Unit 2: Cell

Ufuk Ozer, Ph.D.

Feb 1st Week, 2024
Grade 9 – Biology Class
Spring Term
 Cell

The vitality of the cell that makes up the organism depends on the complete
arrangement and functioning of the atoms, ions and molecules in its
structure. In other words, the existence of atoms, ions and molecules is not
sufficient to represent life. Because these are the basic units of inanimate
objects. Distinguishing living things from inanimate objects depends on
cellular organization. In other words, the concept of life emerges thanks to
the interactions between atoms, ions and molecules. Therefore, the cell is
considered the smallest unit of life because it is self-sufficient. When
essential nutrients and appropriate environmental conditions are provided,
many cell types can survive for years in the artificial environment (medium)
created in the laboratory. However, no cell organelle can survive in the
medium for a long time. This proves that the cell has a perfect organization
among all the physical and chemical components necessary for its continuity
and growth.

Cell membrane made up

of different molecules
 Cell

Discovering the structure of cells and organelles became possible thanks to

the development of lenses, especially the microscope. The English naturalist
Robert Hooke (1637-1703) first used the term cell in the scientific world.
Hook created a simple microscope by placing a lens at each end of a tube.
In 1665, he examined the section taken from the cork oak (Quercus suber)
(Image 2.2) and named the spaces he saw as cells (cellula) (Image 2.3). In
the same years, scientist Anton van Leeuwenhoek and his friends; By further
developing the microscope, he succeeded in examining single-celled
organisms, sperm cells and blood cells living in water.

Mushroom tissue seen by Robert Hooke

Image 2.2 Cork oak under the microscope
 2.1. Studies on Cell Theory

After Robert Hooke discovered the cell in 1665, studies on the cell continued
for more than a hundred years. In 1838, German botanist Matthias Schleiden
and Belgian zoologist Theodor Schwann noticed the similarity in their
observations while sharing their studies on plant and animal tissues. Based
on this, they concluded that the basic structural units that make up plant and
animal tissues are the same. This development led to the emergence of the
cell theory, which claims that all living things consist of cells. In 1858,
German pathologist Rudolf Virchow added to this information and suggested
that each cell was formed by the division of other existing cells.

Matthias Schleiden Theodor Schwann Rudolf Virchow

 2.1. Studies on Cell Theory
According to cell theory;
• All living things consist of cells.
• Cell is the basic, structural and functional unit of the living thing.
• All cells are formed by the division of previous cells.

In the following years, new information obtained by scientists who studied and
conducted research on living things enabled the development of cell theory. The
following information has been added to the cell theory:

• Cells contain genetic material and pass it on to daughter cells by dividing.

• Metabolic events take place within the cell.
 Cell Imaging Techniques

Cell imaging techniques have enabled the determination of the sizes of

microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, etc.) and the cells that
make up tissues. The sizes of these creatures are expressed using units of
measurement belonging to the international metric system. Units of
measurement can be converted to each other (Table 2.1).

Table 2.1 Mathematical Relationship Between Units

of Measurement of the International Metric System

10Å
 Sizes of Biomolecules

Cells of eukaryotic organisms and bacteria are micrometer-sized, viruses

are nanometer-sized, and atoms and molecules are angstrom-sized.

Naked eye

Light microscope

Electron microscope

Nerve Cell
Bacterium

Eukaryotic cell
Lipids
Atom
Virus
Human

Small Mitochondrion
molecules
Proteins
 Microscope
A normal human eye cannot distinguish two points that are closer than 0.1mm to
each other. Since most cells are much smaller than 0.1mm, they cannot be seen
with the naked eye but can be examined with a microscope. Microscope, a
biological term, comes from the Greek words micro (small) and scope (looker,
observer). Microscopes vary greatly in their features. Nowadays, light microscope
and fluorescence microscope are commonly used in laboratories.

Light Microscope
It is a type of microscope mostly used in student laboratories in basic
education. In this microscope, visible light (white light) coming from
the source passes through the sample to be examined and reaches
the objective lens. The light is refracted in the lens and reaches the
eye through the eyepiece. The general structures of eukaryotic and
prokaryotic cells are examined with the light microscope.

Onion skin under a light microscope Bacteria in the light microscope

(Magnification ratio: 40x) (Magnification: 10x)
Parts of Light Microscope
 Parts of Light Microscope
The light microscope consists of two parts: mechanical and optical. The parts that
make up these parts and their functions are given below:
a) Mechanical Parts of the Microscope
Foot (Bottom Pedestal): It is the part that holds all parts of the microscope.
Microscope Arm: It is the curved part located at the back of the microscope and
allows the microscope to be grasped during transportation. However, for safety
reasons, when carrying the microscope, the microscope arm should be held with one
hand and the foot part with the other hand.
Stage: It is the part where the preparation is placed.
Compression Clips: These are the parts that allow the preparation to be fixed on
the table from both sides.
Revolver (Nose piece): It is the moving (rotating) part that carries the lenses on it.
Microscope Tube (Head): It is the part located on the upper part of the microscope
arm. The eyepiece is mounted on the upper part and the objectives are mounted on
the lower part.
X and Y Axis Adjustment Screws (Stage Controls): are parts that allow the
preparation, which is placed on the table and clamped with clips, to be moved
forward-backward and right-left. In this way, different parts of the section in the
preparation can be examined.
 Parts of Light Microscope
Adjustment Screws (Course and Fine adjustments): There are two screws as
macro (course) adjustment screw and micro (fine) adjustment screw. It is located
on the side of the microscope arm. The macro is the big screw, it allows the table to
move up and down. In other words, it is used to move the stage closer and further
away from the lenses, and this movement of the stage can be noticed visually. The
micro screw is used when finding and sharpening the first image of the object with the
search lens. The micro screw is placed on the top of the macro screw. It is used to
sharpen the image after switching to a lens with higher magnification power. Since the
micro screw moves the table at micron level, this movement cannot be noticed by eye.
b) Optic Parts of the Microscope
Objective: It is the part mounted on the revolver, where the image is first formed in
the microscope and is related to image clarity. A light microscope usually has 4
objectives. The one with the smallest magnification power (4X) is called the search
objective. The first image of the object in the prepared preparation is found using the
search lens. The term “4X” indicates that this lens magnifies the image 4 times. In
addition, there are three more lenses on the revolver with magnification powers of
10X, 40X and 100X.
 Parts of Light Microscope
Eyepiece: It is the part mounted on the top of the
microscope tube and used to magnify the image coming
from the lens. Microscopes with one eyepiece are called
monocular, and microscopes with two eyepieces are
called binocular. The magnification power of the eyepiece
is written on it. The total magnifying power of a
microscope is equal to the product of the magnifying
power of the eyepiece and objective. For example, if the
eyepiece of the microscope you use has a magnification
power of 5X and you examine the object with a 40X
objective, you will magnify the image of that object 200
times (5X x 40X).

Light Source: It is the part mounted on the microscope

leg that reflects light towards the preparation at the top.
Condenser: It is the part consisting of the lens system
located under the microscope table and allowing the light
coming from the source to be collected on the preparation.
Diaphragm: It is the part located under the condenser and
used to adjust the intensity of the light that will reach the
preparation.
 Fluorescence Microscope
It is a microscope used to examine different parts of microorganisms and cells. This
microscope is used to detect the distribution of cancer cells in tissues and organs.
 Electron Microscope
Viruses that are too small to be seen with a light microscope and some internal
structures of the cell are examined with an electron microscope. In electron
microscopy, a beam of electrons is used instead of visible light.

There are two different electron microscopes commonly used today.

Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM): Intracellular structures and organelles

(ribosome, lysosome, peroxisome), the double-layered membrane of the nucleus
and the detailed internal structure of the Golgi apparatus are examined in detail.

TEM image of a bacterial cell magnified

approximately 10,000 times
 Electron Microscope

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM): The natural structure of the outer surface
of the cell and cellular structures is examined in three dimensions. TEM and SEM
are very high-tech microscopes.

The appearance of neutrophils, a type of white blood

cell, in SEM at approximately 10,000X magnification
 2.2. General Structure of Cells
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
The smallest structural and functional unit of living things is the cell. Cells are
examined in two groups according to their structure: prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells.

Prokaryotic Cell: Simple

structured cells whose DNA is not
surrounded by a membrane but is
concentrated in a certain region
(nucleoid) in the cytoplasm and
does not have membrane-bound
organelles are called prokaryotic
cells. The genetic material is
distributed in the cytoplasm. There
is only the ribosome organelle in
the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells.
Archaea and bacteria have a
prokaryotic cell structure. All
prokaryotic organisms are single-
celled.
 2.2. General Structure of Cells

Eukaryotic Cell: Advanced cells that have membraneless and membraned

organelles whose DNA is located in the nucleus are called eukaryotic cells. Euglena,
paramecium, amoeba, algae, fungi, plants and animals have eukaryotic cell
structures.
 Parts of the Cell

The basic structure of an eukaryotic cell consists of three parts:

• Cell membrane
• Cytoplasm and organelles
• Nucleus

Cell membrane:

It is the structure that separates the cell from the non-living environment and other
cells. It forms the boundary between the cell's internal and external environment and
ensures controlled substance exchange. The cell membrane has a selectively
permeable structure. Thanks to this feature, some substances can pass through the
cell membrane while others cannot. The cell membrane is a dynamic structure, so it
can perform activities that require energy. Since the cell membrane is flexible, it can
change shape and surface. Moreover, since it is transparent, the structures inside
the cell can be seen with the help of a microscope.
The thickness of the cell membrane, which is microscopic in size, is approximately
100Å. It is not possible to see such a thin structure in full detail under a light
microscope. Scientists have put forward various models of the cell membrane. The
currently accepted fluid-mosaic membrane model was explained by S. J. Singer
and G. L. Nicolson in 1972. Phospholipids are arranged in two rows in the structure
of the membrane and ensure fluidity. Protein molecules are embedded between
phospholipid molecules and create a mosaic appearance. Openings called pores
formed by channel proteins in the cell membrane allow some molecules to pass
through the membrane. Glycoprotein
Carbohydrate Glycolipid
Carbohydrate molecules Carbohydrate
bind to proteins on the outer
surface of the cell Protein
membrane, forming Phosphate
glycoproteins, and bind to
lipids, forming glycolipids. In Lipids
animal organisms,
cholesterol, a type of lipid, is
found in the structure of the
cell membrane. Cholesterol
acts as a buffer molecule
that prevents damage to the
Cholesterol Protein
cell membrane from Pore Channel protein
changes in temperature.
 Functions of the Cell Membrane

1. It gives shape to the cell and protects the integrity of the cell.
2. Protects the cell against external factors.
3. It gives identity (specificity) to the cell thanks to the glycolipids and glycoproteins
in its structure.
4. It controls the entry and exit of substances into the cell (selective-permeable).
5. It enables the recognition of nutrients, hormones and microorganisms thanks to
the receptors it carries on its surface.
6. It ensures the connection and communication of cells with each other.
7. It enables recognition by other cells thanks to the glycoproteins in its structure.
 Cell Wall
In addition to the cell membrane, bacteria, archaea, fungi and plants also have a cell
wall. The cell wall of bacteria has a peptidoglycan structure. In archaea, the cell
wall is mostly protein-containing pseudopeptidoglycan. The main substance of the
cell wall of fungi is chitin. The cell wall of the plant cell contains mainly cellulose
and some polysaccharides (such as pectin, lignin, suberin).

Cell wall; since it has a thicker and more durable structure than the nonliving cell
membrane, it protects plants, fungi and bacteria against mechanical effects that may
come from outside. Since the cell membrane is a dynamic structure, it is selectively
permeable, and the cell wall is completely permeable because it is non-living.
 Cytoplasm and Organelles

It is the part that fills between the nucleus and the cell membrane. The cytoplasm
has the consistency of egg white and contains 70-90% water. In addition to water,
the structure of the cytoplasm also contains proteins, fats, carbohydrates, enzymes,
hormones, vitamins, various minerals and salts. While some of the vital activities
occur in the cytoplasm, some take place in specialized structures called organelles.
 Cytoplasm and Organelles
The structures located in the cytoplasm and responsible for performing vital activities
(respiration, nutrition, excretion, etc.) are called organelles. Organelles; They differ
from each other in shape, size and structure. Some organelles are found only in
plant cells, some only in animal cells. For example, chloroplasts are not found in
animal cells, while centrosomes and lysosomes are not found in developed plant
cells. However, most organelles are found in both plant and animal cells. While some
organelles do not have a membrane system surrounding them, some are
surrounded by one or two layers of membrane.
 a) Ribosome

It is a membraneless organelle found in all living things. The ribosome organelle

consists of two complementary subunits. These are called large and small subunits.
Each of these units consists of protein and rRNA molecules. Ribosome is the
organelle where protein synthesis occurs in living cells. For this reason, there are
more ribosomes in young cells where the rate of protein synthesis is high and in cells
whose function is to produce secretions. In prokaryotic cells, ribosomes are found
freely in the cytoplasm. In eukaryotic cells, it can be found freely in the cytoplasm, as
well as inside the chloroplast and mitochondria organelles, on the outer surface of
the endoplasmic reticulum and nuclear membrane.
Large subunit
Ribosome synthesizes proteins in line with the
codes (m-RNA) coming from DNA. Since each
individual's DNA is unique, the proteins
synthesized are also specific to that individual.
For this reason, proteins synthesized in cells
show great structural diversity. For example, it
has been determined that there are more than
Small subunit 10,000 different protein molecules in a typical
mammalian cell.
 a) Ribosome

When protein synthesis occurs in the Synthesized Protein

cell, the large and small subunits of the
ribosome come together. When protein Large subunit
synthesis is intense, more than one
ribosome comes together to form Ribosome
polyribosomes (polysome). In this
way, a large amount of the same protein
is produced in a short time. Mitochondria
and plastids also have their own
Small subunit
ribosomes. mRNA

Ribosomes (Polysome = Polyribosome)

 b) Mitochondrion

Living things need energy to survive. This energy is provided by cellular respiration
reactions in living things. Aerobic respiration occurs in the mitochondria organelle in
eukaryotic cells. Therefore, mitochondria can also be defined as the ATP-producing
power plant of eukaryotic cells. Mitochondria have a double-layered membrane
system. The inner and outer membranes of mitochondria consist of a double layer of
fat in which protein molecules are embedded. Although the outer membrane has a
flat surface, the inner membrane has folds. These folds, called cristae, enable the
inner surface of the mitochondria to expand. Since most of the ATP energy released
at the end of aerobic respiration is synthesized on the crystals, the enlargement of
the surface also increases the amount of energy produced per unit time. The semi-
fluid fluid that fills the space between the cristae, that is, the interior of the
mitochondria, is called matrix.
Ribosome
There are some enzymes involved in aerobic Matrix
Outer Inner
respiration in the matrix. Additionally, there are DNA
membrane membrane
mitochondria-specific DNA and RNA molecules
and ribosomes in the matrix. For this reason,
mitochondria proliferate under nuclear control in
Enzyme
cells with increased energy needs, without waiting complexes
for cell division. The number of mitochondria is
Intermembrane
higher in cells such as muscle, nerve, kidney and Cristae space
sperm, where energy consumption is high.
 c) Endoplasmic reticulum
It is an organelle that does not have a fixed size and shape, and therefore its amount
in the cell cannot be specified by number. It is generally found in all eukaryotic cells
except mature red blood cells. It starts from the nuclear membrane and extends to
the cytoplasm and even the cell membrane, creating a large channel system that is
interconnected with each other within the cell. The type that has ribosomes on it is
called rough endoplasmic reticulum, and the type that does not have ribosomes on
it is called smooth endoplasmic reticulum. Both types of endoplasmic reticulum
can be present simultaneously in a cell. Granulated endoplasmic reticulum is more
abundant in cells where protein synthesis is intense, and ungranulated endoplasmic
reticulum is more abundant in cells where lipid and carbohydrate synthesis is intense.
The endoplasmic reticulum is lost during cell division.
Nucleus

Rough
Endoplasmic
reticulum

Ribosomes

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

 c) Endoplasmic reticulum
The rough endoplasmic reticulum carries the proteins synthesized by the ribosomes
on its membranes to the Golgi apparatus, where the proteins undergo some
changes in order to become functional. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is
responsible for the synthesis of fat and carbohydrates (glycogen) and their transfer
to the Golgi, transporting substances within the cell, and storing the calcium
necessary for the contraction of muscle cells. It also takes part in the fat metabolism
of liver cells and transforms some harmful substances (such as insect poison,
medicine, alcohol) and renders them harmless.

Nucleus

Rough
Endoplasmic
reticulum

Ribosomes

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

 d) Golgi apparatus
Since it was first discovered by the Italian scientist Camillo Golgi in 1898, this
organelle is named after him. The Golgi apparatus is not found in eukaryotic cells
such as mature red blood cells and sperm, and in prokaryotic cells such as bacteria.
It is structurally similar to the endoplasmic reticulum. However, the channels of the
Golgi apparatus are not connected to each other and do not carry ribosomes. The
Golgi apparatus consists of channels and flat sacs stacked on top of each other. It
takes up less space than the endoplasmic reticulum.

The task of the Golgi apparatus is

to transport carbohydrates, fats
and proteins from the endoplasmic
reticulum; It converts it into
molecules such as glycolipids,
glycoproteins and lipoproteins,
surrounds it with a membrane and
makes it ready for secretion.
Therefore, its amount is high in the
cells of secretion-producing glands
(such as salivary gland and
endocrine gland).
 d) Golgi apparatus

Molecules synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum are transported to the Golgi in

vesicles. As the vesicle fuses with the membrane of the Golgi apparatus, the
molecules inside pass into the Golgi channels. The molecules converted to their
final form here are separated from the Golgi apparatus in a sac.
Lysosome organelles are produced in this way within the cell. Apart from this, the
Golgi apparatus; It also has functions in the renewal and repair of the cell
membrane, the formation of the intermediate lamella during the division of plant
cells, the realization of the apoenzyme-cofactor relationship and the production of
polysaccharides such as pectin, which participate in the wall structure in plants.

Vesicle carried from the endoplasmic

reticulum

Cell membrane

Secretory vesicles Secreted proteins

 e) Lysosome
It is found in all animal cells except red blood cells and single-celled creatures (such
as amoeba, paramecium) living in liquid media. Lysosomes, surrounded by a single-
layer membrane, contain digestive enzymes that break down molecules such as
proteins, carbohydrates and lipids. Ribosome, endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi
apparatus take part in lysosome formation, respectively. Enzymes are synthesized
in ribosomes and delivered to the endoplasmic reticulum. Enzymes transported to
the Golgi apparatus through the channels of the endoplasmic reticulum are
surrounded by a membrane and packaged. These structures, which are small sacs,
are called vesicles.

Some of these vesicles remain

inside the cell and transform into the
lysosome organelle. There are no
lysosome organelles in higher plant
cells. However, there are vesicles
that contain fewer types and
amounts of digestive enzymes than
lysosomes.
 e) Lysosome
It has been determined that there are Inactivation of the microorganism in the
white blood cell by lysosome
approximately 60 different enzymes in
lysosomes. These enzymes ensure that large
molecules taken into the cell are broken down Receptor
and converted into a form that the cell can use.
Microorganism
Therefore, lysosomes are also known as the
intracellular digestive center. In addition,
damaged or worn out old organelles in the cell
are broken down and eliminated by lysosomes.
This phenomenon is called autophagy.
White blood cells, which take part in body
defense, neutralize bacteria, viruses and their
toxic substances, thanks to lysosomes. If the Lysosome
enzymes in the lysosome disperse into the
1. Microorganisms are recognized by receptors on
cytoplasm as a result of any effect, they digest the cell surface. A pocket is created from the
the cell and this event is called autolysis. For membrane and the microorganism is surrounded.
2. The microorganism is taken into the cell
example, the formation of spaces between the surrounded by a membrane.
fingers and toes in the human embryo, the 3. The lysosome combines with the created sac and
death of old and unable cells, and the lizard transfers its enzymes into the sac.
4. Digestive enzymes break down the
laying down its tail when faced with danger can microorganism.
be given as examples of autolysis. 5. Undigested microorganism wastes are released
outside the cell.
 f) Centrosome
Centrioles are formed by the union of nine groups of protein filaments called
microtubules, connected three by three. The structure formed by two centrioles
positioned perpendicular to each other is called centrosome. The centrosome
organelle is found in animal cells. Centrosomes are absent in mature red blood cells,
nerves, eggs, advanced plant cells, striated muscle cells and fungi. The centrosome
forms spindle fibers during cell division and ensures the movement of chromosomes
to the poles.
Centrioles and Microtubules
During the division of plant cells, it is formed by
Centriole
some cytoskeletal structures such as spindle fibers,
microtubules and microfilaments. The number of
centrosomes doubles in interphase, and the Microtubule
formation of spindle fibers from the centrosome
occurs in the prophase of cell division. Some drugs
used in the treatment of cancer prevent the
formation of spindle fibers, preventing cancer cells
from dividing and tumor tissue from growing. The
centrosome organelle also takes part in the
formation and regulation of microtubules in the
structure of flagella and cilia.
Triple microtubule
 g) Vacuole
Food vacuole and contractile vacuole in
amoeba Vacuoles can be formed by the Golgi apparatus,
Cytoplasm endoplasmic reticulum, cell membrane and
nuclear membrane. There are different types of
Food vacuoles according to their functions, such as food
Contractile vacuole vacuoles, excretory vacuoles, storage vacuoles
vacuole
and contractile vacuoles.
Nucleus

A food vacuole is a vacuole that contains large

Cell
membrane molecule nutrients taken into the cell. When
Pseudopod
combined with the lysosome, digestion occurs.
Thus, it meets the substances needed by the cell.

The excretory vacuole allows the metabolic

wastes and secretory substances created by the
cell to be sent out.

Contractile vacuole is a vacuole in freshwater

protists that expels excess water entering the cell
by consuming energy. It plays a role in maintaining
the water balance of the cell (homeostasis).
Contractile vacuole in paramecium
 g) Vacuole
Storage vacuoles are where waste materials and water
are stored in plant and animal cells. They are vacuoles Nontoxic
crystals
in plants where toxic substances formed as a result of
metabolism are combined with various salts and
accumulated in the form of non-toxic crystals. Young
plant cells contain small and numerous vacuoles.
However, as the cells mature, these vacuoles merge to
form a single, central vacuole. The pressure created by Vacuole
the water stored in the central vacuole provides support
to the cell and therefore to the plant.
In addition, some plant cells contain color substances
called anthocyanins in their vacuoles. These pigments
create the color of flower petals and fruits. Colors such
as red, purple and burgundy, especially in fruits such as
black grapes, black mulberries, strawberries,
cranberries, sour cherries and cherries, are created
thanks to anthocyanin pigments. Another important
feature of these pigments is that they have a very
strong antioxidant effect. In other words, it has the
feature of delaying the formation of some diseases,
especially cancer. As a result, consuming this type of
dark colored fruits is very important for health.
 h) Plastids
It is found in plant and algal cells and is responsible for different events such as food
production (photosynthesis), color formation, and food storage. There are three types:
chloroplasts, chromoplasts and leucoplasts. Chloroplasts and chromoplasts
contain pigment substances (color substances) of different types and structures.
However, leucoplasts do not contain pigment.

Chloroplasts: It is an important organelle where photosynthesis occurs in plants. Euglena,

a single-celled organism, also has a chloroplast organelle. Thanks to its green chlorophyll
pigment, it produces food (glucose) and oxygen from water and carbon dioxide with the
help of sunlight. It is found extensively in the green parts of the plant, especially in its
leaves. The chloroplast organelle is surrounded by a two-layered membrane.

Both the outer and inner membrane

have a flat structure. The interior of
the chloroplasts is filled with a gel-
like liquid called stroma, whose
structure is similar to cytoplasm to a
certain extent. The stroma contains
organic and inorganic molecules and
its own DNA, RNA and ribosomes.
Granum Grana
 Chloroplasts

Since chloroplasts, like mitochondria, have their own DNA, they can proliferate under
the control of the nucleus, regardless of cell division. There is also an inner membrane
system organized in the form of flat sacs in the stroma. This structure is called the
thylakoid membrane system. Chlorophyll pigment, which gives plant leaves their
green color, is found in the structure of thylakoid membranes. The structure formed by
stacking these flat sacs on top of each other is called granum. Granum communities
within the stroma are also called grana. When examined with an electron microscope,
grana appear like coins stacked on top of each other. Electron transport reactions of
photosynthesis occur on the thylakoid membrane system, and carbon dioxide binding
reactions occur in the stroma. ATP produced with the help of light energy during
photosynthesis is used in food synthesis. ATP molecules produced in chloroplasts are
used only in photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis Equation
 h) Plastids

Chromoplasts: These are plastids that create the color of various parts of plants,
especially flowers and fruits. The structure of chromoplasts contains pigment
substances that create different colors. For example, xanthophylls give the yellow
color to the peel of fruits such as lemons, bananas and pears. Lycopene is
responsible for the red color in the skin of tomatoes and red peppers. Carotene is the
pigment that gives carrots their orange color. Chromoplasts and chloroplasts can
transform into each other under the influence of various factors. For example, unripe
tomatoes are green in color, meaning they contain chlorophyll pigment. However, as
it ripens, the chloroplasts in the tomato tissue lose their chlorophyll and turn into
chromoplasts containing lycopene, and the tomato acquires its red color.

Transformation of chloroplasts into chromoplasts

in tomatoes under the effect of light
 h) Plastids
Leucoplasts: They are pigment-free plastids. It is found in parts of the plant that are
not exposed to light, such as the root and underground stem, as well as in its leaves
and seeds that are exposed to strong light. Leucoplasts are plastids specialized for
starch storage.
Plants convert the excess glucose they produce through photosynthesis into starch
and store it in the chloroplasts in their leaves. This type of starch is called temporary
starch. The lifespan of transient starch in leaves is approximately 24 hours. Because
when needed, it is converted back into glucose and used in cells.
Some of the glucose molecules produced by photosynthesis are also transported to
storage organs and converted into starch and stored in leucoplasts. This type of starch
is called permanent starch. For example, grain seeds and potato tubers, which are
frequently consumed as food in daily life, are very rich in starch. There are also very
small amounts of fat and protein in the structure of leucoplasts. Leucoplasts can
transform into chloroplasts under the influence of light. For example, when a potato is
placed in a bright environment, leucoplasts begin to turn into chloroplasts and green
areas appear on the potato.

Transformation of leucoplast into chloroplast

under the effect of light in potatoes
 i) Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes are membrane-bound organelles that contain some enzymes that have
both oxidizing and antioxidant effects, found in almost all eukaryotic cells. Some
peroxisomes convert fatty acids into smaller molecules that mitochondria can use.
Since oxygen is used during this event, these types of reactions are called oxidation
reactions. Peroxisomes in animal organisms are especially found in liver, heart,
muscle and kidney cells, which have higher metabolic activity.
In plants, seeds and leaves are richer in peroxisome
organelles. As a result of peroxisomal metabolism, a
toxic compound called hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is
produced. However, this compound is broken down by
the catalase enzyme, which has an antioxidant effect
and is found in peroxisomes, and turns into water and
oxygen. Thus, cellular structures and molecules are
protected from the harmful effects of hydrogen peroxide.

Catalase
H2O2 H2O + ½ O2
 j) Cytoskeleton
It takes part in the formation and maintenance of cell shape. It is not found in
prokaryotes. It ensures the movement and retention of organelles in the appropriate
position within the cytoplasm. It plays a role in the movement of chromosomes as the
cell divides. The cytoskeleton consists of three different structures: microfilaments,
microtubules and intermediate filaments.
Cytoplasm
Microfilaments: They are formed by
the combination of proteins called Microfilament
actin. It helps the cell and its parts
move. Determines and fixes the cell Intermediate
format. Microfilaments enable muscle filament
movements in animals and the
formation of pseudopods in amoeba. Microtubule
Microvilli, which are located on the
surface of the small intestine and
enable the absorption of nutrients, Organelles
are small outward extensions of the anchored in the
cell membrane. Microfilaments are cytoplasm by the
responsible for the formation of these cytoskeleton
extensions.
 j) Cytoskeleton
Intermediate Filaments: They are formed by the combination of proteins with very
different structures suitable for cell types. Intermediate filaments are more permanent
than the other two filaments. It connects cellular structures to their location. It is
resistant to tension and thus maintains the tension of the tissues on the body surface.

Cytoplasm
Microtubules: They are the largest
diameter elements of the cytoskeletal Microfilament
system. It enables the formation of a
solid skeleton in cells. It is Intermediate
responsible for the displacement of filament
organelles within the cell. There are
microtubules in the structure of these Microtubule
extensions. Microtubules in plant
cells control the arrangement of
cellulose fibers in the cell wall. Organelles
Microtubules are also included in the anchored in the
structure of the centrosome. The cytoplasm by the
centrosome creates spindle fibers cytoskeleton
during cell division.
 NUCLEUS

The nucleus, which is the management and heredity center of the cell, has a
spherical or oval shape. It is usually located in the middle of the cell. There are
differences among living things in terms of whether the cell has a nucleus or not and
the number of nuclei. For example, while many cells have only one nucleus, mature
red blood cells do not have a nucleus. On the other hand, there are a few nuclei in
striated muscle cells and two in paramecium. Although some cells have a nucleus
when they are first formed, it is observed that the nucleus disappears as the
maturation process of the cell progresses. Red blood cells (red blood cells) in
mammals and tracheal cells in plants can be given as examples.

Prokaryotic cells do not have a

nucleus, but the genetic material
Nucleus membrane (DNA) is concentrated in a certain
region of the cell cytoplasm. In
Nucleolus general, the core; It consists of four
parts: nuclear membrane,
Nucleoplasm
nucleolus, nucleoplasm and
Chromatin threads
chromatin filaments.
Pore
 NUCLEUS

a) Nuclear Membrane (Karyolemma): The nucleus is surrounded by a double

membrane. The channels in the nuclear membrane are called pores. These pores
are larger than the pores in the cell membrane and allow large molecules such as
mRNA to pass into the cytoplasm. Apart from this, there are also ribosomes
responsible for protein synthesis on the surface of the outer membrane of the
nucleus. The nuclear membrane disperses during cell division. However, it occurs
again after the division is completed.
b) Nucleoplasm (Karyoplasm): It is the liquid part inside the nucleus. It has a semi-
fluid structure like cytoplasmic liquid. All structures within the nucleus reside in this
semi-liquid environment.
 NUCLEUS

c) Nucleolus: When examined under a microscope, it is the part of the nucleus that
is dark colored and more dense than other parts. The nucleolus has no membrane. It
is the production site of ribosome and rRNA. Like the nuclear membrane, the
nucleolus disappears and then re-forms during cell division.
d) Chromatin Threads: The messy, long and threadlike structure that surrounds the
nucleoplasm like a network when the cell is not in the division phase is called
chromatin. Histone protein is found in the chromatin threads of eukaryotic cells and
archaea. Chromatin threads contain DNA and are responsible for determining the
hereditary characteristics of living things. During division, chromatin strands
condense (shorten and thicken) to form chromosomes. After cell division is
completed, chromosomes turn into chromatin threads again.