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An experimental study of freezing and melting of water inside spherical

capsules used in thermal energy storage systems

Article in Ain Shams Engineering Journal · March 2012

DOI: 10.1016/j.asej.2011.10.004

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Ain Shams Engineering Journal (2012) 3, 33–48

Ain Shams University

Ain Shams Engineering Journal

www.elsevier.com/locate/asej
www.sciencedirect.com

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

An experimental study of freezing and melting

of water inside spherical capsules used in thermal
energy storage systems
Reda I. ElGhnam *, Ramdan A. Abdelaziz, Mohamed H. Sakr,
Hany E. Abdelrhman

Faculty of Engineering, Benha University, Egypt

Received 31 May 2011; accepted 23 October 2011

Available online 26 December 2011

KEYWORDS
Freezing and melting;
Spherical capsules;
Thermal energy storage
Abstract This paper reports the results of an experimental study on the heat transfer during freez-
ing (charging) and melting (discharging) of water inside a spherical capsule of the type often found
in the beds of thermal (ice) storage systems used for the building air conditioning systems. Spherical
capsules of different diameters and materials are tested. The aqueous solution of 35-wt% ethylene
glycol is used as the heat transfer fluid (HTF). The major studied parameters are the size and mate-
rial of the spherical capsule, the volume flow rate and temperature of the heat transfer fluid (HTF).
The effects of these parameters on the time for complete charging/discharging, the solidified/melted

Abbreviations: Act, actual; CTES, cool thermal energy storage; ERR,

energy recovery ratio; HTF, heat transfer fluid; PCM, phase change
material; rot, rotameter; tc, thermocouple; TES, thermal energy
storage
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +20 111150706; fax: +20 242158823.
E-mail addresses: reda_i_elghnam@yahoo.com (R.I. ElGhnam),
ramadanamer2004@yahoo.com (R.A. Abdelaziz), mohamed.sakr@
feng.bu.edu.eg (M.H. Sakr), hany_assawy2003@yahoo.com (H.E.
Abdelrhman).

2090-4479  2011 Ain Shams University. Production and hosting by

Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Peer review under responsibility of Ain Shams University.

doi:10.1016/j.asej.2011.10.004

Production and hosting by Elsevier

34 R.I. ElGhnam et al.

mass fraction, the charging/discharging rate, the energy stored/regain, and the energy recovery ratio
(ERR) are studied. The experimental results show that the energy recovery ratio is becoming better
when using metallic capsules, increasing the capsule size and reducing the HTF volume flow rates.
 2011 Ain Shams University. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V.
All rights reserved.

Nomenclature
Ci specific heat of ice, kJ/kg K
Cw specific heat of water, kJ/kg K Ts solid phase temperature of PCM, C
din inside diameter of test capsule, m Ttc thermocouple temperature reading, C
FO Fourier number, FO ¼ ai  t=r2in T* dimensionless temperature, T ¼ Tc =Tpc
ki thermal conductivity of ice, kW/m K t time, s
L.H. latent heat of fusion of water, kJ/kg tcomp.ch complete charging time, s
mm melted mass, kg tcomp.dis complete discharging time, s
mo mass of PCM encapsulated inside the spherical Dt time difference, s
capsule, kg Vm Melted volume, m3
ms solidified mass, kg Vs solidified volume, m3
mm/mo melted mass fraction Vshell spherical shell volume, m3
ms/mo solidified mass fraction V_ act actual volume flow rate, Lpm
Q_ ch charging rate, kW V_ rot volume flow rate obtained from the rotameter
Q_ dis discharging rate, kW reading, Lpm
Qreg accumulative energy regained, kJ Vo volume of the PCM encapsulated inside the spher-
Qst accumulative energy stored, kJ ical capsule (equal to 80% of internal volume of
Qst,max maximum energy stored at the complete charging the capsule), m3
time, kJ
Qreg,max maximum energy regained at the complete charg- Greek symbols
ing time, kJ qw water density, kg/m3
ravgh;v average radius of solid–liquid interface in test cap- qi ice density, kg/m3
sule, m qw =qi volume correction factor
rh horizontal radius of solid–liquid interface in test ai thermal diffusivity of ice ð¼ ki =qi Ci Þ, m2/s
capsule, m s dimensionless time, ðs ¼ Fo ¼ ai  =r2in Þ
rin inside radius of test capsule, m scomp.ch dimensionless complete charging time
rv vertical radius of solid–liquid interface in test cap- scomp.dis dimensionless complete discharging time
sule, m ai thermal diffusivity of ice
Tact actual temperature, C DQreg accumulative thermal energy regained difference,
Tc temperature of PCM at the center of capsule, C kJ
Tl liquid phase temperature of PCM, C DQst accumulative thermal energy stored difference, kJ
To initial temperature of PCM (distilled water), C Dt time difference, s
Tpc phase change temperature, C

1. Introduction to derive empirical equations describing charge and discharge

Studying the thermal behavior during phase change in spheri-
cal capsules is extremely important for the design of efficient
storage systems. Some experimental and theoretical studies
investigations concerning the cool thermal energy storage
(CTES) of encapsulated type are found in literature.
Eames and Adref [1] conducted an experimental study of the
freezing and melting processes for water contained in spherical
elements. They reported quantitative data on the movement of
the solid–liquid interface position with time, the effect of HTF
(coolant) temperature, and the effect of sphere size on the melt-
ing and freezing processes. They also reported the discharge
and charge rates and the time required to melt and freeze a
spherical ice storage element. Finally, their results were used
for an ice storage element.
Yoon et al. [2] studied experimentally the freezing phenom-
enon of saturated water with the supercooled region in a hor-
izontal circular cylinder. From the experiments, it was found
that there were three types of freezing patterns. The first was
the annular ice layer growing from the cylinder surface at a
high cooling rate, the second was the asymmetric ice layer at
an intermediate cooling rate, and the last was the instanta-
neous ice layer growing over the whole region at a low cooling
rate.
Ismail et al. [3] presented the results of a numerical study on
the heat transfer during the process of solidification of water
inside a spherical capsule under convective boundary condi-
tions. The numerical solution was based upon the finite
An experimental study of freezing and melting
difference approach and the moving grid scheme. They also
validated the numerical predictions by comparison with exper-
imental results realized by the authors. The size of the spherical
capsule, wall material, external bath temperature and initial
temperature of water were investigated and their effects on
the solidified mass fraction and the time for complete solidifi-
cation were presented and discussed.
Sakr et al. [4] conducted experimental and theoretical study
on freezing and melting in capsules with different configura-
tions. They used water as a phase change material (PCM).
The PCM was encapsulated in five different copper capsules
(sphere, cylinder, pyramid, cone, and cuboids) having the same
internal volume. The effect of geometrical configuration on the
characterization of the freezing and melting processes was
investigated. The spherical capsule showed the best thermal en-
ergy storage performance among the five test configurations.
Tan et al. [5] reported an experimental and computational
investigation directed at understanding the role of buoyancy-
driven convection during constrained melting of phase change
material (PCM) inside a spherical capsule. The melting phase
front and melting fraction of the PCM were analyzed and com-
pared with numerical solution obtained from the CFD code
Fluent. They observed expedited phase change in the top re-
gion of the sphere and a wavy surface at the bottom of the
PCM after a short period of symmetric melting due to promi-
nence of diffusion.
Cheralathan et al. [6] investigated the transient behavior of
phase change material based cool thermal energy storage
(CTES). The system discussed was comprised of a cylindrical
storage tank filled with encapsulated phase change materials
(PCMs) in spherical container integrated with an ethylene gly-
col chiller plant. A simulation program was developed to eval-
uate the temperature history of the heat transfer fluid (HTF)
and the phase change material at any axial location during
the charging period. The model was also used to investigate
the effect of porosity, Stanton number, Stefan number and
Peclet number on CTES system performance. The results
showed that increase in porosity contributes to a higher rate
of energy storage. However, for a given geometry and heat
transfer coefficient, the mass of PCM charged in the unit
was found to decrease as the increase in porosity.
Kousksou et al. [7] investigated numerically the influences
of the position of the storage tank and the flow pattern inside
the tank for a cylindrical tank randomly filled with PCM
encapsulated in spherical capsules. They used two-dimensional
porous-medium modeling in two configurations of storage:
vertical configuration where the stream lines of natural convec-
tion are in the same direction as the forced convection and the
horizontal configuration where the natural convection is pre-
ponderant on that forced convection They reported that the
optimum running of the charge mode is obtained in the case
of a vertical position where the motions due to the natural con-
vection are in the same direction as the forced convection.
Ismail and Henriquez [8] presented a numerical study of the
solidification of PCM (distilled water) enclosed in a spherical
shell. The mathematical model was based on pure conduction
in the PCM subject to boundary conditions of constant temper-
ature or convection heat transfer on the external surface of the
spherical shell. The model was then used to predict the effect of
the size of the spherical shell, shell thickness, shell material, ini-
tial PCM temperature and the external wall temperature on the
solidified mass fraction and the time for complete solidification.
35
Kalaiselvam et al. [9] conducted analytical solutions for
solidification and melting process of different PCMs encapsu-
lated inside cylindrical enclosures. Their study aimed to find
the interface locations at various time steps. Transient inter-
face positions and complete phase change time were predicted
by two models for solidification and by three models for melt-
ing. Their analytical model was used to study the phase change
behavior and heat transfer characteristics inside PCM. Pres-
ence of heat generation increased the total solidification time
of the cylinder, though it accelerated melting. Total solidifica-
tion time depended on Stefan Number and heat generation
parameter, whereas complete melting time depended on equiv-
alent thermal conductivity.
Similar investigations were reported by many other authors,
eg. Khodadadi, and Zhang [10], Wu et al. [11], MacPhee and
Dincer [12], Erek and Dincer [13], MacPhee and Dincer [14],
Ananthanarayanan et al. [15], Beasley and Ramanarayanan
[16], Sozen et al. [17] and Ismail and Stuginsky [18].
2. Description of experimental test rig
The main target of the current study is to investigate experi-
mentally the effect of the size and material of the spherical cap-
sule (storage element), the volume flow rate and temperature
of heat transfer fluid (HTF) on the time for complete charg-
ing/discharging, the solidified/melted mass fraction, the per-
centage of energy stored/regained, and the energy recovery
ratio (ERR). To accomplish the above needs, a test rig is de-
signed and manufactured to carry out the heat transfer exper-
iments using the suitable instrumentation.
The test rig used in the present study is shown schematically
in Fig. 1a. It consists of charging tank, discharging tank,
spherical capsule (test section), refrigeration unit, heating
section, heat transfer fluid circulation unit (centrifugal pump,
piping system, gate valves), and suitable measuring instrumen-
tation. The test rig components will be described in details
through the following sections. The heat transfer fluid (HTF)
is selected to be aqueous ethylene glycol solution which has
a concentration of 35% by weight. The chosen concentration
has a freezing point of 19 C, [19].
2.1. Charging and discharging tanks
The charging and discharging tanks have the same dimensions.
They are galvanized steel tanks having dimensions of
350 · 350 · 450 mm, and painted internally by chemical coat-
ing (epoxy). To reduce the heat gain; the tanks are insulated
by a 50 mm thickness of injected expanded polyurethane ther-
mal insulation. Each tank is filled with a 0.038 m3 of the HTF.
The two tanks are provided with inlet and outlet pipes includ-
ing manual gate valves for the HTF circulation. Also, they are
provided with a movable insulated door at their tops.
2.2. Spherical capsule (test section)
In the present study the spherical capsules represent the ther-
mal storage test elements which made from different materials
(copper, brass, stainless steel, glass, and plastic) and having
different internal diameters (0.042, 0.07, 0.092, 0.10, and
0.11) with the same thickness (0.001 m) are employed to carry
36 R.I. ElGhnam et al.

13
12

14
15

1. Charging tank -8 °C
2. Discharging tank
2 3
3. Spherical capsule 16
4. Hermetic compressor 1
5. Condenser (forced, air-cooled type)
11
6. Thermostatic expansion valve
7. Evaporator (tube- in- tube type)
8. Heating section
12
9. Centrifugal pump
10. Manual gate valve
11. Heat transfer fluid (HTF) 10
12. Rotameter
13. Laptop
9
14. Thermocouples 8

15. Temperature controller

18
16. Temperature controller sensor
17. A.C voltage regulator
18. Digital clip-meter
6

17 7

5
Key:
4

Figure 1a Line diagram of the test rig.

out the experiments. The capsule materials are selected to
introduce a wide range of thermal conductivity. Distilled water
is used as the phase change material (PCM). Each one of the
spherical capsules is filled by 80% of its inner volume with dis-
tilled water as a PCM to avoid the thermal expansion during
the solidification process. Fifteen calibrated copper-constantan
(T-type) thermocouples are employed to measure the tempera-
ture distribution. Thirteen of them are distributed on the hor-
izontal and vertical axes of the spherical capsule at specified
distances, as shown in Fig. 1b, and the other two thermocou-
ples are used to measure the HTF temperature around the
spherical capsule.
2.3. Refrigeration unit and electric heating section
to a specified temperature to achieve the requirements of the
charging process.
The main purpose of the electric heating section is to heat
the HTF to a specified temperature, to achieve the require-
ments of the discharging process. The heating section is a cop-
per pipe with an outer diameter of 0.0218 m. It is externally
wrapped with an electric resistance (200 W heating capacity),
then electrically and thermally insulated. The electric resistance
is connected to AC voltage regulator (0–220 V), to enable elec-
tric power control.
A digital temperature controller (electronic thermostat) is
employed to control the required temperature inside the dis-
charging tank and charging tank with a set-point differential
of ±1 C.

The refrigeration unit is a simple vapor-compression cycle,
operated with R-22. It includes a hermetic compressor
(3 hp), air cooled condenser (forced type), filter, drier, thermo-
static expansion valve, and an evaporator (tube-in-tube type).
The main purpose of the refrigeration unit is to cool the HTF
2.4. HTF circulation unit and piping system
A centrifugal pump is used to circulate the HTF through the
piping system to carry out the charging and discharging exper-
iments. The piping system and the manual gate valves are
An experimental study of freezing and melting 37

card (National Instruments, NI USB-6210, 16-inputs, resolu-

tion of 16-bit and scanning rate of 250 kS/s) and a laptop are
used to monitor the temperatures through fifteen calibrated
copper-constantan (T-type) thermocouples. The HTF volume
flow rate is monitored by using a calibrated rotameter. To con-
Laptop
Spherical capsule trol a certain flow rate as an experimental parameter; a manual
neck gate valve and a bypass pipe fitted with another manual gate
Rubber hose valve are installed before the rotameter. A digital temperature
controller (electronic thermostat) is used to control the required
Data acquisition card
temperature inside the charging or discharging tank during the
charging and discharging experiments, respectively. The speci-
fications of the digital temperature controller are (ELIWELL
Vertical plastic tube IC 901, 0.5% accuracy, and 1 C set-point differential). A dig-
ital AC voltage regulator is used to adjust the input power to
Thermocouples
the heating section.
leads
3. Experimental procedures
6

PCM 13 11 9 7 4
(distilled water) 3 A series of charging and discharging experiments are per-
1 formed under various parameters. The varied parameters in
2 the present study are listed in Table 1. The charging and
5
discharging experiments are conducted, respectively and their
8
experimental procedures are discussed in the following two
Thermocouples positions 10
sections.
12 The manual gate valves incorporated with the piping sys-
Horizontal plastic tube
tem are positioned for the charging mode, and the refrigera-
Figure 1b Test section details showing distribution of tion unit operates to cool the circulating HTF. The digital
thermocouples. temperature controller is set at one of the five test temperatures
mentioned in Table 1. The PCM temperature is maintained at
25 C as an initial PCM temperature for all charging experi-
ments. Once the adjusted HTF temperature reaches, the
Table 1 Experimental parameters. volume flow rate of the HTF is set at one of the five volume
HTF parameters flow rates mentioned in Table 1. Measurements of the PCM
Temperature 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12 C temperatures inside the test capsule and the HTF temperatures
(during charge process) around it are scanned and recorded every two seconds by the
Temperature 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14 C data acquisition system. The experiment is terminated when
(during discharge process) the temperature of the PCM inside the test capsule starts to
Volume flow rate 1, 3, 4, 5, and 7 Lpm
be equal to that of the HTF. This indicates that the water is
Spherical capsule parameters frozen completely and the ice is being sensibly sub-cooled.
Size (internal diameter) 0.042, 0.07, 0.092, 0.11, and 0.126 m The refrigeration unit and the pump are switched off, and
Material Copper, brass, stainless steel, glass, the frozen test capsule is kept inside the charging tank to main-
and plastic tain its temperature until finishing the preparation of the dis-
charging experiment (which takes few minutes).
Prior to discharging experiments, the manual gate valves on
arranged to enable the same pump to circulate the heat trans- the piping system are positioned for the discharging mode. The
fer fluid through the charging and discharging cycles. The dis- digital thermostat is set at one of the five test temperatures
charge pipe connected to the centrifugal pump is branched into mentioned in Table 1. The pump is switched on and the refrig-
two parallel lines; one of them to the heating section and the eration unit operates only during the preparation to cool the
other to the evaporator of the refrigeration unit. The two circulating HTF. Once the adjusted HTF temperature is
branches are integrated with manual gate valves at inlet and reached, both of the refrigeration unit and the pump are
outlet of the heating section and the evaporator. The common switched off. The next step is to close the manual gate valves
pipe line after the heating section and the evaporator is sepa- of the evaporator and open those of the heating section. The
rated into two lines; one of them is directed to the rotameter pump and the heating section are switched on. The heating
and then to the charging or discharging tank and the other section is controlled by the digital thermostat. The PCM tem-
is bypassed to the suction line of the pump to achieve volume perature of the frozen spherical capsule is fixed at 8 C as an
flow rate control. initial PCM temperature for all discharging experiments. The
volume flow rate of the HTF is set at one of the five volume
2.5. Measuring instruments flow rates mentioned in Table 1. The next step is to run the
data acquisition software and transmit rapidly the spherical
Suitable measuring instruments are used for monitoring capsule from the charging tank to the discharging one.
temperatures and HTF volume flow rates. A data acquisition Measurements of the PCM temperatures inside the spherical
38 R.I. ElGhnam et al.

Figure 2a Sketch of the solidified volume of the PCM.

Figure 2b Sketch of the solidified volume of the PCM after
simplification.

capsule and the HTF temperatures around it are scanned and

recorded every 2 s by the data acquisition system. The experi-
ment is terminated when the temperature of the PCM inside 4.2. Accumulative stored andregained thermal energy Qst & Qreg
the spherical capsule begins to approach that of the HTF. This
indicates that the ice is melted completely and the water is The accumulative thermal energy stored within the test capsule
being sensibly super-heated. The electric heater and the pump is derived as follows:
are then switched off.      
ms ms
Qst ¼ qw Vo Cw ðTo  T1 Þ þ ðL:H:Þ þ Ci ðTpc  Ts Þ
mo mo
4. Data reduction
and the accumulative thermal energy regained from the melted
Through all the charging experiments, the test sphere is filled by PCM formed within the test spherical capsule is calculated
80% of its internal volume with PCM (distilled water) and care from following equation:
is taken to ensure that the test capsule is immersed in the middle      
of the charging tank. Also, the HTF flows upward around the mm mm
Qreg ¼ qw Vo Ci ðTs  To Þ þ ðL:H:Þ þ Ci ðT1  Tpc Þ
test capsule. Consequently, a symmetric solidification around mo mo
the vertical axis of the test capsule is assumed. Fig. 2a shows
a sketch of the solidified volume of the PCM formed inside
the test spherical capsule. This figure clarifies the symmetric 4.3. Charging rate Q_ ch and discharging rate Q_ dis
solidification around the vertical axis of the test capsule, but
it is clear that the development of ice is different in both the The charging rate of thermal energy stored within the test cap-
horizontal and vertical axes. So, one may simplify the solidified sule is calculated from;
volume by taking the arithmetic average of the horizontal and DQst
vertical radii of the solid–liquid interface as shown in Fig. 2b. Q_ ch ¼
Dt
According to Fig. 2b, the spherical shell volume is calculated
according to the following formula: The discharging rate of thermal energy regained from the
test capsule is calculated from;
Vshell ¼ ð2=3Þpðr3avgh;v Þ þ phðr2in  r2avgh;v Þ
DQreg
Q_ ch ¼
3 Dt
where Vshell is the spherical shell volume m , rin is the internal
radius of the test spherical capsule m, rh is the horizontal radius
of solid–liquid interface in test capsule m, rv is the vertical 4.4. Energy recovery ratio (ERR)
radius of solid–liquid interface in test capsule m, ravgh;v is the
arithmetic average radius ð¼ rh þr
2
V
Þ m, and h is the vertical dis-
tance, measured from the center of the spherical capsule to the Qreg =tcomp;dis
ERR ¼
free surface of the encapsulated PCM m. Qst =tcomp;ch

4.1. Solidified mass ms and melted mass mm

4.5. Dimensionless temperature (T*) and dimensionless time
(s)
The solidified mass of the PCM is calculated from:
ms ¼ qðqw =qi ÞVshell Dimensionless temperature (T*) is defined as the ratio of the
temperature of PCM at the center of spherical capsule to the
and the melted mass of the PCM is calculated from:
phase change temperature of PCM. It is computed from the
mm ¼ qw Vshell following equation:
An experimental study of freezing and melting 39

Tc 8
T ¼
Tpc
7
Dimensionless time (s) is expressed as Fourier number (FO). 6.050
6 5.880
Conceptually, it is the ratio of the heat conduction rate to the 5.539 5.453

comp.ch
rate of thermal energy storage. It is defined as: 5.027
5
ai  t
s ¼ FO ¼
r2in 4

3
4.6. Solidified mass fraction and melted mass fraction
2
Plastic Glass Stainless steel Brass Copper
Solidified mass fraction is defined as the ratio of the solidified
mass to the mass of the PCM encapsulated inside the spherical Figure 3 Effect of the capsule material on the dimensionless time
capsule. Thus, the solidified mass fraction is calculated from for complete charging.
the following formula:
ms q  Vs
Solidified mass fraction ¼ ¼ i 1.0
mo qw  Vo

Solidified mass fraction

0.9
Melted mass fraction is defined as the ratio of the melted 0.8
mass to the mass of the PCM encapsulated inside the spherical 0.7 Spherical capsule
material
0.6 Copper
capsule. Accordingly, the melted mass fraction is computed
0.5 Brass
from the following formula: 0.4 Stainless steel
mm 0.3 Glass
Melted mass fraction ¼
mo 0.2 Plastic
0.1
0.0
4.7. Percentage of energy stored and percentage of energy 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
regained Dimensionless time,

Figure 4 Variation of the solidified mass fraction with the

The percentage of energy stored within a test capsule is defined
as the ratio of accumulative energy stored at any charging time
to the maximum energy stored at the complete charging time,
namely;
Qst
%Energy stored ¼  100
Qst;max
The percentage of energy regained from a test capsule is de-
fined as the ratio of accumulative energy regained at any dis-
charging time to the maximum energy regained at the
complete discharging time, namely;
Qreg
%Energy regained ¼  100
Qreg;max
5. Results and discussion
Through the present chapter, the experimental results concern-
ing the effect of capsule material, capsule size, HTF tempera-
ture, and the volume flow rate of HTF on the dimensionless
time for complete charging/discharging, the solidified/melted
mass fraction, the percentage of energy stored/regained, and
the charging/discharging rate are analyzed, compared and
discussed.
5.1. Charging process results
5.1.1. Effect of capsule material
The effect of the material of the spherical capsule on the
dimensionless time for complete charging is shown in Fig. 3.
The tested materials are copper, brass, stainless steel, glass,
dimensionless time using different capsule materials during the
charging process.
and plastic. It is indicated that for the same operating condi-
tions, the metallic capsules introduced lower dimensionless
time for complete charging, especially the copper capsule
which took the lowest dimensionless time. Also, it is interesting
to notice that the difference between the times for complete
charging when using either metallic or non metallic capsules
is relatively small. This small difference makes the use of the
non metallic capsules is more economical. For further explor-
ing, Fig. 4 presents the effect of the capsule material on the
variation of the solidified mass fraction with the dimensionless
time, s, during the charging process while keeping the rest of
parameters unchanged. It is noticed that for all test materials,
the solidified mass fraction increases as the dimensionless time
increases. Also, for a given dimensionless time, the magnitude
of the solidified mass fraction increases by increasing the ther-
mal conductivity of the capsule material. For that aspect, the
copper capsule introduces the highest solidified mass fraction,
while the nonmetallic capsules produce the lowest one. It is
also noticed that for all capsule materials the rate of increase
of the mass fraction at the beginning is faster than that at
the end of the solidification process. This can be attributed
to the fact that the progressive formed ice layer acts as an insu-
lating material for the rest of the contained water.
Fig. 5 indicates the effect of the capsule material on the
variation of the percentage of energy stored with the dimen-
sionless time during the charging process, while keeping the
other parameters unchanged. It is realized that the percentage
40 R.I. ElGhnam et al.

100 1.0

Solidified mass fraction

90 0.9
% Energy stored

80 0.8 Charging process

0.7 Capsule internal
70 Spherical capsule diameter
material 0.6 0.042 m
60 Copper
50 0.5 0.07 m
Brass
40 0.4 0.092 m
Stainless steel 0.3 Capsule material: Glass
30 0.11 m
Wall thickness = 0.001 m
20 Glass 0.2 Initial PCM temperature =10 oC
0.126 m
10 Plastic 0.1 HTF temperature = -8 oC
HTF volume flow rate = 7 Lpm
0 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 100 200 300 400

Dimensionless time, Charging time, min

Figure 5 Variation of the percentage of energy stored with the Figure 8 Variation of the solidified mass fraction with the
dimensionless time using different capsule materials during the charging time using different capsule sizes.
charging process.

0.060 100
0.055 90
Spherical capsule

% Energy stored
0.050 material 80
Copper 70
Charging rate, kW

0.045 Capsule internal

0.040 Brass 60 diameter
0.042 m
0.035 Stainless steel
50
0.07 m
0.030 40
Glass 0.092 m
0.025 30 Capsule material: Glass
Plastic Wall thickness = 0.001 m
0.020 20 Initial PCM temperature = 10 o C
0.11 m

0.015 10 Charging process HTF temperature = -8 o C 0.126 m

HTF volume flow rate = 7 Lpm
0.010 0
0.005 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
0.000 Charging time, min
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Dimensionless time, Figure 9 Variation of the percentage of energy stored with the
charging time using different capsule sizes.
Figure 6 Variation of the charging rate with the dimensionless
time using different capsule materials during the charging process.
process, the charging rate of the metallic capsules is higher
than that of the nonmetallic ones. After that, the charging rate
of all capsules is rapidly decreased and their values are coinci-
Time for complete charging, min

400
Charging process
350 dent. This behavior is related to the decrease in the tempera-
300
ture difference between the PCM and HTF.
250
5.1.2. Effect of capsule size
200 In the present study, the glass capsule is chosen to investigate
150 the effect of capsule size on the characteristics of the charging
Capsule material: Glass
100 Wall thickness = 0.001 m and the discharging processes. Fig. 7 shows the variation of the
Initial PCM temperature =10 oC capsule internal diameter with the charging time. The results
50 HTF temperature = -8 oC
HTF volume flow rate =7 Lpm ensure the increase of the charging time with increasing the
0
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14
capsule size. Moreover, Fig. 8 shows the variation of the solid-
ified mass fraction with the charging time. The results are
Capsule internal diameter, m
presented for comparison. It is noticed that; the solidified mass
Figure 7 Effect of the capsule size on the time for complete fraction increases with increasing of the charging time for all
charging. capsule sizes. Also, it is realized that for a given charging time,
the solidified mass fraction of smaller capsule size is greater
of energy increases as dimensionless time increases. It is also than that of bigger one.
noticed that for a given dimensionless time, copper and brass Furthermore, Fig. 9 clarifies the variation of the percentage
capsules store more energy rather than stainless steel and of energy stored within a capsule with the charging time. The
non metallic capsules. This is due to their better thermal data of all capsule sizes are compared. Similar trend is observed
conductivity and accordingly they took relatively short dimen- for all capsule sizes. It is noticed that for a given capsule size,
sionless times for complete charging. Moreover, Fig. 6 shows increasing the charging time; increases the percentage of energy
the variation of the charging rate (energy stored rate) with stored. Also, for a given charging time, increasing the capsule
the dimensionless time during the charging process. The results size; increases the percentage of energy stored. On the other
of the different test capsule materials are presented for com- hand, one can observe from Fig. 10 that as the charging time
parison. It is shown that at the beginning of the charging is increased, the curves of charging rate of all capsule sizes seem
An experimental study of freezing and melting 41

0.140 Charging process

Charging process Capsule material: Glass Capsule internal 1.0
diameter

Solidified mass fraction

Wall thickness = 0.001 m
0.120 Initial PCM temperature = 10 oC
0.042 m 0.9
Chargeing rate, kW

HTF temperature = -8 oC 0.07 m 0.8

0.100 HTF volume flow rate = 7 Lpm 0.7
0.092 m HTF volume
flow rate
0.080 0.11 m
0.6 7 LPM
0.5
0.126 m 5 LPM
0.060 0.4
4 LPM
0.3 Capsule material: Glass
0.040 Internal diameter = 0.10 m 3 LPM
0.2 Wall thickness = 0.001 m
0.020 0.1 Initial PCM temperature = 10 oC 1 LPM
HTF temperature = -8 oC
0.0
0.000 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 Dimensionless time,
Charging time, min
Figure 12 Variation of the solidified mass fraction with the
Figure 10 Variation of the charging rate with the charging time dimensionless time using different HTF volume flow rates during
using different capsule sizes. the charging process.

8.0 100 Charging process

Charging process Capsule material: Glass 90

% Energy stored
7.5 Internal diameter = 0.10 m 80
Wall thickness = 0.001 m
Initial PCM temperature = 10 oC 70 HTF volume
7.0 flow rate
HTF temperature = -8 oC 60 7 LPM
comp.ch

50
5 LPM
6.5 40
4 LPM
30 Capsule material: Glass
6.0 Internal diameter = 0.10 m 3 LPM
20 Wall thickness = 0.001 m
10 Initial PCM temperature = 10 oC 1 LPM
5.5 HTF temperature = -8 oC
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
5.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Dimensionless time,
HTF volume flow rate, Lpm
Figure 13 Variation of the percentage of energy stored with the
Figure 11 Effect of the HTF volume flow rate on the dimen- dimensionless time using different HTF volume flow rates during
sionless time for complete charging. the charging process.

0.09
Capsule material: Glass HTF volume
to be closer together. Also, it is indicated that the higher charg- 0.08 Internal diameter = 0.10 m flow rate
7 LPM
Wall thickness = 0.001 m
ing rate is associated with the larger capsule size. For all capsule 0.07
Charging rate, kW

Initial PCM temperature = 10 oC 5 LPM

sizes, increasing the charging time; decreases the charging rate. 0.06
HTF temperature = -8 oC
4 LPM
This behavior is attributed to the fact that as the charging time 0.05 3 LPM
increases, the temperature difference between the PCM and
0.04 1 LPM
HTF is decreased.
0.03
0.02
5.1.3. Effect of HTF volume flow rate 0.01
The glass capsule is selected to investigate the effect of HTF Charging process
0.00
volume flow rate on the characteristics of the charging and 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
the discharging processes. Fig. 11 shows the variation of the Dimensionless time,
dimensionless time for complete charging with the HTF vol-
ume flow rate. It is observed that increasing the HTF volume Figure 14 Variation of the charging rate with the dimensionless
flow rate; decreases the dimensionless time for complete charg- time using different HTF volume flow rates during the charging
ing. The effect of the HTF volume flow rate on the variation of process.
the solidified mass fraction with the dimensionless time during
the charging process is shown in Fig. 12. It is indicated that for
all HTF volume flow rates, increasing the dimensionless time To further explore, Fig. 13 depicts the effect of the HTF
increases the solidified mass fraction till reaching the time for volume flow rate on the relation between the percentage of
complete solidification (the solidified mass fraction equals to energy stored and the dimensionless time during the charging
unity). Also, it is observed that for a given dimensionless time, process. Different volume flow rates introduce similar trend.
the solidified mass fraction increases by increasing the HTF It is shown that for a given HTF volume flow rate, increasing
volume flow rate. Accordingly, the higher the HTF volume the dimensionless time; increases the percentage of energy
flow rate, the shorter the dimensionless time for complete stored. Also, for a given dimensionless time, higher HTF vol-
charging. ume flow rate introduces higher percentage of energy stored. It
42 R.I. ElGhnam et al.

20
Capsule material: Glass 100
18 Internal diameter = 0.10 m 90
16 Wall thickness = 0.001 m

% Energy stored
80 Charging process
Initial PCM temperature = 10 oC
14 HTF volume flow rate = 7 Lpm 70
HTF
12 60
comp.ch

temperature
-12 C
10 50
-10 C
8 40
30 Capsule material: Glass -8 C
6 Internal diameter = 0.10 m
20 Wall thickness = 0.001 m
-6 C
4
10 Initial PCM temperature = 10 oC -4 C
2 Charging process HTF volume flow rate = 7 Lpm
0
0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
-14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2
Dimensionless time,
HTF temperature, ºC
Figure 17 Variation of the percentage of energy stored with the
Figure 15 Effect of the HTF temperature on the dimensionless dimensionless time using different HTF temperatures during the
time for complete charging. charging process.

1.0 0.09
Solidified mass fraction

Capsule material: Glass HTF

0.9 0.08 Charging process temperature
Internal diameter = 0.10 m -12 C
0.8 Charging process Wall thickness = 0.001 m

Charging rate, kW
0.07 Initial PCM temperature = 10 oC
0.7 -10 C
HTF
0.06 HTF volume flow rate = 7 Lpm
0.6 temperature -8 C
-12 C
0.5 0.05 -6 C
-10 C
0.4 0.04 -4 C
0.3 Capsule material: Glass -8 C
Internal diameter = 0.10 m 0.03
0.2 -6 C
Wall thickness = 0.001 m
0.1 Initial PCM temperature = 10 oC -4 C 0.02
HTF volume flow rate = 7 Lpm
0.0 0.01
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
0.00
Dimensionless time, 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Dimensionless time,
Figure 16 Variation of the solidified mass fraction with the
dimensionless time using different HTF temperatures during the Figure 18 Variation of the charging rate with the dimensionless
charging process. time using different HTF temperatures during the charging
process.

can be observed from Fig. 14 that for a given HTF volume
flow rate, as the dimensionless time increases, the charging rate
of energy stored decreases. Also, the curves of charging rate
with dimensionless time are coincident. Also, it is observed
that at the beginning of charging process, higher charging rate
is associated with higher HTF volume flow rate.
5.1.4. Effect of HTF temperature
Through the present study, the glass capsule is selected to
investigate the effect of HTF temperature on the characteris-
tics of the charging and the discharging processes. The
temperature of HTF is varied from 4 C to 12 C. The
HTF volume flow rate is kept at 7 Lpm, the internal capsule
diameter is kept at 0.1 m and the initial PCM temperature is
maintained at 10 C. Fig. 15 depicts the variation of the
HTF temperature with the dimensionless time for complete
charging. It can be seen that the decrease of the HTF temper-
ature from 4 C to 12 C reduces greatly the dimensionless
time for complete charging. Furthermore, the results presented
in Fig. 16 ensure those of Fig. 15 in the sense that lowering the
HTF temperature; decreases the dimensionless time for
complete solidification (the time for solidified mass fraction
to be equal to unity).
One can observe from Fig. 17 that as the HTF temperature
decreases, the percentage of energy stored increases. Conse-
quently, the lower the HTF temperature, the shorter the
dimensionless time for complete charging. This agrees with
the previous results. Moreover, Fig. 18 shows the effect of
the HTF temperature on the variation of the charging rate
(rate of energy stored) with the dimensionless time. It is seen
that the charging rate is rapidly decreased by increasing the
dimensionless time. The data for all HTF temperatures have
the same trend and are closer together.
5.2. Discharging process results
5.2.1. Effect of capsule material
Fig. 19 presents the effect of the capsule material on the dimen-
sionless time for complete discharging. The rest of parameters
are kept unchanged. It is shown that the metallic capsules
introduce lower dimensionless time for complete discharging.
On the other hand, Fig. 20 shows the variation of the melted
mass fraction with the dimensionless time during a discharging
process. The data of different test capsule materials are pre-
sented for comparison. It is seen that as the dimensionless time
increases, the melted mass fraction increases. One can observe
that the increase in the melted mass fraction for metallic cap-
sules is higher than that of nonmetallic ones. For that aspect,
the dimensionless time for complete discharging for metallic
capsules is shorter than that of nonmetallic ones. Also, it is ob-
An experimental study of freezing and melting 43

9.0
Internal diameter = 0.092 m
8.5 HTF temperature = 10 oC
Initial PCM temperature = -8 o C
0.030
Wall thickness =0.001m Discharging process Internal diameter = 0.092 m Spherical capsule
HTF volume flow rate =7 Lpm Wall thickness = 0.001 m material
0.025 Copper
Initial PCM temperature = -8 oC

Discharging rate, kW
8.0
7.499 Discharging process HTF temperature = 10 oC Brass
7.5 7.294 Volume flow rate = 7 Lpm
0.020 Stainless steel
6.817
comp.dis

7.0
6.391 0.015 Glass
6.5
6.0 5.794
0.010
5.5
5.0 0.005
4.5
4.0 0.000
Plastic Glass Stainless steel Brass Copper 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Dimensionless time,
Figure 19 Effect of the capsule material on the dimensionless
time for complete discharging. Figure 22 Variation of the discharging rate with the dimension-
less time using different capsule materials during the discharging
process.
1.0 Internal diameter = 0.092 m
Wall thickness = 0.001 m
Melted mass fraction

0.9 Initial PCM temperature = -8 o C

HTF temperature = 10 oC
0.8

Time for complete discharging, min

Volume flow rate = 7 Lpm 500
0.7 Spherical capsule
450 Charging process
material
0.6 Copper
400
0.5
Brass
0.4 350
Stainless steel
0.3 300
0.2 Glass
250
0.1 Discharging process Plastic
200
0.0 Capsule material: Glass
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 150
Wall thickness = 0.001 m
Dimensionless time, 100 Initial PCM temperature = 10 oC
50 HTF temperature = -8 oC
Figure 20 Variation of the melted mass fraction with the HTF volume flow rate = 7 Lpm
0
dimensionless time using different capsule materials during the 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14
discharging process. Capsule internal diameter, m

Figure 23 Effect of the capsule size on the time for complete

Internal diameter = 0.092 m
discharging.
100 Wall thickness = 0.001 m
90 Initial PCM temperature = -8 oC
% Energy regained

HTF temperature = 10 oC
80 Volume flow rate = 7 Lpm
70
To further explore, Fig. 21 depicts the variation of the per-
Spherical capsule
60 material centage of energy regained with the dimensionless time during
Copper
50 the discharging process. The results of the different test capsule
Brass
40 materials are presented for comparison. One can observe that
Stainless steel
30 the increasing of the dimensionless time increases the percent-
20 Glass
age of energy regained. This is true for all capsule materials.
10 Discharging process Plastic
Also, it is realized that the nonmetallic capsules consumes its
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 stored energy in a relatively longer time rather than the metal-
Dimensionless time, lic ones. Fig. 22 presents the variation of the discharging rate
with the dimensionless time during the discharging process.
Figure 21 Variation of the percentage of energy regained with The data of all test capsule materials are compared. The results
the dimensionless time using different capsule materials during the of the capsule materials have the same trend. It is noticed that
discharging process. at the beginning of discharging process, high discharging rate
is happened, which can be attributed to the high temperature
served that the whole capsule materials have the same trend in difference between the HTF and PCM. After that, the dis-
the sense that at the beginning of the discharging process, the charging rate decreases suddenly due to the fast decrease in
melted mass fraction increases slowly with time compared to temperature difference during the sensible heating of ice till
that at the end of the melting process. This can be attributed reaching the phase change temperature. As mentioned earlier,
to the fact that at the beginning, the formed melted layer be- increasing the melting layer by passing the time enhances the
tween the inner surface of the capsule and the remaining ice heat transfer by convection. So, the discharging rate increases
is small. Accordingly, the heat transfer by conduction is the gradually till finishing the melting process. Finally; the dis-
dominant, while the convective heat transfer is not effective. charge rate decreases as a result of the decrease in the temper-
As time goes, the gap of melting layer increases and conse- ature difference between the HTF and PCM. Also, it is
quently, the heat transfer by convection is enhanced, that lead observed that the discharging rate of nonmetallic capsules
to increase the melting rate. takes longer time than those of metallic ones.
44 R.I. ElGhnam et al.

Capsule internal 9.0

1.0 diameter Capsule material: Glass
0.042 m
0.9 8.5 Internal diameter = 0.10 m
Melted mass fraction

0.8 0.07 m Wall thickness = 0.001 m

0.7 0.092 m
8.0 Initial PCM temperature = -8 oC
HTF temperature = 10 oC

comp.dis
0.6 0.11 m 7.5
0.5 0.126 m
0.4 7.0
0.3 Capsule material: Glass
Wall thickness = 0.001 m 6.5
0.2 Initial PCM temperature = -8 oC
0.1 HTF temperature = 10 oC
Discharging process HTF volume flow rate = 7 Lpm 6.0
0.0 Discharging process
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 5.5
Discharging time, min 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
HTF volume flow rate, Lpm
Figure 24 Variation of the melted mass fraction with the
discharging time using different capsule sizes. Figure 27 Effect of the HTF volume flow rate on the dimen-
sionless time for complete discharging.

100
1.0 Discharging process
90
% Energy regained

80 0.9

Melted mass fraction

70 Discharging process 0.8
Capsule
60 internal 0.7 HTF volume
diameter flow rate
50 0.042 m 0.6 7 LPM
40 0.5 5 LPM
30 Capsule material: Glass 0.07 m 0.4 4 LPM
Wall thickness = 0.001 m
20 Initial PCM temperature = -8 oC 0.3 Capsule material: Glass 3 LPM
0.092 m
HTF temperature = 10 o C Internal diameter = 0.10 m
10 0.2 Wall thickness = 0.001 m 1 LPM
HTF volume flow rate = 7 Lpm
0 0.1 Initial PCM temperature = -8 oC HTF volume
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 HTF temperature = 10 oC flow rate
0.0
Discharging time, min 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Dimensionless time,
Figure 25 Variation of the percentage of energy regained with
the discharging time using different capsule sizes. Figure 28 Variation of the melted mass fraction with the
dimensionless time using different HTF volume flow rates during
the discharging process.

0.040
Capsule internal
Discharging process Capsule material: Glass diameter shown in Fig. 25. It is noticed that for a given capsule size,
0.035 Wall thickness = 0.001 m 0.042 m
Initial PCM temperature = -8 oC the melted mass fraction is increased by increasing the dis-
Discharging rate, kW

HTF temperature = 10 oC 0.07 m

0.030
HTF volume flow rate = 7 Lpm 0.092 m
charging time. Also, it is observed that for a given discharging
0.025 time, the larger the capsule size, the lower the percentage
0.11 m
0.020 0.126 m energy regained. Accordingly, the larger the capsule size, the
0.015 longer the time for complete discharging. Fig. 26 reveals the
relation between the discharge rate and the discharging time.
0.010
The data for all capsule sizes are presented for comparison.
0.005 It is observed that the data for all capsule sizes have the same
0.000 trend in the sense as discussed earlier (Section 5.2.1). Also, it is
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 shown that the largest capsule size introduces the longest dis-
Discharging time, min
charging time.
Figure 26 Variation of the discharging rate with the discharging
time using different capsule sizes. 5.2.3. Effect of HTF volume flow rate
It is realized from Fig. 27 that increasing the HTF volume flow
rate, decreases the time for complete discharging. Further-
5.2.2. Effect of capsule size more, Fig. 28 reveals the variation of the melted mass fraction
It is indicated from Fig. 23 that increasing the capsule size in- with the dimensionless time during the discharging process.
creases the time for complete discharging. Moreover, Fig. 24 The data of all tested HTF volume flow rates are compared.
indicates the effect of the capsule size on the variation of the All the data introduced the same trend. It is shown that
melted mass fraction with the discharging time. This figure increasing the dimensionless time, increases the melted mass
reveals that for a given discharging time, the melted mass frac- fraction. It is also observed that for a given dimensionless time,
tion is decreased by increasing the capsule size. Also, it is no- the melted mass fraction is increased by increasing the HTF
ticed that for a given capsule size, the melted mass fraction is volume flow rate.
increased by increasing the discharging time. The effect of the HTF volume flow rate on the relation be-
The effect of the capsule size on the relation between the tween the percentage of energy regained and the dimensionless
percentage of energy regained and the discharging time is time during the discharging process is shown in Fig. 29. It is
An experimental study of freezing and melting 45

Discharging process 10
100 Capsule material: Glass
90 9 Internal diameter = 0.10 m
% Energy regained

Wall thickness = 0.001 m

80 8 Initial PCM temperature = -8 oC
70 HTF volume HTF volume flow rate = 7 Lpm
7

comp.dis
flow rate
60 7 LPM
50 6
5 LPM
40 5
4 LPM
30 Capsule material: Glass
Internal diameter = 0.10 m 3 LPM 4
20 Wall thickness = 0.001 m
10 Initial PCM temperature = -8 o C 1 LPM 3
HTF temperature = 10 oC Discharging process
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2
4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Dimensionless time,
HTF temperature, ºC
Figure 29 Variation of the percentage of energy regained with
Figure 31 Effect of the HTF temperature on the dimensionless
the dimensionless time using different HTF volume flow rates
time for complete discharging.
during a discharging process.

0.040 1.0
Discharging process HTF volume

Melted mass fraction

Capsule material: Glass 0.9
flow rate
0.035 Internal diameter = 0.10 m
7 LPM 0.8
Discharging rate, kW

Wall thickness = 0.001 m

0.030 Initial PCM temperature = -8 o C 0.7 Discharging process
5 LPM
HTF temperature = 10 oC HTF
0.6 temperature
0.025 4 LPM 14 C
0.5
3 LPM 12 C
0.020 0.4
1 LPM 0.3 Capsule material: Glass 10 C
0.015 Internal diameter = 0.10 m
0.2 Wall thickness = 0.001 m
8 C
0.010 0.1 Initial PCM temperature = -8 oC 6 C
HTF volume flow rate = 7 Lpm
0.005 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.000 Dimensionless time,
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Dimensionless time, Figure 32 Variation of the melted mass fraction with the
dimensionless time using different HTF temperatures during the
Figure 30 Variation of the discharging rate with the dimension-
discharging process.
less time using different HTF volume flow rates during the
discharging process.
Discharging process
100
90
revealed that for a given dimensionless time, increasing the
% Energy regained

80
HTF volume flow rate increases the percentage of energy re- 70
gained. Also, for a given HTF volume flow rate, the percentage 60
HTF
temperature
of energy regained is increased by increasing the dimensionless 50
14 C

time. Fig. 30 reveals the variation of the discharging rate with 40 12 C

the dimensionless time during the discharging process. The 30 Capsule material: Glass 10 C
Internal diameter = 0.10 m
results of the HTF volume flow rates are compared. These re- 20 Wall thickness = 0.001 m
8 C

10 Initial PCM temperature = -8 oC 6 C

sults ensure that the discharging rate is decreased by increasing HTF volume flow rate = 7 Lpm
0
the dimensionless time. Also, it is noticed that the results of all 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
the HTF volume flow rates have the same trend. The reason Dimensionless time,
for this behavior is discussed in Section 5.2.1.
Figure 33 Variation of the percentage of energy regained with
the dimensionless time using different HTF temperatures during
5.2.4. Effect of HTF temperature the discharging process.
Fig. 31 presents the effect of the HTF temperature on the
dimensionless time for complete discharging. It is indicated
that decreasing the temperature of the HTF, increases the Moreover, Fig. 33 reveals that the percentage of energy re-
dimensionless time for complete discharging. On the other gained is increased by increasing the HTF temperature for a
side, Fig. 32 depicts the relation between the melted mass given dimensionless time. Also, for a given HTF temperature,
fraction and the dimensionless time during the discharging the percentage of energy regained is increased by increasing the
process. The data for all tested HTF temperatures are com- discharging time. One can observe from Fig. 34 that the dis-
pared. It is shown that for a given HTF temperature, the charging rate using a given HTF temperature is decreased by
melted mass fraction is increased by increasing the dimension- increasing the dimensionless time. In addition, for a given
less time. The results of all test HTF temperatures have the dimensionless time, the discharging rate is higher for high
same trend. Also, it is observed that for a given dimensionless HTF temperatures. The reason for this behavior is related to
time, the melted mass fraction is increased by increasing the the progressive convection effect by passing the time as men-
HTF temperature. tioned earlier.
46 R.I. ElGhnam et al.

0.050
HTF
0.045 Discharging process Capsule material: Glass
Internal diameter = 0.10 m temperature
14 C
Wall thickness = 0.001 m
Discharging rate, kW

0.040
Initial PCM temperature = -8 oC 12 C
0.035 HTF volume flow rate = 7 Lpm
10 C
0.030
8 C
0.025
6 C
0.020
0.015
0.010
0.005
0.000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Dimensionless time,

Figure 34 Variation of the discharging rate with the dimension- Figure 36 Effect of the capsule size on ERR.
less time using different HTF temperatures during the discharging
process.

Figure 35 Effect of the capsule material on ERR. Figure 37 Effect of the HTF volume flow rate on ERR.

5.3. Energy recovery ratio

The energy recovery ratio (ERR) is defined as the ratio of the

average energy regained rate to the average energy stored rate
under the same operational conditions. The energy storage
performance is measured by the energy recovery ratio, the
higher the energy recovery ratio, the better the energy storage
performance. Fig. 35 reveals the effect of capsule material on
the ERR while the rest of parameters are unchanged. The data
for all test capsule materials are compared. It is noticed that
the copper capsule introduce the highest ERR. Also, the plas-
tic capsule introduce an acceptable ERR compared to those of
higher thermal conductivities. Accordingly, the use of nonme-
tallic capsules is encouraging for its economical aspects (cheap
and easy to fabricate). On other side, Fig. 36 shows the effect
Figure 38 Comparison between the present experimental study
of the capsule size (capsule internal diameter) on the parameter
and the results of Ismail et al. [3].
ERR. It is indicated that the higher the capsule size, the higher
ERR. Furthermore, Fig. 37 depicts the effect of HTF volume
flow rate on the parameter ERR. It is observed that the lowest 7. Conclusions
HTF volume flow rate introduces the highest value of ERR.
Based on the present results, the following significant features
6. Comparisons with the available published data can be drawn:

Fig. 38 shows a comparison between the present results and the 1. The time for complete charging is decreased by using
numerical results of Ismail et al. [3] for the variation of solidified metallic capsules, smaller capsule sizes, lower HTF tem-
mass fraction with the charging time. The comparison ensures peratures and higher HTF volume flow rates.
reasonable agreement between the present results and those of 2. The solidified mass fraction is increased by employing
[3]. The slight discrepancy between them is related to the differ- metallic capsules, using smaller capsule sizes, higher
ence between the present operating conditions and those of [3]. HTF volume flow rates and lower HTF temperatures.
An experimental study of freezing and melting
3. The percentage of the energy stored is increased by using
metallic capsules, bigger capsule sizes, higher HTF vol-
ume rates and lower HTF temperatures.
4. The time for complete discharging is increased by using
nonmetallic capsules, bigger capsule sizes, lower HTF
temperatures and lower volume flow rates.
5. The melted mass fraction and the percentage of the
energy regained are increased by employing metallic
capsules, using smaller capsule sizes, higher HTF vol-
ume flow rates and higher HTF temperatures.
6. The energy recovery ratio is becoming better, when
using metallic capsules, increasing the capsule size and
reducing the HTF volume flow rates.
7. The thermal conductivity of the capsule material has a
relatively small effect on the time for complete charging,
time for complete discharging, solidified mass fraction,
melted mass fraction and the energy recovery ratio.
8. Although shorter time is consumed for the charging pro-
cess using the metallic capsules, significant longer time is
taken for the discharging process when using the nonme-
tallic capsules, which lead to select the later type to
enhance the thermal energy storage system.
9. It is economical to use nonmetallic capsules (cheap and
easy to fabricate), as the change in time for complete
charging and discharging as well as ERR is small.
10. The gained results of the present research are confident
as reasonable agreement is noticed when compared with
the results of one of the literature.
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Dr. Reda I. Elghnam is currently Associate
Professor of Mechanical Engineering (Power
department) at Shoubra Faculty of engineer-
ing, Benha University, Egypt. He has pub-
lished about 19 papers in referred national
and international journals and conference
proceedings. His area of research is heat
transfer, heat pipes and combustion.
Dr. Ramdan A. Abdelaziz is currently Profes-
sor of Mechanical Engineering (Power
department) at Shoubra Faculty of engineer-
ing, Benha University, Egypt. His area of
research is heat transfer, heat pipes and
refrigeration and air conditioning.
Dr. Mohamed H. Sakr is currently Professor
of Mechanical Engineering (Power depart-
ment) at Shoubra Faculty of engineering,
Benha University, Egypt. His area of research
is heat transfer, heat pipes and refrigeration
and air conditioning.
 48 R.I. ElGhnam et al.
Eng. Hany E. Abdelrhman is currently Asso-
ciate Lecturer of Mechanical Engineering
(Power department) at Shoubra Faculty of
engineering, Benha University, Egypt. His
area of research is heat transfer, heat pipes
and refrigeration and air conditioning.

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