Journal of Energy Storage 82 (2024) 110556

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Journal of Energy Storage

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Research papers

Implementation of a double layer of PCM integrated into the building

exterior walls for reducing annual energy consumption: Effect of PCM
wallboards position
Amirhossein Refahi *, Abolfazl Rostami , Mohammad Amani *
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Arak University of Technology, Arak, Iran

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The implementation of phase change materials (PCMs) in the building envelope for thermal management has
Phase change material (PCM) grabbed the attention of many researchers. The PCM wallboards can be embedded in different positions in the
Residential building exterior walls of the building, and a distinct thermal performance of the building has been achieved. This paper
Thermal insulation
aims to simulate the heating/cooling performance of a four-story residential building located in Tehran (the
Double-layer PCM
capital of Iran), considering a double-layer of PCM wallboards next to the thermal insulation layer. This research
Energy consumption
Wall temperature variation examines the different positions of PCM wallboards within the building walls to establish their optimal location.
In addition, the advantage of using a double-layer of PCM wallboards with different melting points compared to a
single-layer one is studied. The results showed that the arrangement of PCM wallboards along with a thermal
insulation layer can influence the energy consumption of the building. The results revealed that height can affect
the placement of PCM wallboard and insulation layers. It was found that RT18/Insulation/RT28 is the best
arrangement for the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd floors, while RT28/RT18/Insulation is the best mode to be embedded in
the exterior wall of the 4th floor in terms of the lowest heating energy consumption in the building. Considering
the cooling energy consumption, RT18/RT28/Insulation is the best arrangement for the 1st floor; RT18/Insu­
lation/RT28 is the best arrangement for the 2nd and 3rd floors; and RT28/RT18/Insulation is the best
arrangement for the 4th floor. In general, using the best conditions for each floor saves about 6.6 % and 2.8 % of
heating and cooling energy, respectively.

method involves the integration of PCM into construction materials,

such as plaster and concrete, without the requirement of additional
1. Introduction
equipment. Common uses of a passive TES system involve the incorpo­
ration of PCM into various architectural elements such as walls, floors,
Thermal energy storage (TES) systems that employ phase change
and ceilings. Conversely, an active storage system is primarily distin­
materials (PCMs) offer a viable means of effectively storing energy for
guished by the phenomenon of forced convection heat transfer, and in
subsequent utilization. The suitability of PCMs for building applications
certain instances, mass transfer.
is attributed to their high energy density and isothermal performance
There are many research studies evaluating thermal performance of
[1]. The energy analysis of buildings that are integrated with PCMs is
building integrated with PCM. Anter et al. [6] examined the extended
heavily influenced by several factors. These factors include the melting
thermal performance of a building wall in Aswan, Egypt, throughout the
point, thermal properties, location, and quantity of PCM incorporated
hot summer season, comparing scenarios with and without the incor­
within the building. Additionally, the climatic conditions and design of
poration of PCM. The findings indicated that the use of PCMs leads to a
the building also play a significant role [2]. Thermal comfort typically
reduction in indoor heat flux and indoor wall temperature. Among the
falls within the range of 22–27 ◦ C during summer and 18–25 ◦ C during
PCMs tested, RT-35HC demonstrated the highest level of thermal per­
winter [3]. In order to ensure thermal comfort within the building
formance. Zahir et al. [7] reviewed the utilization of PCMs in the realm
sector, it is essential to select a PCM with a melting temperature ranging
of building materials, focusing on their selection and applications spe­
from 18 to 27 ◦ C [4]. PCMs have the capability to be incorporated into
cifically in hot weather conditions. The analysis underscores certain
buildings through either passive or active means [5]. The passive TES

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: refahi@arakut.ac.ir (A. Refahi), m.amani@arakut.ac.ir (M. Amani).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2024.110556
Received 7 November 2023; Received in revised form 2 January 2024; Accepted 11 January 2024
Available online 23 January 2024
2352-152X/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Refahi et al.
Nomenclature
Cp Specific heat (J/kg.K)
Fgro The view factor of ground
Fsky The view factor of sky dome
h convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m2.K)
I(t) Plaster heat transfer (kJ)
k Conductive heat transfer coefficient (W/m.K)
Lh Special latent heat (kJ/kg)
Q Thermal energy for heating or cooling the building (kJ)
Q̇t Heat flux (kW)
T Temperature (◦ C)
Tm Melting temperature (◦ C)
w(t) Wind velocity (m/s)
x Width (m)
GPA General point average
limitations, such as the constrained utilization of solar energy, and ex­
plores prospects for future research endeavors and technological de­
ficiencies. Nair et al. [8] provided a comprehensive analysis of domestic
thermal heating applications utilizing PCM. They explored innovative
methodologies, key considerations, and the range of available PCMs.
Gao and Meng [9] reviewed critically the utilization of PCM bricks in the
context of building construction, with a specific emphasis on their
thermal performance, integration techniques, and factors that impact
their effectiveness.
Recently, several pieces of research have been dedicated to the in­
fluences of the PCM layer location on the overall performance of the
building. Al-Absi et al. [10] reported that the optimal position of the
PCM layer is highly-dependent on the climatic condition, application
purpose, PCM melting temperature, fusion heat, mass of PCM, wall
material thermophysical properties, mechanical heating/cooling, and
wall orientation. Zwanzig et al. [11] showed the importance of PCM
layer placement using the numerical simulation method. The re­
searchers demonstrated that the most advantageous place for incorpo­
rating PCM layer within building walls is contingent upon the resistance
values existing between the external boundary conditions and the PCM
layer. According to works of Jin et al. in Ref. [12] and Ref. [13], the
placement of a PCM layer within a wall is influenced by both the thermal
properties of the PCM and external conditions. The researchers made the
observation that as the melting temperature, fusion heat, and the
thickness of the PCM increase, the best placement of the PCM within the
wall tends to shift towards the outer surface. Conversely, when the
temperature of the inner surface increases, the best PCM placement
moves closer to the inner surface.
According to a significant number of researchers, it is recommended
to position the PCM layer in closer proximity to the heat energy source.
In their study, Jahangir Khan et al. [14] conducted an investigation into
various placements of the PCM layer within the structure of a building
wall. The objective of their research was to determine the most advan­
tageous position for the PCM layer. The findings indicated that posi­
tioning the PCM layer in closer proximity to the heat source, specifically
the inner surface of the wall, as opposed to placing the PCM layer near
the outer surface, yields marginally improved thermal efficiency and
reduced temperature fluctuations. Mankibi et al. [15] implemented a
PCM layer on the inner surfaces of all walls, covering all directions. It
was observed that the solar radiation exhibited diminished percepti­
bility irrespective of the orientation. The best PCM placement for west-
facing and south walls in Lawrence, Kansas was experimentally evalu­
ated by Lee et al. [16]. The findings of this study showed that the PCM
placement at a position corresponding to1/5 and 2/5 of the wall
thickness in the west-facing and south-facing orientations has yielded
the most significant reduction in heat flux. Specifically, the heat flux
2
Journal of Energy Storage 82 (2024) 110556
Greek letters
αs Absorptivity of the exterior plaster
β Sky radiation coefficient
ε Emissivity of the exterior plaster
ϑ The tilt angle of the wall (◦ )
ρ Density (kg/m3)
σ Stefan-Boltzmann constant
Subscripts
gro Ground
ex External
in Internal
H Heat
m Melting
S Absorptivity
reduction achieved was up to 51.3 % for the south-facing wall and 29.7
% for the west-facing wall. Kong et al. [17] numerically studied two
PCM systems, including the capric acid contained in the panels located
on the interior and exterior surfaces of the building. It was reported that
the inner panel outperformed the outer one, especially in natural
ventilation conditions. Jin et al. [18] utilized a PCM that was positioned
between two aluminum foil layers for protection. The researchers
demonstrated that the most favorable placement for a PCM layer was at
a distance equivalent to one-fifth of the wall thickness from the inner
surface of the walls. In contrast, Cao et al. [19] found that positioning
the PCM layer in closer proximity to the external environment yielded
greater efficacy. A numerical model was employed to assess the heat
transfer performance of a residential dwelling in the Oslo of Norway.
The model incorporated multi-layer walls that incorporated advanced
PCMs. Additionally, it was demonstrated that augmenting the thickness
and diminishing the insulation layer's thermal conductivity yielded a
substantial decrement in the energy consumption of buildings.
According to certain studies, it has been suggested that positioning
the PCM layer in the center of the wall can result in improved overall
building performance throughout the year [20]. According to the
Ref. [12], the PCM layer placement should be on the exterior of the
building for cooling purposes, whereas for heating purposes, it is sug­
gested to install it in closer proximity to the interior. Fateh et al. [21]
and Fateh et al. [22] conducted a comprehensive investigation involving
numerical simulations and empirical analyses to assess the impact of a
PCM layer on the heat flux and temperature profiles of lightweight walls.
The most significant reduction in energy consumption (approximately
15 %) was observed when the PCM was positioned in close proximity to
the central region of the wall.
The best PCM layer placement is remarkably impacted by the
melting temperature of said layer. Lagou et al. [23] performed a nu­
merical investigation to determine the optimal placement of PCM within
the building envelope. They also sought to identify the most suitable
melting temperature for PCM in 6 distinct European cities during both
winter and summer seasons. It was demonstrated that embedding the
PCM layer into the interior surface of the walls is recommended for all
cases and conditions. Furthermore, it is recommended that PCM exhibits
a melting point of 20, 11, and 16 ◦ C in northern, central, and southern
locations of European cities in order to achieve optimal thermal per­
formance, respectively. Darvishi et al. [24] conducted a numerical
investigation to determine the optimal placement of three distinct types
of PCMs with melting points of 21, 23, and 25 ◦ C. The investigation
focused on two cities in Iran, which experience contrasting weather
conditions. The researchers reached the conclusion that incorporating
PCM in the central region of the indoor space, either by placing it
directly or in close proximity, leads to a reduction in thermal load and an
A. Refahi et al.
increase in energy conservation on a yearly basis, irrespective of pre­
vailing weather conditions. A subsequent investigation demonstrated
that the utilization of PCMs within the wall exhibited greater efficacy
when the phase change temperature of PCMs closely aligned with the
indoor temperature [25].
According to the above-mentioned studies, several factors such as
climate, solar radiation intensity, wall material and orientation, me­
chanical heating/cooling, and mass, fusion heat, and melting point of
PCMs have influence on the optimal location of PCM layer. In this paper,
the optimal location of a double layer PCM system considering various
PCMs along with a thermal insulation integrated with a multi-story
residential building in Tehran was investigated. The energy consump­
tion assessments of employing double-PCM system next to the insulation
layer with different positions within a building located in Iran have been
conducted for the first time. In this study, how to configure the PCM
layers and thermal insulation in the external walls and their effective­
ness on the energy consumption of the building was analyzed for the first
time. The effect of increasing the height on the thermal performance of
the building was discussed and the best combination and arrangement
for each floor was presented.
2. Methodology
2.1. Building model
In this study, a residential building was considered for the simula­
tion. This building has four floors. The rectangular building with the
dimensions of 7.5 m × 14 m was considered. There was a 2 m × 3 m
rectangular staircase, which was ignored in the simulation. In addition,
the floor to ceiling height of each floor was 3 m. The aforementioned
structure is equipped with a dining room, a toilet, a bathroom, a kitchen,
and two bedrooms. In each bedroom, there exists a window with di­
mensions of 1.5 m in width and 1.3 m in height, positioned at a distance
of 1.3 m from the floor. The kitchen is equipped with a window that
measures 2 m in width and 1.3 m in height. The window is positioned at
a distance of 1.3 m from the floor. The dining room is equipped with two
windows, each measuring 3 m in width and 1.3 m in height. These
windows are positioned at a distance of 1.3 m from the floor. The win­
dows were strategically positioned on all four facades of the structure.
The insulation material is located within the intermediate layer of the
roof as well as the outer walls. For simulating the PCM layer within the
building envelope, the PCM was conceptualized as a 4-cm thick layer
positioned between the insulation and plasterboards. Fig. 1 depicts a
representation of the model created using SketchUp software.
In this work, a double-layer of PCM system has been investigated. To
avoid the increase in cost due to the application of two layers of PCM,
Fig. 1. Model drawn with SketchUp.
3
Journal of Energy Storage 82 (2024) 110556
the thickness of the PCM layers in the double-layer system was consid­
ered to be half of that in the single-layer case. Moreover, thermal insu­
lation can be placed between the PCM layers.
2.2. Walls and studied PCMs characteristics
The analysis employed Rubitherm (RT) PCM, which possesses a
melting point range spanning from 10 to 90 ◦ C. The PCMs that are
formed in the RT category are known as organic materials. The process
of solid-to-liquid melting, and its reverse, is employed to effectively
store and release substantial quantities of thermal energy within a
relatively consistent temperature range. Different temperatures can be
taken into consideration for heat storage applications based on the
melting point of the materials involved. The properties of PCMs being
investigated are presented in Table 1, as referenced by [26]. Moreover,
phase change hysteresis settings were used in EnergyPlus software to
simulate PCM characteristics. Table 2 displays the input data entered
into the EnergyPlus software.
In Table 3, the materials used in the building model are listed along
with their characteristics. The insulation employed in this work is a
polyisocyanurate cellular insulation. This insulation has a thermal
conductivity coefficient of 0.02 W/(m K) and a specific heat capacity of
0.92 kJ/(kg K). Its advantages include resistant to corrosion and wear,
extremely-low heat transfer coefficient, weight lightness, suitable
strength-to-weight ratio, change in density from 30 to 700 kg/m3, the
ability to inject, mold and cut accurately. Its disadvantages include the
need for more thicknesses and diameters for insulation (compared to
other cold insulations such as elastomeric ones), decreasing its thermal
resistance due to the increase of working temperature, and producing
poisonous gases in case of fire and flaming [27].
Fig. 2 shows the different placement of different layers of materials
next to each other.
2.3. HVAC system description
In the modeling, a thermostat with a temperature range of 23 to
25 ◦ C was considered for controlling the indoor air temperature in the
building. Additionally, a specific time schedule was used for managing
the presence of individuals and the lighting levels throughout the day. In
total, for the four floors, a total of 17 people were considered, with an
average of 4 to 5 individuals living on each floor. A designated schedule
using the “Schedule:compact” settings was implemented for the pres­
ence of these individuals. The same settings were applied for lighting as
well. Approximately 0.6 to 1 W/m2 was considered for lighting. This
value is the default value in the EnergyPlus software based on the
ASHRAE standard.
A. Refahi et al. Journal of Energy Storage 82 (2024) 110556

Table 1
The characteristics of PCMs employed in the context of external walls.
PCMs Melting point Heat storage capacity (kJ/ Conductivity (W/(m Solid density (kg/ Liquid density (kg/ Melting and congealing area
(◦ C) kg) K)) m3) m3) (◦ C)

RT 28 HCa 28 250 0.2 880 770 27–29

RT 25 HC 25 210 0.2 880 770 22–26
RT 22 HC 22 190 0.2 880 770 20–23
RT 18 HC 18 260 0.2 880 770 17–19
a
The latent heat capacity of RT HC products is observed to be 25–30 % higher in comparison to conventional RT materials, and they exhibit a narrower temperature
range for melting.

mode, allowing for the consideration of the impact of neighboring

Table 2
buildings on the modeled building. Thus, EnergyPlus incorporates the
Information on PCMs included in EnergyPlus.
effects of other buildings on the modeled building through adjustments
Unit RT18 RT22 RT25 RT28 in wind speed.
Latent heat during J/kg 260,000 190,000 230,000 260,000
the entire phase
2.4. Climate conditions
change process
Liquid state W/ 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
thermal m.K Tehran province has Bwk climate based on Koppen climate classifi­
conductivity cation, which is related to hot and dry climate, where evaporation rate is
Liquid state kg/ 770 770 770 770 higher than precipitation rate [28]. Calculations have been done for one
density m3
year and using special meteorological information files for Tehran. Fig. 3
Liquid state J/ 2000 2000 2000 2000
specific heat kg.K shows the temperature data of Tehran. GPA in the figure stands for
High temperature Δ◦ C 2 3 4 2 general point average.
difference of
melting curve
Peak melting ◦
C 18 22 25 28
2.5. The governing equations
temperature
Low temperature Δ◦ C 2 3 4 2 Two methods can be employed to simulate the influence of PCM on
difference of the energy consumption of buildings: the enthalpy-temperature (h-T)
melting curve
curve method and the hysteresis method. The hysteresis method is
Solid state thermal W/ 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
conductivity m.K considered to be more precise in comparison to the h-T curve method.
Solid state density kg/ 880 880 880 880 Using the h-T curve, the EnergyPlus software simulates the character­
m3 istics of the PCM in the phase change area based on this diagram.
Solid state specific J/ 2000 2000 2000 2000 However, in the hysteresis method, according to the user's inputs and
heat kg.K
High temperature Δ◦ C 2 3 4 2
entering information such as melting/freezing point temperatures,
difference of specific heat capacity, phase change temperature ranges and other pa­
freezing curve rameters, the software starts modeling the PCM characteristics.
Peak freezing ◦
C 17 22 25 27 Eq. (1) represents the mathematical expression for the transient heat
temperature
transfer in one dimension, which was employed to determine the
Low temperature Δ◦ C 2 3 4 2
difference of amount of heat transferred through the external wall comprising single-
freezing curve phase PCM wallboards in either liquid or solid form.

∂T ∂2 T
ρC p =k 2 (1)
In this study, the conduction finite difference method (CondFD) was ∂t ∂x
used in the heat balance algorithm. Additionally, the TARP algorithm The hysteresis model was used in this study because it predicts the
was employed for heat transfer between the wall surface and the indoor PCM characteristics more accurately. Convection heat transfer in molten
space, while the DOE-2 algorithm was used for heat transfer between the PCM is considered to be insignificant [29]. Eq. (2) was employed to
wall surface and the outdoor air. The influence of temperatures in other calculate the phase transfer process:
floors was taken into account, considering the thermal interaction be­
tween different zones. Moreover, in EnergyPlus software, the “object: ∂T ∂2 T ∂f
ρC p = k 2 − LH (2)
building” feature was utilized, and the building location was set to “city” ∂t ∂x ∂t

Table 3
Materials employed in the building.
Material Thickness (m) Density (kg/m3) Conductivity (W/(m K)) Specific heat (J/(kg K))
a
Exterior wall Gypsum board 0.019 800 0.16 1090
Polyisocyanurate insulation 0.025 32 0.02 920
Brick-fired clay 0.102 1920 0.895 790
Interior wall Gypsum board 0.019 800 0.16 1090
Gypsum board 0.019 800 0.16 1090
Roofa Gypsum board 0.019 800 0.16 1090
Roof insulation 0.2105 265 0.049 836.8
Lightweight concrete 0.1016 1280 0.53 840
Floora Acoustic tile 0.0191 368 0.06 590
Lightweight concrete 0.1016 1280 0.53 840
a
Thermal resistance for all walls, roof, and floor was considered 0.15, 0.18, and 0.18 W/(m.K).

4
A. Refahi et al. Journal of Energy Storage 82 (2024) 110556

Fig. 2. Different modes of placement of PCM layers and insulating layer in the external wall.

In this context, the function f(t) represents the liquid fraction as ⃦ ⃒

⃦
computed in Eq. (3). ⃦ − k ∂T ⃒⃒ = h (t)[T (t) − T (t) ]
⃦
⎧ ⃦ ∂x ⃒x=0 ex air ex
⃦
⎨ f (t) = 0; For T(x.t) < Tm ⃦ [ ] [ ] (4)
f (t) = 0 < f (t) < 1; For T(x.t) = Tm (3) ⃦ +εσ Fsky β Tsky (t)4 − Tex (t)4 + εσ Fsky (1 − β) Tair (t)4 − Tex (t)4
⎩
f (t) = 1; For T(x.t) > Tm [ ]
+εσ Fgro Tgro (t)4 − Tex (t)4 + αS I(t)
Eq. (4) describes the boundary conditions on the outer surface of the
wall of the building: where, σ , ε, and αS are the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, emissivity, and
absorption coefficients of external gypsum, respectively. Tgro(t) repre­
sents the temperature of the earth, which was considered as 18 ◦ C in the
modeling. The radiation factor from the sky and outside air is considered
β. The shape factors denoted as Fgro and Fsky represent the ratios between

5
A. Refahi et al. Journal of Energy Storage 82 (2024) 110556

Fig. 3. Tehran air temperature for various months of the year.

the outer wall surface and the ground (Fgro ) and the outer wall surface
∑
P
and the sky (Fsky ). Q=n Q̇(t)Δt (11)
t=0
(1 − cosϑ)
Fgro = (5) In the given equation, the variables P and n denote the number of
2
seconds per day and the number of days per month, respectively. For the
(1 + cosϑ) purpose of this calculation, the values of n and P were assumed to be 30
Fsky = (6)
2 and 86,400, respectively.

where, the variable ϑ represents the angle of inclination of the wall in

relation to the horizontal plane, which is at a 90◦ angle. The external 2.6. Validation
convection heat transfer coefficient (hex) depends on the wind speed
(w(t)), which can be calculated by: Numerical simulations were conducted using EnergyPlus v9.6. The
hex (t) = 6 + 4w(t) (7) aforementioned software is a robust building energy simulation program
designed to accurately model and analyze the energy performance of
The temperature of the sky was calculated by Eq. (8): various types of buildings. EnergyPlus utilizes the functionalities of both
the DOE-2 and BLAST software programs. It offers several notable fea­
(8)
32 /
Tsky (t) = 0.0552(Tair (t) )
tures, including integrated loads, heat balance load calculations,
Boundary conditions on the inner surface of the wall were calculated simultaneous building and system calculations, customizable de­
by Eq. (9). scriptions of HVAC systems, user-friendly input and output data formats
⃒ for easy visualization of results, simulation of PCMs, and modeling of
∂T ⃒
− k ⃒⃒ = hin [Tin (t) − Troom ] (9) materials with varying thermal conductivity. There exist numerous al­
∂x x=Lw
ternatives for algorithms pertaining to convection on exterior and
interior surfaces, as well as advanced techniques for multi-zone air flow,
in which hin is the total heat transfer coefficient between the air inside
room air, ventilation, and infiltration calculations. Additionally, there
the building and the inner surface of the wall. The indoor air tempera­
are methods available for evaluating environmental emissions and
ture (Troom ) is adjusted by a thermostat that works in the temperature
conducting comprehensive economic assessments, encompassing energy
range of 23–25 ◦ C. A temperature of 23 ◦ C was considered for hot sea­
and life cycle costs. In order to replicate the behavior of PCM within the
sons and a temperature of 25 ◦ C for cold seasons.
EnergyPlus simulation, it is recommended to employ the CondFD algo­
The calculation of the overall heating/cooling energy required to
rithm, as suggested by Ref. [30]. The approach discretizes the building
sustain the desired room temperature is derived from the heat transfer
envelope into distinct nodes, that may be selectively incorporated based
rate occurring between the room and the surface of the wall, as
on the desired level of precision. It then solves the heat transfer equa­
expressed in Eq. (10).
tions utilizing the finite difference method (FDM), allowing for the se­
{
hin [Troom − Tin (t) ] For heating periods lection of either the fully implicit or Crank-Nicholson approaches. For
Q̇(t) = (10)
hin [Tin (t) − Troom ] For cooling periods considering the specific heat change caused by the phase transition
process, the CondFD method is coupled with some PCM-related pa­
Eq. (11) shows the energy demand for each month for heating or rameters such as density, melting point temperature, heat capacity,
cooling: temperature difference between melting and freezing curves and other
parameters in two different solid and liquid states. An implicit iterative
scheme is used for CondFD [30].

6
A. Refahi et al. Journal of Energy Storage 82 (2024) 110556

Many researchers [31–33] compared the output results of Ener­ Table 5

gyPlus software with experimental results, to check the validity of the Physical properties of the Knauf smartboard containing PCM proposed
results. For example, Liu et al. [34] conducted two field tests in a typical by Ref. [35].
office building to validate the outputs of Energy Plus software. The Physical property Value
initial input parameters and building's geometry in EnergyPlus were Specific heat 1.2 kJ/kg K
accurately derived from the actual physical characteristics of the Thermal conductivity at 20 ◦ C 0.20 W/m K
structure, including the building envelope, outdoor weather conditions, Thermal conductivity at 35 ◦ C 0.19 W/m K
and operational settings. The findings indicate that the simulated out­ Shift range of the PCM 23 ◦ C or 26 ◦ C
Enthalpy of fusion of the PCM 110 J/g
comes exhibit a high level of concordance with the experimental results,
Latent heat capacity ΔH 330 kJ/m2
demonstrating an acceptable level of accuracy.
For model validation, the paper by Saffari et al. [35] has been used as
a benchmark. This paper presented an optimization method based on
Table 6
simulation using a combination of EnergyPlus and GenOpt. The method
Comparison of our modeling results with those obtained by Ref. [35].
utilized an innovative heat-temperature (h-T) oscillation function to
determine the optimal melting temperature of PCMs. The main objective Our model Ref. [35] Difference (%)
of the study proposed by Ref. [35] was to improve the cooling, heating, Annual energy consumption (kWh) 162,466 167,072 4.015 %
and annual energy consumption performance of a residential building
under different climatic conditions based on the Köppen-Geiger classi­
fication. They simulated a four-story average-sized apartment building 3. Results and discussion
with a total area of 3100 m2 located in Stockholm, Sweden. Each floor of
this building consisted of four residential units and one corridor. The A total of 45 different cases with different PCMs listed in Table 1
first floor also included an office area with different occupancy periods. were analyzed for each floor. According to the results obtained from the
The shape of the building was rectangular with dimensions of 46.32 m simulation, two PCMs of RT18 and RT28 showed better performance
and 16.91 m and an aspect ratio of 2.74. The window-to-wall ratio was than other ones. Therefore, for ease of presentation of results and better
20 %, and the ceiling height was 3 m from the floor. The building uti­ understanding, only the cases in which these two PCMs were used have
lized a steel frame structure, and complete insulation has been applied to been stated.
the roof deck and exterior walls. In this study, two layers of PCMs with different melting points, along
A HVAC system consisting of a Packaged Terminal Heat Pump with a thermal insulation layer were employed in a four-story building
(PTHP) with a constant volume control fan, a DX cooling coil, and an located in Tehran, Iran. The use of a dual-layer of PCMs is a novel
electric heat pump was selected. To coordinate with user scheduling and innovation that has not been fully explored by researchers, and further
indoor air quality control, dual-setpoint thermostats with operational studies in this area are needed. Additionally, the optimal placement of
temperature control were used in all zones. The setpoint temperatures PCM plays a significant role in energy efficiency, and the importance of
for heating and cooling were set at 20 and 26 ◦ C, respectively, which are this aspect has been validated by studies mentioned in the Introduction
recommended values for residential buildings and living spaces. Addi­ section. Furthermore, the height of the building can create new condi­
tionally, the relative humidity ratios for dehumidification and humidi­ tions for PCM utilization compared to other levels due to factors such as
fication were set to 60 % and 25 %, respectively, to meet the design intense radiation, wind speed, the influence of shading from other
criteria for humidity in occupied spaces. To integrate the PCM into the buildings on lower floors, and energy transfer from other floors. In the
building, PCM gypsum boards were installed on the inner surface of the future, research can be further expanded to focus more precisely on
exterior walls and roof. For this purpose, Knauf smartboard containing walls in different sections of the building to provide better insights into
PCM with approximately 30 % by weight of paraffin was used. Table 4 the performance of dual-layer PCMs with different melting points in tall
shows external vertical walls and roof construction properties with in­ buildings. Additionally, the partial examination of the impact of other
clusion of PCM. Moreover, physical properties of the Knauf smartboard PCMs on energy savings in buildings can be considered.
containing PCM are listed in Table 5.
The comparison of our modeling results with those obtained by
3.1. Annual cooling/heating energy consumption
Ref. [35] has been displayed in Table 6, which shows that EnergyPlus
can precisely predicts the energy performance of buildings integrated
The amount of cooling and heating energy consumption of the
with PCMs.
simulated building for one year for Tehran city is presented in Tables 7
and 8. In these tables, the numbering is arranged in the order of the
layout from the interior to the exterior of the building wall. The analysis
examined the relationship between building height and energy perfor­
Table 4 mance. Results showed that heating energy consumption decreases as
External vertical walls and roof construction properties proposed by Ref. [35].
Material d (m) λ (W/m ρ (kg/ Cp (J/ R (W/ Table 7
K) m3) kg K) m2 K) Annual heating energy consumption [kWh] of the building.
Exterior Stucco 0.0254 0.72 1856 840 – Modes Floor
walls Gypsum 0.0159 0.16 800 1090 –
1st Floor 2nd Floor 3rd Floor 4th Floor
board
Insulation – – – – 1.036 Without PCM 10,438.2 9674.9 9492.1 10,069.3
PCM 0.0125 0.20 800 1200 – RT18/Insulation 9835.0 9306.2 9155.2 10,366.8
Gypsum 0.0159 0.16 800 1090 – Insulation/RT18 10,204.7 9660.4 9487.6 9973.0
board RT28/Insulation 9710.0 9194.3 9071.5 9959.2
Roof Built-up 0.0095 0.16 1120 1460 – Insulation/RT28 9691.8 9179.4 9048.7 9845.1
roofing RT18/RT28/Insulation 9582.8 9070.7 8931.7 9834.1
Insulation – – – – 4.318 RT28/RT18/Insulation 9579.5 9062.5 8921.1 9813.9
PCM 0.0125 0.20 800 1200 – RT18/Insulation/RT28 9546.3 9040.7 8895.2 10,319.0
Metal 0.0008 45.28 7824 500 – RT28/Insulation/RT18 10,102.3 9578.3 9437.1 10,245.9
surface Insulation/RT18/RT28 10,038.7 9522.8 9362.0 10,372.7

7
A. Refahi et al. Journal of Energy Storage 82 (2024) 110556

Table 8 floors, which are sandwiched between other floors. This is due to the fact
Annual cooling energy consumption [kWh] of the building. that, unlike the 2nd and 3rd floors, the 4th floor can transfer heat not
Modes Floor only through the wall layers but also through the roof surface, resulting
in a greater heating load. Moreover, it was concluded that the applica­
1st Floor 2nd Floor 3rd Floor 4th Floor
tion of a double-layer of PCMs instead of a single-layer PCM wallboard
Without PCM 9950.2 11,825.9 12,299.6 12,146.1 saves the building energy consumption up to 50 %. The arrangement of
RT18/Insulation 9883.7 11,681.8 12,150.3 12,094.1
Insulation/RT18 9781.2 11,603.4 12,072.1 12,051.1
PCM wallboards along with the thermal insulation layer significantly
RT28/Insulation 9786.7 11,583.4 12,071.8 12,026.5 affects the building energy performance. To account for temperature
Insulation/RT28 9943.7 11,625.4 12,076.1 11,977.5 variations that occur with increasing building height and affect the
RT18/RT28/Insulation 9725.5 11,518.7 11,991.5 12,012.3 transmittance heat flux through exterior walls, each floor may require a
RT28/RT18/Insulation 9749.5 11,548.9 12,023.6 11,907.8
specific PCM with unique performance characteristics. This means that
RT18/Insulation/RT28 9909.6 11,499.9 11,944.3 12,044.5
RT28/Insulation/RT18 9751.2 11,564.7 12,047.5 11,957.5 each floor may have a different combination of PCM materials compared
Insulation/RT18/RT28 9922.5 11,538.8 11,984.6 11,950.8 to other floors. For example, the arrangement of RT18/Insulation/RT28
in the building envelope has the lowest heating energy consumption for
all floors. Additionally, this configuration exhibits the most minimal
building height increases, while cooling energy consumption increases. energy consumption for cooling purposes on floors two, three, and four.
Additionally, in summer, the mean radiant temperature increases with The optimal configuration to minimize cooling energy consumption on
building height due to high solar altitude [35]. During sunny hours, the the ground floor is the combination of RT18/RT28/Insulation.
outside surface temperature of elevated apartments is higher, leading to Furthermore, it is concluded that the placement of the insulation in
increased indoor air temperatures and higher cooling energy con­ the outermost layer and the middle layer increases the building energy
sumption. Conversely, in winter, heating energy consumption decreases performance to a great extent. The placement of PCM wallboards ac­
with increasing building height due to the decrease in air temperature at cording to their melting points is also of great importance. For example,
higher elevations. The energy consumption for heating on the 4th floor, the arrangement of RT18/Insulation/RT28 has the lowest energy con­
which is located on the rooftop, is higher compared to the 2nd and 3rd sumption, while the arrangement of RT28/Insulation/RT18 is in the

Fig. 4. The temperature variation of the north exterior wall in the hottest day in Tehran. (a) 1st floor, (b) 2nd floor, (c) 3rd floor, and (d) 4th floor.

8
A. Refahi et al.
group of high energy consumption modes.
3.2. Exterior wall temperature variation
The examination of the surface temperature of the exterior walls
reveals that it varies with the number of floors. This variation is influ­
enced by factors such as solar radiation intensity, heating and cooling
systems, air density, and outdoor ambient temperature, which lead to
changes in heat flux. The results indicate that changes in height can lead
to either an increase or decrease in temperature due to environmental
factors such as solar radiation intensity. For instance, walls facing east or
west receive more solar radiation, resulting in higher temperatures with
increased height. Furthermore, the heat flux in each floor's wall differs
from that of other floors, and each wall has a unique heat flux. For
example, the temperature variations of the north exterior wall for the all
floors of the building on the coldest and hottest day of the year are
depicted in Figs. 4 and 5, respectively. PCM wallboard with a lower
phase change temperature has the capability to maintain a lower surface
temperature for an extended duration on the hottest day. Consequently,
this leads to heat gain decrement through the building envelopes. From
10:00 to 17:00, the exterior wall temperature increases drastically that
leads to the elevated temperature in the building. According to the re­
sults obtained from the simulation for the northern exterior wall, the two
cases with arrangements of RT28/Insulation and RT28/RT18/Insulation
have the lowest temperature in the temperature peak hours. Besides,
these two arrangements provide the most stable states for all four floors
of the building. For example, on the third floor at 13:00, the wall tem­
perature is 40.5 ◦ C for RT18/Insulation/RT28 mode.
In contrast, during the coldest day of the year, the utilization of a
PCM wallboard with a high phase change temperature can effectively
sustain the surface temperature at an elevated level. Consequently, this
mitigates the heat flux within the wall and extends the duration of the
decline in the building's temperature. During the time period from 22:00
Fig. 5. The temperature variation of the north exterior wall in the coldest day in Tehran. (a) 1st floor, (b) 2nd floor, (c) 3rd floor, and (d) 4th floor.
9
Journal of Energy Storage 82 (2024) 110556
to 04:00, the temperature of the wall reaches its minimum value. In this
case, the three arrangements of RT18/Insulation, RT18/Insulation/
RT28, and RT18/RT28/Insulation are the best modes in all four floors
because they have the highest temperature in these hours and have more
stability compared to other modes. For example, on the fourth floor at
24:00, it is 7.65 ◦ C in the mode of the latter one.
3.3. Energy savings
For determination of the amount of energy savings, the wall without
PCM and with thermal insulation is assumed as the benchmark condi­
tion. Fig. 6 shows the amount of cooling and heating energy savings for
all four floors in the building. According to this figure, it is observed that
employing the arrangements of RT18/Insulation/RT28 mode with 8.54
% energy saving and RT18/RT28/Insulation mode with 2.26 % energy
saving are the best arrangements in terms of heating and cooling energy
consumption, respectively. For the first floor, the best arrangement with
highest total energy savings of 4 % is RT18/RT28/Insulation mode. For
other floors, the best arrangement for both heating and cooling energy
savings is RT18/Insulation/RT28 mode with the highest amount of en­
ergy savings in the building. For example, for the second floor, the
heating and cooling energy savings are 6.55 % and 2.76 % respectively,
resulting in 4.22 % annual total energy savings.
4. Conclusion
The aim of this work was to investigate the placement of double
layers of PCM wallboards along with an insulation layer implemented in
the exterior walls of a four-story building placed in Tehran. The obtained
results showed that employing two layers of PCM with distinct melting
temperatures can decrease the energy consumption compared to the
single layer case. In addition, the location of PCMs and insulation layers
was also investigated. The simulation results showed that the placement
A. Refahi et al.
Fig. 6. The amount of heating and cooling energy savings of the building located in Tehran. (a) 1st floor, (b) 2nd floor, (c) 3rd floor, and (d) 4th floor.
of two layers of PCM in the exterior wall can affect the efficiency of
PCMs. The best arrangements were identified for each floor considering
the lowest heating/cooling building energy consumption. The results
demonstrated that the height can affect the placement of PCM wall­
boards and insulation layer. It was found that RT18/Insulation/RT28 is
the best arrangement for 1st, 2nd, and 3rd floors, while RT28/RT18/
Insulation is the best mode to be embedded in the exterior wall of 4th
floor in terms of the lowest heating energy consumption in the building.
Considering the cooling energy consumption, RT18/RT28/Insulation is
the best arrangement for the 1st floor, RT18/Insulation/RT28 is the best
arrangement for the 2nd and 3rd floors and RT28/RT18/Insulation is
the best arrangement for the 4th floor. It was understood that using the
best conditions for each floor saves about 6.6 % and 2.8 % heating and
cooling energy consumptions, respectively.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Amirhossein Refahi: Writing – review & editing, Supervision,
Project administration, Conceptualization. Abolfazl Rostami: Writing –
original draft, Visualization, Validation, Software, Investigation, Formal
analysis. Mohammad Amani: Writing – review & editing, Supervision,
Project administration, Conceptualization.
10
Journal of Energy Storage 82 (2024) 110556
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
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