Chapter 3: Agriculture and the environment

3.1 The soil

Soil is fundamental to the growth of plants and the success of all other living creatures. A person's standard
of living organism=quality of the soil= careful management to keep it in good conditions.
-What is soil?
Soils is a habitat for plants and other organisms that grow within it. Four main components
1. Mineral particles: combination of rock and fragments and other smaller inorganic items, like sand,
silt and clay.
2. Organic content: mixture between living plants and the dead remains.
3. Air: spaces (pores) between the particles and organic content of the soil
4. Water: plant to grow
Composition of a typical cultivated soil: volume of solid material will be excess of 50-60%. The pore spaces
will contain a mixture of water and air= the proportions will vary depending on the rainfall and the uptake of
water by the roots´ plants= this reduced by soil compaction.
● Soils have three layers called horizons:
1. Top soil: gains new material from the decomposition of trees and plants. Minerals may be
washed out this layer into horizons below by leaching
2. Subsoil: where material accumulates from horizons above and below
3. Bottom layer: contains loose pieces of rock, broken off from the parent rock below by
weathering.
-Where do the soil components come from?
The mineral particles occupy the largest volume within soil. The particles are formed from the weathering
and erosion of the parent rock (the underlying rock) = With the time the rocks are broken down into smaller
particles(weathering). The movement of these fragments is known as erosion.
● Physical weathering is often caused by frost, heat (expand and crack), water (expanding as it
freezes) and ice (weathering as they move through a valley=friction against the rock, wearing away)
or wind (blowing fragments of rock that collide with other rocks, wearing them away).
● Chemical weathering can be caused by Carbon Dioxide combining with water to form a weak acid=
Carbon acid. This acid can react with alkaline minerals in the rock crumble (desmoronarse). Acid
rain= attack the surface of the rock causing it to break down.
● Biological weathering is caused by processes such as the growth of plant roots into the cracks in
rocks=split open and break off in small fragments. Rocks can be broken by the movement of
animals across them. Organisms produce CO2+water=carbonic acid= weathering effect.
Many of the organisms present in soil have a role in the decomposition of these remains, releasing
nutrients available for use by plants. This and the movement of soil animals make channels that allow air
(diffusion) and water(precipitation/irrigation) to be held in the soil pores.
-Particle size/Soil texture
The size of the soil particles=how well it holds or drains water, its capacity to hold minerals, nutrients and
the ease with which the plants can grow in it and be cultivated.
➔ Sand: big particles between 0.02mm-2.00mm. They do not pack together easily, which means large
pores between the grains, which allows water, air and solid organism to move easily. (do not retain
water and minerals)
➔ Silt: smaller than sand between 0.002mm-0.02mm. Silky or soapy to the touch and when rubbed
between the fingers the particles slip over each other easily.
➔ Clay: smallest mineral, being smaller than 0.002mm in diameter. They pack closely together so this
reduces the ability of water to drain through the soil and the plants cannot take out roots because
when they dry out clay becomes hard and there is no space and makes the roots unable to absorb
the minerals. The perfect soil texture is the Loam soil→ a mixture of sand, silt and clay combining
in the same %
3.2 Soils for plant growth
● Important mineral nutrients to support plant growth
● Anchorage (anclaje) to hold the roots securely in one place
● A supply of water
● Oxygen around the roots to enable the root cell to respire.
The availability of mineral nutrients is one of the most important and one that a farmer can have control
over, by applying and using fertilizers.
-Minerals Ions
Plants are able to manufacture their own food(glucose) through photosynthesis. Farmers add fertilizers to
their crops because it is used as an energy source. Plants require a supply of nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium and other elements to construct protein. These mineral nutrients are typically obtained through
the roots of the plants. As N, P and K are not accessible to plants, so they are converted into compounds,
this means that now N, P, K are ions→NO3, PO3 and K that are dissolved in water so that the plant can
absorb it through their roots.
-Soil pH
The uptake of nutrients by plant roots is affected by the pH of the soil→ Acid or alkaline
The pH of a soil may be dependent on a number of factors→The type of parent rock the mineral component
is formed in or the pH of the water that flows into the area via rivers or lakes. The ideal range for a soil used
for farming is between 5.5 and 8.0
-Why is soil pH important?
Some plants fail to grow well in certain soils even if supplied with additional fertilizer=nutrient deficiency=
pH have an impact on the uptake of nutrients.
Every plant has its own preferred soil pH, and in some cases some ions are less available at certain soil pH
levels= nutrient deficiency. The farmer has two choices, to check the crop and look for deficiencies on a
regular basis and apply the relevant mineral nutrient or they could try to change the pH of the soil.
-Soil organic content
The organic content of the oil is a combination of living organisms and their dead remains. A range of
decomposers take part in complex interactions that eventually return the nutrients contained within dead
matter back into a form that is readily available to plants to use as nutrients.
● Earthworms (lombrizes) help to break down vegetation by digesting it and excreting the remains.
● Fungi feed directly on dead matter and are good at breaking down tough materials.
● Bacteria, convert waste products into simple chemicals
High levels of organic matter have the following positive effects
● Increase the water-holding capacity of a well-drained soil. The organic matter act as a sponge
absorbing water=less irrigation
● Increase the air spaces in the soil, this “sponge” allows air to penetrate
● Increase the number of decomposer organisms + abundant food source
● Prevent the loss of mineral nutrients. Some minerals nutrients are washed away (leached) in excess
water. Humus, the material left after organic matter has been partially decomposed, has the ability
to hold onto minerals nutrients until they are needed by plants.
-Sandy soils vs clay soils
The ideal soil is a mixture of sand, silt and clay with a high quantity of organic matter and neutral pH=loam
soil

Advantages and Clay soils Sandy soils

Disadvantages
Air content Clay soils have small air spaces=limit the amount Sandy soils have large air gaps allowing good
of oxygen reaching plant roots and the growth of transmission with high levels of oxygen=healthy root
the roots. system

Water content Clay soil has far more particles and therefore a Low water holding capacity because of the big
far larger surface area. Clay soils hold spaces
significantly more water
 Sandy soils Clay soils

Free draining( bc of the large spaces btw the high water holding capacity
particles

Low water holding capacity slow to warm up (too much water)

Quick to warm up (particles hold less water) small air spaces=less oxygen= no roots

Easier to cultivate8 particles do not stick together) water doesn't drain away easily

Poor retention of nutrients Hard to cultivate (its sticky and wet after heavy rain=dries hard)

a greater risk of erosion retains nutrients well (electric charge that binds to mineral ions.
● Organic matter provides additional water holding capacity to sandy soils and increases the size of
air spaces in clay soils

3.3 Agriculture
“The cultivation of animals, plants and fungi for food and other products used to sustain human life”.
Agriculture does not even need to use soil, but depends on a number of factors like climate, culture,
technology and economics.
-Types of agriculture
➔ Subsistence versus commercial
Subsistence farming is the cultivation and production of food to meet the needs of the farmer and
their families. Little surplus food= exchange for other things the family needs or $.
Commercial farming is the cultivation of products with the main focus of selling them for cash. They
used technology to increase yields and reduce the cost of production. Their aim is to grow crops to
obtain money to buy things they need.
-Arable vs Pastoral
types of product
➔ Arable farming: the production of plants/crops for consumption by humans
➔ Pastoral farming: the production of animals or animal related products (meat, milk, eggs)
➔ Mixed farming: grow crops for food and rear animals.
-Extensive versus intensive
➔ Extensive production: occurs when there is a relatively small amount of production from a large area
of land
➔ Intensive farming occurs where large amounts are produced from small areas of land.
Intensive is very efficient but it has an impact on the local ecosystem and in the case of livestock,
there are welfare issues with keeping animals in small confined spaces.

3.4 Increasing agricultural yields

+population= deforestation to build up more places to live.
● Increasing world population needing more resources
● Climate change= affect the land
● More demand of food variety
● Larger population impacting on the availability of water for irrigation.
-Solutions to world hunger
● Reducing the population increase= less demand for food
● Growing more staple crops that are high yielding and less luxury items
● Ensuring greater food equality= rationing
● Eating less meat= less energy waste
-Techniques for improving crop yield
➔ Crop rotation
 Growing different types of plants in different plots each year, that means that the crop changes
when the season changes to avoid pests and diseases and the soil to have the nutrients the crops
need.
To grow the same plant in the same plot every year often resulted in a decrease in yield over time
which can cause diseases, pests and depletion in soil nutrients.
Legumes: plants that contain nitrogen fixing bacteria in their roots to produce their own fertilizer. Any
nitrogen not used by the legumes is left in the ground and can be accessed by the next plants in the
rotation
The crops can be ready to harvest at different times= less labour and less machinery= less waste
➔ Fertilizers-NPK
NPK is essential for plants’ growth. Fertilizers increase crop yields because they add more mineral
nutrients to the soil to help the plants build protein. BUT THEY DO NOT IMPROVE SOIL
STRUCTURE. If it's used incorrectly this can cause environmental damage because they are
washed into rivers and lakes by rainfall.
-Organic vs Inorganic
 Organic: (manure and compost) provide both mineral and organic matter, which improve the
structure of the soil.
 Inorganic: contain NPK, they do not improve soil structure. It can be formulated to provide a
precise amount of each nutrient. Stored and transported more easily.
-Applying fertilizers safely
The farmer has to identify the crop that needs additional fertilizer, either visually or by testing the soil
to find out the naturally occurring nutrients levels. Fertilizer will be wasted unless the plant is able to
absorb the nutrients through their roots, which requires moisture. Wastes if there is too much rain.
➔ Irrigation
Is the provision of a supply of water rivers, lakes, reservoirs or underground sources to farmland?
 Why is irrigation important?
Important for photosynthesis. Mineral nutrients uptake by the roots requires water in the soil. Water=
oxygen
-Using water wisely
Water is in short supply. Not polluted and low in salt to not damage the crop plants. Stored water to
be used it later from rainwater, field (run-off) and roofs of buildings.
Reservoirs= hot climates= lots of evaporation.
Underground water= $ but less water loss
Supplying water to plants can be divided into three stages:
● Storage of water
● Transportation through Channels (cheapest, extremely wasteful=the dry soil absorbs much
of the water before it reaches the plants. Easy to construct)
● and pipes (costly but more efficient) bring the water to the fields sometimes from long
distances.
● Application to the plants
-Common water applications methods
➔ Water is sprayed onto the plants from giant sprinkles, which rotate around a
central pivot to provide equal amounts of water over a wide area. The average size of the droplets
can be adjusted to cover large areas and to cause less damage (small droplets). Small droplets can
easily blow by wind and evaporate before the roots can use the water.
➔ Clay pot system: as water seeps out the pot, it can be taken up by the plant's roots.
➔ Trickle drip: plants are watered directly through either microtubes or a porous hose
➔ Flood irrigation: water is delivered to the field by soil Channel or pipe and allowed to flow
freely over the ground throughout the crop.
To reduce the rate of water loss=using windbreak to reduce wind speed to reduce transpiration
from the leaves=using mulch also reduce the evaporation
-Control of competing organism
The growth of plants can be reduced by attacks from other organisms that can feed on it, weaken it
and sometimes kill it.
A weed is a plant growing in an appropriate place competing with the other ones for light, oxygen, nutrients,
making this to be poisonous, creating pest and diseases.
➔ Herbicides: a chemical used to control weeds (in the form of spray or granules). A bad application
of this can cause damage to the crop and impact on the local ecosystem. Spray can be washed
away in heavy rain and in windy conditions the spray can affect others plants
-Controlling pests and diseases
A pest is an animal that attacks or feeds upon the crop plants.
➔ Pesticide: a chemical used to control/kill pests and animals.
➔ Insecticide: a chemical that control/killed insects
A crop disease→ Pathogens caused by fungi, bacteria or viruses
➔ Fungicides: a chemical used to control fungal diseases.
ALL THIS CHEMICALS CAN AFFECT THE FOOD WEBS, NOT BREAKING DOWN IN THEIR BODIES
(toxic chemicals) = BIOMAGNIFICATION AND CAN BE POISONOUS TO HUMANS→ protective
equipment (ppe)
-Biological control→ find a natural depredator
Advantages Disadvantages

no chemical residues are left in the crop the control is not as instant as chemical control

there is no impact of sprays on the surrounding climatic conditions =pest breeds faster= the problem is not
ecosystem controlled

the population of the control agent should the predator might not stay on the crop and move elsewhere,
increase and breed instead of feeding on the intended pest impacting on the natural
ecosystem and food web.

-Alternatives to herbicides
● Cultural controls: hand labour
● Weed barriers: using black plastic sheeting over the ground= no light for the weeds
● Flame guns: paraffin (kerosene) to kill weed seeds at the soil surface
But some farmers prefer to use herbicides because they are easy to manage, cheaper, more predictable
and fast and less labour.
-Mechanization
→Use of machines to improve crop productivity and cultivate large areas easily= less labour costs and
farmers, harvest time.
-Selective breeding
→ Choosing which plants or animals to reproduce depends on their characteristics.
It selected the characteristics of parents and selected the best Offspring for future crosses.
-How big an impact has selective breeding had?
Help to develop new species benefiting the humans needs and consumption. Also it helps to double the
production.
-Genetic Modification(GMO)
→An organism whose genetic material (DNA) has been altered by genetic engineering. It can be modified
to increase yield and be resistant to diseases.
Many people disagree → may harm people (not natural) and that the environment will be damaged if new
plants breed with wild species. (Soybean and maize)
-Controlling the crop environment
● Providing shade for cattle=Not to hot
 ● Using windbreaks= prevent damage to the crops
● Removing trees= maximize light
Smaller areas= invest more money= high prices= profit
➔ Greenhouses: A building made of glass or similar transparent material that is used to manage the
environment for plant growth = maximum growth= growing blueprint.
Greenhouses allow many different environmental factors to be managed like light intensity and
water= costly but the use of sensors made the farmer not to be present all the time.
Disadv: cost of heating and lighting, great risk of pests and diseases in the enclosed space.
-Controlling the whole environment
➔ Hydroponics: growing plants without soil, with the nutrients the plants need dissolved in water.
Water flows through the roots of the plants and is recycled. Air is bubbled= oxygen. But is
expensive, only for small areas, plants can die if the conditions are not maintained and the diseases
can spread rapidly through the water.