-O ay 7 ase | “Uavaueres so" con saree Figure 1/4 - Early Type Power Station with Open Cycle 1 lJ a 4 Seed eee eee eed eee) a4 [[ Bob (enya te cee [ce i I 1.2.8 Energy Diagram of Sinple cycle Ze Pa omerner; Gamer apa HEAT LOSSES IN FLUE GASES’ & FROM SOLER WALLS [ee ENERGY ENERGY WW RELEASED FUEL ay COMBUSTION ENERGY IN STEAM ENERGY REJECTED EXHAUST TO. ATMOSPHERE Figure 1/5 + Open Cycle Energy Diagram 1.2.9 Developments of Simple Cycle to Improve Thermal Efficiency Basically, the sane principle fs used today, but @ number of developments have taken place which have brought about a much improved thermal efficiency. These developments include the use of ¢ closed cycle incorporating a condenser, feed water heaters, economiser, steem superheaters and an air preheater. Also, the turbine now largely supersedes the reciprocating steem eneine because of its greater capacity and improved efficiency. A further developnent which hes improved thermal efficiency has been the use of higher steam pressures and temperatures. Also, many modern boilers ‘Incorporate reheaters, which boost the tenperature of the turbihe HP exhaust steam before It enters the next stage of the turbin 1.2.10 Typical Closed Cycle A siaplified diagran of a cycle in a present day power station is shown in Figure 1/6. This cycle is ‘closed’ and the working fluid (as stean or water) is used over and over again, In the bofler, the heat liberated by the conbustion of the fuel is absoryed into the water, causing it to bol] and form steam in the drum above the water level at a pressure for which the plant is designed. — This, steam is known as saturated steam and its tenperature is the sane as the temperature of the water in the drun. The steam then passes from the drum through the superheater, which is placed in the flue 2s path’ inside the boiler, and consequently heats the steam above its saturated tenperature, i.e. if superheats the steam. ‘The steam from the superheater passes to the turbine where it 1s. expanded through the turbine and’in doing so drives the rotor. After passing through the turbine the steam is exhausted to the condenser which maintains a low pressure at the turbine exhaust by cooling and condensing the stean to water. This water forms at the bottoa of the condenser and 1s drawn out. by the extraction pump. It then passes to the LP heater where it {s heated by stean bled from the Tow pressure end of the turbine. After the LP heater, the water passes through the boiler feed purp which raises the pressure to higher than boiler pressure. The high pressure water Is then heated in the HP heater, by high pressure steam bled froa the turbine, and is further heated in the economiser by the boiler flue gases before being finally discharged back into the boiler drum. 1.2.11 Energy Dlagran for Modern Plant (See Figure 1/6) Notwithstanding the improvenents made in thermal efficiency, there is stiTl a large amount of heat Jost at the turbine exhaust (usually referred to as heat rejected to the condenser) and consequently Targe quantities of cooling water are required. the water 1s usually pumped fron the sea or river or can be continuously recirculated through cooling towers or cooling ponds.HEAT LOSS IN EG ACFROM SURFACES CENERATOR ene | ourpuT AURILIARY Power ELECTRICAL ouTPuT ENERGY EJECTED TO CONDENSER COOLING WATER Figure 1/6 - Modern Type Power Station with Closed Cycle ra oon oe J 4 a a4 I 1 uco 7 i ce 1.2.12 Sumary The basic features of a steam power station are as represented by Figure 1/6. The combustion process converts the chenical energy in-the fuel to heat energy in the gaseous products of combustion. This heat energy {s transferred to feed water in the boiler, converting it into stean which is then used to drive the turbine and produce mechanical energy. The renaining energy in the stean is rejected to the circulating water where it 1s irretrievably lost, while the mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy by the generator. The condensed stean is returned to the boiler where the cycle 1s repeated. It can be seen that the plant must be considered as a whole and that each of the indivicual itens of plant which have been added, since the days of the sinple cycle, have a vital significance in the Proper functioning of the cycle and on the attainment of a high thermal efficiency. 1.3. HEAT, TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE 1.3.1 What fs Heat? Various experiments can show that there is a connection between heat and work. If a thin piece of fetal fs bent backwards and forwards several tines, the metal gets hot. If 2 piece of metal is, hammered quickly it will get hot. Energy has been expended in bending or hanmering the metal and some of this has produced heat. If a machine has been used to bond the metal, mechanical energy would have been expended, and sone of this energy would have produced heat. Now, since the mechanical energy expended canfot have been destroyed, it must have been converted into another forn and, as heat was produced, we can say — Heat is 2 fora of energy. 1.3.2 Sources of Heat ‘Among the various sources of heat available for use there are the following: a The Sun Most forns of heat energy used on the earth are, or have been derived fron the sun's radiation. b Chemicat Action Many chemical actions are acconpanted by the production of heat and placed first anong these Is combustion. When the carbon in coal and oxygen from the air unite, as when coal is burned, a large quantity of heat energy is given up. Another example fs when oxygen and acetylene are burned to produce the heat for welding. The heat of the human body 1s produced by the combination of the food eaten with the oxygen of the atr breathed. e Mechanical Sources 1 Friction 7 Of the mechanical sources of heat, friction is the chief. Contact between moving surfaces \wiTT produce heat, the amount depending upon the roughness of the materfals in contact, and ‘the forces pressing them together. Heat is produced in a badly lubricated bearing where ‘too much of the mechanical energy of the rotating shaft 1s used in overconing the frictional resistance of the bearing and 18 converted into heat. ii Percussion If a piece of metal or an anvil is repeatedly struck with a hamer, it wi7l get warm. For example, the striker of a toy pistol generates enough heat to start off the chenical action of firing the cap. 441 Compression If a gas is compressed, as, for instance, the air in the body of a bicycle punp when a tyre 4s being inflated, it will be noticed that the bottom of the pump and the connection get hot. Thus, compressing a gas causes it to get hot and compression is a source of heat. In the case’of the bicycle pump, sone of the mechanical energy used to depress the plunger 15 converted into heat.iv Electric Current, If an electric current is passed through a suitable wire as in an electric radiator, heat is produced. In an electric lamp, the source of Tight is the heat produced by electricity Flowing in the very fine wire forming the filament. Each of these various methods of producing heat is, in fact, really the conversion of one form of energy into another. In the examples given, chemical, mechanics] and electrical energy have, been converted into heat. Similarly, by various eviees and engines, hest eneray can be coyverted snvo mechanical eneray. In ‘the production of electrical energy, which is the purpose of generating stations, this conversion process is carried out in several stages until the chemical eneray stored in the coal has seer converted into electrical energy. Al] the chemical energy in the coal is not converted Into electrical energy, sone is wasted in heat energy which so far cannot be used, Such as the heat which escapes up the stack in the flue gases or the heat which is contained in the circulating water From the ‘condensers and passes into rivers or the sea, but, although sone energy escapes capture end coes no useful work, it 15 known where it has gone and that it has not ceen destroyed” 1.3.3 Effects of Heat lihen heat {s apptiad to a substance, it produces sone definite effects = It may change the dinensions and hence the volune of the sunstance. If heat is added to a Substance, swelling or expansion usually occurs, whereas {f rest is taken away of the substance cooled, contraction or shrinking usually takes place. f 1t causes the substance to becone hotter, by which is meant that its temperature rises. It way change the state of the substance. As heat is added td 2 metal, such as lead, it changes from its solid state to « liquid. Water, when very cold, is the solid called ice. As heat is added, so the ice will change its state to a Tiquid, water, and when still more heat is added, it will turn into © vapour, steam. ALT power station plant which might be subjected to a variation in the quantity of heat added to it ‘1s dastgned to take into account these various effects of heat. In the ‘case of steam pipes, for example, expansion Yoops or joints are incorporated to allow the steel in the pipe zo change ts, ‘easurenents and expand, without causing danage by breskage, The forces involved are so great that if this movenent were restricted, fracture of the metal could resvit, 1.3.4 Difference Between Heat and Terperature One of the effects of the addition of heat mentioned above, is that it causes a substance to get hotter, thet is, its temerature rises. The difference between heat and tenperature must now be clearly understdod. ‘To demonstrate this difference between heat and temperature, consicer 2 can containing five kg of boiling water. If one kg is poured into a smaller can, 1% will ieave four kg sn the larger ove The water in each of these cans is at the sane degree of hotness or, as it is usually put, their temperatures ere the sane, However, it is easy to appreciate that the one kg of water in the mat] can contains only one quarter of the neat energy of that in the larger one which now holds four kg. Thus, whilst their temperatures are the sane, their heat energy contents are very different. This is shown by the diagram in Figure 1/7. 1.3.5 Temperature TEMPERATURE may be defined as the degree of hotness or coldness, véasured in relation to a particular zero point. Temperature Scales A number of different tenperature-scales are in use, the most relevant to use being the CELSIUS ‘scale. This scale. formerly known as the CENJIGRADE scale, has ite zero, at standard atmospheric. pressure, ab Testing point of water. Thus, 0°C 1s the freezing point of water, Also, a5 logically suggested by the original name of ‘Centigrads', the scale is based on one huncredth of 8 certain tenpere ture Tange. This, in fact, relates to,the range between freezing point and boiling point. Thus, boiling point in the Celsius Scale is 100°C. { ee =fac The Celsius scale has been adopted internationally 2s the principal scale of temperature measurement. Figure 1/10 illustrates this scale. Another well known temperature scale is the FAHENHEIT scale. Established by the German physicist Fahenheit, who developes the first mercury-in-glass themoneter in 1970, its use has diminished with the wider’ adoption of metric units. However, it will stiT1 be encountered and should be ungerstood. Inthe Fahenhelt gene the freezing point of water, st standard asmspheric pressure, ts 22" and the boiling poiat fs 212°, © .—BOILING POINT OF WATER ore HESEEE EEE LEE AE HH Ht es) ‘oer (0 NORMAL BOD, |__TEMPERATURE. 36:9° @ = z MERCURY THREAD ae oF es es) | Oxygen 9:5 23:39 20 [NE trogen 0:2 Odd os | Moisture 65.0, 33:00 20 & fash 0.85 78 1200 Explanations of quantities given in Table 1/3 - a Heat Value then a fuel is burned completely, a definite enount of heat is liberated. Laboratory equipment can be used to measure accurately the anqunt of heat produced by the conbustion of a known weight of fuel and so enable the Heat Value of the fuel to be determined. This 1s called the Gross Heat Value and $s usually expressed in terms of megajoute per kilogram of coal. b Noisture Content It 4s important to know the anount of moisture which is present in a coal. This is determined, in the laboratory, by heating a sanple of the coal in an oven so that ali the moisture is driven off. ‘The loss in weight of the coal sample is a measure of the anount of moisture present in the sample originally. A knowledge of the mo{sture content of brown coal 1s especially valuable, as a relatively small change in moisture content can have a marked effect upon the performance of the boiler plant in which the coal is burned. To illustrate the effect of percentage change on the ‘anount of moisture present with the coal, a SOX and a 67% moisture coal will be compared. In the 50x moisture coal, one kilogram of water's present with each kilogran of dry coal, whereas with the 67% moisture coal, two kilogram of water 1s present with each Kilogren of dry coal. The same percentage change of 17% fron 5% to 22%, an the other hand, represents only an Increase of 250 g of water for each kilogran of dry coat.FIG, 120 COMBUSTION WITH THEORETICAL AIR SUPPLIED, 04 KILOGRAMS OF AIR Figure 1/21 - Conbustion with 50% Excess Air ] Feet J ©) mm co J ey (de oy con oe oerfl L ¢ _Voatste taster wen a coal fs heated in an oven to a higher temperature than is required to determine the moisture i Content, gas will be driven e*t, A laboratory test in which a coat semple-ig heatee to 330°C and | Sho Toss f weight measured e's means ured 29 deterwine the amount of velatiie fatter present in 8 u coat. r 4 Fixed carbon (om Te combustible material remaining in the coal sample after the volatile matter has been driven off, is! referred to as the fixed carbon. e Ash The inconbustible material present in a coal, apart fron moisture, is referred to as ash, 1.4.3 Coal Analysis c The determination of those quantities listed in Part 2 of Table 1/3, is referred to as a ‘Proxinate’ analysis of a coal, and 4s a relatively quick and easy means of classification and of ascertaining the burning characteristics of a coal. The actual constituents or elenents present in the coal are determined by an ‘Uitinate' analysis of the coal. These are listed in Part 3 of the table. This Snformation is necessary in making calculations on the enount of air required, and on the products resulting fron combustion. A study of Table 1/3 shows that the calorific value of black coal, as represented by anthracite, is considerably higher than for brown coal. This is due principally to the lower moisture content of the black coal. The calorific value of briquettes illustrates this fact, as briquettes are essentially dried brow coal. ‘The volatile satter present, particularly when compared with the amount of fixed carbon, shows @ rrarked decrease with the age of the coal, and this results in the coals having very different. burning characteristics. t ( 1.4.4 Fuel of Nany theories have been put forward as to the origin of petroleum, but it 1s generally accepted that the raw material, from watch 1t as formed, was the bodies of marine aniaal organisns with sone : plant life. The otf may have been Gisttvied from these by the action of heat and pressure or by Sone sort of decomposition. The of1 pockets are usually found trapped in folds of the rocks u brought about by upheavals in the earth's crust. ‘The of1 is tapped for production by drii1ing down to the level at which it is found and by sinking 2 Pipeline. : A high proportion of gas is present and this is separated off at the well head, 2 large drum being y Used to partially reduce the pressure at which the gas and o11 cones up. ‘The crude petroteum undergoes a number of refining processes, either by distillation or other means, Lu and at each stage a different substance such as petrol and paraffin, lubricating oils, diesel oils, waxes and finally a residue fuel of1, 1s given up. {] It is the residue of the processing of the petroleum oils which is the fuel of} used for steam raising, and it amounts to about 40% by weight of the crude of1. ‘The calorific value or heating value of this fuel ofl is in the range 42 220 to 45 240 kilojoules/ fl kilogram. Certain properties of the of] are of very great importance and form a set of values to u which the fuels must conform. The most important of these is viscosity, or ease of flowing of the fuel ofl, and this is always related to a definite tenperature. The viscosity is taken as the tine, in seconds, for a certain yoluse of the fuel to pass through an orifice of definite dimensions at 2 specified tenperature. In this country, the result is oiven usually in readings of so many seconds a Redwood. Redwood is the scientist who established this method of testing for viscosity, and the u apparatus used bears his nane.” On the Continent, the Engler visconeter ts used, and in’Anerica, the Saybolt-Universet instrument is used. Viscosity’ changes rapidly with changes in the temperature of the fuel, for instance, a fuel off witch has a, viscosity of 600 Seccnés Reawood st 38°C, Will have a 1 viscosity of ebout 3 000 seconds Redwood at 16 u ‘The second factor of importance is the flash point, which is the temperature at which the air space above the off wil? contain sufficient ofT vapour to be ignited by a lane. This also ts determinad 7 inthe laboratory and for reasons of safety the lovest flash point recomended in this country 1s, i ere. Lo}The third important factor is the proportion of water present. Gecause of simitar densities, the separation of water from a heavy oi] can be difficult and so care should be taken to avoid this form of contamination. When exanining samples of of] fuels, the chemist will give the proportions of carbon, hydrogen and sulphur present as well as the calorific value, the viscosity, the flash point and the specific gravity. The specific gravity is the ratio of the mass of a given volume of the oil to that of an equal Volume of water at a temperature of 20°C. Generally speaking, the higher. the specific gravity of an oil, the greater is its heating value in kd/litre because there will be a higher weight of conbustible matter per litre. A typical sample of fuel of1 may contain @2 to 84 per cent carbon, 11 to 12.5 percent hydrogen and 2 to4 per cent sulphur, with small quantities of oxygen, nitrogen, water and ash. 1.5 COMBUSTION 1.5.1. Introductton Combustion can be regarded as the combination of oxygen and the fuel. Actually, to processes are involved, one is the chemical reaction and the other is the physical ixing of the oxygen and fuel with sufficient closeness of contact, tenperature and tine for the chemical reaction to be completed. 1.5.2 The Chenistry of Conbustion The principal conbusttble constituents of fuels are carbon and hydrogen. In considering the formation of fuels (Section 1.4) 1 was pointed out that energy from the sun was required to produce the substances forming the ceil structure of the plants, the fossil remains of whieh constituce the fuel deposits. | In combustion, the reverse action takes placa and eneray in the fon of heat 1s Liberated when the reactions occur. Oxygen is essential for combustion and the obvious source of this element is from the atnosphere. The process of conbustion can be considered dtagramatically, and this is shown in Figure 1/20 where one kilogram of coal 1s shown combining with just: suffictest air for complete conbustion. The coal selected is brown coal, the composition of which is given in Table 1/3 (see Section 1.4). The first fact which is evident from the diagram, fs that no loss of weight occurs in the process and that the wetght of the products of combustion {s equal to the weight of the coal plus the welght the afr required. A closer examination of the diagram will reveal thet the coal is made up of various substances, sone of which are conbustible, others non-conbustible; the latter pass through the process. w!thout contributing anything towards the production of heat. The nitrogen, which 1s the major constituent of the atmosphere, also passes through the process without reacting with other elenents. (Carson + Oxygen —+Carbon Dioxide) Hydrogen + Oxygan —+hater ) + Feat. Sulphur + Oxygen —+0xides of Sulphur) Conbustibie f Constituents { ‘The reactions, which take place between the conbustible constituents and oxygen, result in the formation of the new substances, carbon dioxide, water, oxides of sulphur and production of heat. In the particular coal selected for this example, the heat Tiberated would be equal to 8 650 kd which is the calorific value quoted in Table 1/3. ‘The products of conbustion consist of nitrogen, carbon dioxide, water and ash. The water present results both from the conbustion of the hydrogen and from the moisture present in the eos! initially. The anlaysis of the coal showed that a small amount of nitrogen vas present in the coal and this, would add to the nitrogen entering with the air, Oxygen was also present in the coal to the extent of 9.5% and this wauld reduce the amount of oxygen required fron the air. 1.5.3 Excess Air for Conbustion The foregoing example showed the reactions end the resulting products when the exact amount of air is Supplied to completely burn the fuel. In practice, it is impossible to so thoroughly mix the fucl and air that every particle of fuel is burned and at the same time use up every molecule of oxygen. Tt would be found that some combustible material would leave the furnace, carrying with ie energy which could be liberated as heat, end that some oxygen molecules would also leave unconbined. “Such conditions would be wasteful of fuel and would represent poor combustion. To provide more opportunities for fuel particles to cove in contact with oxygen, a greater number of molecules are provided and this is achieved by using an excess of air over the minimun theoretically required for complete combustion. a) J = 4 in UJ ca J cord cod jaa | i= a is)Figure 1/21 shows the products of conbustion resulting fron the combustion of the sane coai_as used previously, but with 808 excess.air. The dlagrans show also that the welght of the products of conbustion’have ‘increased by 37%. "In a botler, the gases are exhausted to the atnosphere at n temperature of between 150-260°C (according to he fuel used snd the type of botler).” These gases carry avay heat and the anoint of heat increases with an increase in the weight of gos dlecharced. If too such air tg supplied, there is a loss of heat or energy in the gases, if too little airs there 1s 2 loss of energy die te unburned fuel." Betveen these two conditions, there ts an anount + of excess air which represents the minimum loss from the botier and his is he condition’ which E Shovid be aited for tn good combustion. 1.5.4 Oxidation of Carbon Jn the diagrams, one rotecute of carbon is shown combining with one molecule of oxygen to give one potecule of carbon dioxide - for © +0; ———» 00 + Heat This equation represents the complete oxtdation of carbon. A partial oxtdatfon can occur, however co u when two molecules of carbon ine with one molecule of oxygen to give two molecules of carbon eeedae "ae 1 26+ Oy ——v200 + Hat us It has been found by experinents that when one kg of cerbon is burned to carbon dioxide, 33 850 kd are Tiberated. When burned to produce carbon monoxide, only 10 090 kd of heat are produced, {.e. only 30% of the possible anount of heat is obtained from the carbon, u ‘The existence of incomplete combustion would be shown up by the presence of carbon monoxide in the Flue’ cas and under such circunstance, traces of hydrogen would also be present. 7 {| 1.5.5 Oxidation of Sulphur “ Sulphur is similar to carbon in that it can be conpletely or partially oxidised to give sulphur a ‘trioxide or sulphur dioxide. u 25 + 30, ———+ 250, (sulphur trioxide) + Heat $40, ——— 50, (sulphur dfoxide) + Heat ‘The anount of sulphur present in a coal 1s of importance, not because of the heat produced by the sulphur, but because of the suiphur trioxide and sulphur ‘dioxide formed. hen these substances are present with water, a reaction takes place which results in the formation of acids, thus - H,0 + $0, ——+ H,50, (sulphuric acid) H,0 + $0, ———» H,50, (sulphurous acid) ) The First of these acids is well know as a strong acid which will corrode iron and steel. n~ Suiphurous acid is a weaker acid, and attacks these metals, but at a reduced rate. It 12 for this | veason that Flue gases are not normally cooled down to a témperature such that the water vapour u Prasant will condense, resulting in the formation of acids. 1.5.6 Haat Value of a Fue? u Table 1/4 gives the heat of conbustion of the elenents already montioned. Table 1/4 - Heat Values of Conbustibles rc Combustible Symbol Heat Value ka/kg 1 Hydrogen Hy 142 310 u carbon (to CO) c 10 090 Carbon to (C03) c 33850 Carbon Monoxide co 30 180 L Sulphur (to SO) s 9 120 Sulphur (to $05) s 13410 =mUsing the information shown in Table 1/4 and knowing the ultimate analysis, it 1s possible to calculate approxinately the heating value of a fuel. Using the ultimate analysis of the bituminous coal shown in Table 1/3, and calculating the heating value from the individual conbustible constituents, 2 figure of 31 110 kJ/kg is obtained. This agrees fairly closely with 30 390 ki/kg which was obtained by a laboratory determination. 1.5.7 Ignition Temperature The speed at which combustion takes place {s dependent upon the affinity of the combustible matter for oxygen and the conditions under which combustion takes place. The chief of these conditions is ‘that of tenperature. The were fact that oxygen is brought into the presence of a combustible Substance does not af necessity mean that conbustion will follow. Every combustible substance has a temperature called its ignition teaperature, to which it must be brought before ft will unite in chemical combination with oxygen and below which such combination will not take place. This ignition temperature must exist with oxygen present or there Will be no combustion. The ignition temperature of different conbustible substances varies greatly. These temperatures for varfous fuels and for the conbustibte constituents of the fuels Used in boiler practice are given in Table 1/5. Table 1/5 = Ignition Temperatures of Conbustibles Combustible Substances Notecular ignition Tenperatures Syboi °C (approximate) ‘Sulphur Ss 206 Fixed Carbon - Bituminous Coal - 410 Fixed Carbon - Anthracite Coal - 495 Acetylene He 480 Ethane Me 540 Ethylene Cally 550 Hydrogen Hy 610 Methane ch. 650 Carbon Monoxide co 655 It is of interest to note that the tenperatures of ignition of the gases of a coal vary from each other, and are considerably higher than the ignition temperature of the fixed carbon of the coals ‘The ignition temperature of coal is the ignition temperature of its fixed carbon content, since the gaseous constituents are ordinarily distilled off, though not ignited, before such temperature 1s attained. hen conbustion has started, the heat evolved in the oxidation of the conbustible matter will ‘maintain, under proper conditions, sufficiently high temperatures for further ignition. 1.5.8 Turbulence and Oxygen Concentration The speed at which conbustion takes plece also depends upon the rate of motion of the fuel relative to the surrounding gas and on the concentration of oxygen molecules in the surrounding gas. This fact can be better appreciated when it is realised that a particle of pulverised coal requires about 50 000 tines its own volune of air (measured at the tenperature and pressure of the furnace) for complete combustion. Relative motion is stimulated by high velocity at the burner and by turbulence in the furnace. Turbulence is particularly important towards the end of the conbustion process when both fuel and oxygen concentration have been reduced. 5 only a second or two are available ina PF boiler furnace for conbust ion to take place, it is obvious that the resieual oxygen concentration should be sufficient to give all unburned fuel molecules a chance to meet oxygen molecules, in the comparatively short tine available before the mixture is cooled below the ignition temperature or discharged froa the furnace. A measurement of the oxygen concentration in the gases provides a means of determining whether the correct anount of air is being admitted to efficiently burn the fuel. Operation of the boiler, with wore air than is necessary to give the mininun oxygen concentration, represents inefficient operation a air 1s supplied which 1s not necessary and carries away neat which could otherwise be used. Cece eect eed oo J = J