Chapter: 1 Introduction to Computer Graphics

I. What is Computer Graphics?

Computer Graphics (CG) is basically defined as a combination of three things namely,

Data structure, Graphic algorithm and Languages (CG =Data Structure + Graphics
Algorithm + Languages). Here the Data structure are those data structure that are
suitable for CG. Graphics Algorithm are used for picture generation and transformations
and the languages refer to the High level languages used for generation of graphic
objects and pictures.

Definitions

Computer Graphics: PC Graphics is the utilization of PC to characterize, store, control,

cross examine and present pictorial yield. The PC get ready and presents the put away
data to an eyewitness as pictures.

Pixels – A pixel is the smallest tiny addressable dots on the screen element. It is a
rectangular grid of thousands of such spots that are individually painted to form a
image. Each pixel has its name, color and intensity. It is a measure of screen resolution.

It can be controllable by setting its color and intensity. A pixel is also known as PEL

Figure 1 : Pixel representation of an image

In given picture, there may be thousands numbers of pixels that together make up this
image. We will zoom this image to the extent and that we are able to see some pixels
division in image. It is shown in the image below.

Rasterization: This is the process of determining the appropriate pixels that are used
for representing a picture.

Framebuffer: It is a large contiguous place of memory into which the intensity values
for all pixels are placed.

Bit Plane: In Bit Panel there is one memory bit represent each pixel. The amount of
memory is called a bit-plane. The image is built in the frame buffer one bit at a time.

A memory bit has only 2 states 0 and 1(Binary) . So a single bit plane yields only 2
colors Black n White.

Bitmap: In the monochromatic monitor, the frame buffer represents only one bit value
per pixel that is known as Bitmap. An image of 2colors is known as a bitmap.

Pixmap: In a color monitors, the frame buffer represents only multiple bits per pixel,
known as Bitmap.

Dot Pitch: It is the diagonal distance between two-liked colors (RGB) on a display
screen. Smaller the dot pitch, higher the resolution and sharpness of the image.

Bit Depth: It is the number of bits assigned to each pixel in the image.

Aspect ratio: The ratio of horizontal points to the vertical point required to produce
equal length lines in both the directions on the screen.

Refresh Rate: The number of times per second the pixels are recharged so that the
image does not flicker.

History of Computer Graphics

1950 – Ben Laposky created the first graphics image

1987 – VGA was introduced

1995 – 3D animated motion picture was developed.

Introduction to Computer Graphics

Graphics is defined as a sketch or drawing or a special network that pictorially

represents some meaningful information. It is used when a set of images needs to be
manipulated or an image is to be represented/created in form of pixels on computer. It
can be used in, digital photography, film, entertainment, electronic gadgets and many
more. It is also used in field of computer science in UI design, geometric object,
rendering, animation and many more.

The spectator has no immediate authority over the image being introduced, yet in
unique intuitive PC designs, the onlooker connects with the image progressively. The
significant utilization of CG is in plan measures, especially for designing and building
frameworks. PC Aided Design(CAD) is a fragment in CG which helps in creation,
adjustment or enhancement of a plan of an item, for example, building, vehicles,
airplane, watercraft and so on.

Types of Computer Graphics

Computer Graphics are basically classified in to two main types

Raster Graphics: In raster designs pixels are utilized for a picture to be drawn. It is
otherwise called a bitmap picture in which an arrangement of picture is into more
modest pixels. Fundamentally a bitmap shows countless pixels together.

· Vector Graphics: In vector illustrations, numerical formulae are utilized to draw various
sorts of shapes, lines, protests, etc.

Computer Graphics Software Standards

The primary goal of The primary goal of standardised graphic software is portability
otherwise the program designed for one hardware system can’t work on another system
without rewriting of the programs.

1) The first standard was - GKS (Graphic kernel system) this system was adopted by
ISO international standards organisation it was designed as a two-dimensional graphic
package at three-dimensional GKS extension was subsequently developed

2) The second software standard was PHIGS (Programmer Hierarchical Interactive

Graphics Standard) which is an extension of GKS.
It includes extra features like colour specifications surface rendering picture and
manipulation and many more the next version was PHIGS plus which included three-
dimensional surface shading capabilities the PHIGS presents a specifications for basic
graphic functions but it does not provide a standard methodology for a graphics
interface to output devices it does not specify method for storing and transmitting
pictures.

So separate standards have been developed for these areas.

 standardisation methods for device interface are given in CGI system that is
computer graphics interface
 CGM computer graphics metafile systems specify standards for storing and
transmitting pictures.

Compute Graphics Software Standards

There are two general classification is for graphics software

1) General programming packages

2) Special purpose application packages

1) General programming packages

It provides an extensive set of graphic functions that can be used in high-level

programming languages like Fortran C C++ etc examples of a general graphic package
is GL graphics library system basic functions are generating picture components like
straight lines polygons circles and other figures setting colours and intensity values we
can select views we can apply transformation on the figure etc
2) Special purpose application package

These packages are designed for non-programmers so that users can generate
displays without worrying about how graphics operation work here the user can
communicate with the graphic routines in their own way examples are artist painting
programs, medical systems CAD systems business systems etc

Characteristics of Computer Graphics

- It is interactive in nature.
- User friendly
- It provides a tool called motion dynamics which allows user to move objects.
- It provides a tool to update dynamics which allows user to change color, shape
and other properties if objects being viewed.
- It has ability to show motion picture known as Animation.

Components of Computer Graphics

It consist of 2 main components at 2 levels namely…

1) Software level
- It involves 3 components
a) Application program
b) Application Model
c) Graphics System
2) Hardware level
It involves …
a) Interactive devices
b) Display devices

Applications of computer graphics

1) Building design and construction

Computer graphics are useful tool for generating drawings and visualizing structures
Computer can make various images of building from different angles.
2) Electronic design
Electronic devices like radio television and computers made up of printed circuits before
few years this circuits were developed manually but now these circuits are prepared by
using computer. The engineers design circuits on computer by graphics

3) Mechanical design

Machines are complex arrangement of mechanical parts. CSG- Construction solid

geometry is used to design different parts of machine on the computer. Today before
manufacturing any machine engineers first design that machine on the computer.

4) Entertainment and animation

Computer are used in making cartoon animation films

5) Medical technology

Today, CAT computerized axial tomography are used to compose the three dimensional
model of the brain by taking multiple x-rays of it. CAT scan is useful for detecting brain
tumors.

6) Cartography

Computer graphics is useful for the presentation of group geographical and other
natural phenomena from measurement data. Example geographical maps, relief map,
exploration map, weather map, population map etc

7) Art and commerce

Computer graphics is used to produce pictures that express a message. It is used in

various types of applications like transportation terminals, supermarket, and hotel. It is
also used to presentation of commercial, scientific or educational work

Display devices

Display devices are basically categorized as

1) Random scan

2) Raster scan monitors

3) Color CRT monitors

4) Direct view storage devices

5) Plasma panel display

6) LED

7) LCD monitors

8) Three Dimensional monitors

Figure 2 Classification of CRT

1) Random Scan (Refresh CRT or Video Display Device)

The primary output device in a computer Graphics monitor is a video monitor. The
output of the video monitor is based on the standard CRT – Cathode Ray Tube design.

1) Cathode Ray Tube:

Figure 3 Cathode Ray Tube

 Figure 4 CRT Composition

Definition

In the CRT is the presentation screen which produces picture in type of the video
Signal. It is a sort of vacuum tube which showcases pictures when the electron pillar
(three electron weapons) strike on the fluorescent surface. As such the CRT produces
the bars, quicken it at high speed and avoid it for making the pictures on the
phosphorus screen so the pillar gets obvious.

Working of CRT

In the wake of leaving from the electron firearm, the bar goes through the sets of
electrostatic avoidance plates. These plates are avoided the shafts when the voltage
applied across it. The one sets of plate moves the light emission and the second pair of
plate moves the bar starting with one side then onto the next. The level and vertical
development of the electron are free of one another, and thus the electron pillar situated
anyplace on the screen. The working pieces of a CRT are encased in a vacuum glass
envelope with the goal that the excluded electrons can without much of a stretch move
uninhibitedly from one finish of the cylinder to the next. Development of CRT the
electron firearm get together, diversion plate gathering, greenery sunscreen, glass
Envelop, base of the significant pieces of the CRT. The electron firearm M it's the
electron pillar, and through avoidance plates, it strikes on the phosphorus screen.

The phosphorus at that point discharges a little spot of light at eight position reached by
the electron bar. Yet, the issue with phosphorus is the light discarded by phosphor blurs
up, so some component is needed to keep up picture on the screen. Thus, one of the
arrangement is to redraw the image more than once by rapidly coordinating the electron
pillar over a similar position. This kind of show is known as a revive CRT.

1) Electron Gun

It consist of two components

A) A Metal Cathode

B) Control Grid

A) The Metal Cathode

The heat is supplied to cathode by directing current through filament that is coil of wire.
Inside the CRT envelope it is charge less, so negatively charged electrons are
accelerated to what the phosphorus coating screen because of positive voltage.

The accelerating voltage can be generated with a positively charged metal coating on
the inner side of CRT envelope near the phosphorus screen or an accelerating anode
and forecasting system can be used to direct electron beam to words the screen.

B) Control grid

Intensity of the electron beam is controlled by voltage level on the control board. A high
negative voltage when applied to the control grid will shut off the beam by the repelling
electrons and stopping them from passing through the small hole at the end of the
control grid structure.

A smaller negative voltage on the control grid decreases the number of electrons
passing through. The amount of light that is brightness emitted by the phosphorus
quoted coating depends on the number of electrons. That is we can control the
brightness of the display by varying the voltage on the control grid.

2) Focusing system
The forecasting system is required to collect all the electrons of beam into a small point,
otherwise the electron would repel each other so beam would be spread out on the
screen. So for that, 2 fields are used.

1) Electric field or

2) Magnetic field

The system is normally used on television and computer graphics system. Magnetic
focusing system is used in special purpose devices because it produces smallest part
on the screen.

For electro static system, electrostatic lens is used to focus the electron beam at the
centre of the screen. For magnetic system magnetic Lens are used

For high precision systems, additional focusing hard work is required because distance
from the electron gun to screen is vary because of curvature of the CRT.

The electron beam will be focus properly at the centre of the screen but it mitigate the
quality of the picture as the beam most to the outer edges of the screen.

3) Deflection system

If the beam of electrons is not exactly at the centre of the screen then deflection of that
beam is required. The deflection of the electron beam can be controlled by

1) Magnetic field

2) Electric field

1) Magnetic field

CRT are usually developed with attractive avoidance loop mounted outwardly of the
CRT envelope.

To combine of loops are utilized. One sets is mounted on the top and the lower part of
the neck, and the other pair is mounted on the contrary side of the neck. Motivation to
avoidance is refined with one sets of loop and vertical diversion by the other pair.

2) Electrostatic avoidance framework

At the point when electrostatic diversion framework is utilized, to combine of equal
plates are mounted inside the CRT envelope.One pair of plates and mounted on a level
plane which controls the vertical redirection and the other pair is mounted vertically
which controls the flat reflection.

Properties

1) Persistence

Phosphorous are separated by their shading and ingenuity. Constancy implies how long
they proceed to Emmett light on the screen steadiness is characterized as the time it
takes the excluded light from the screen to rot to one tenth of the provincial force.

Low determination phosphorus requires higher revive rate to keep an image on the
screen. Phosphorus with low diligence is helpful for activity.

A high diligence phosphorus use for showing hello mind boggling and static picture.
Realistic screens are built with constancy in the scope of 10 to 60 µs. In any case, some
phosphorus have a steady more noteworthy than one second.

2) Resolution

The most extreme number of focuses that can be shown without cover on a CRT is
alluded to the beneficiaries the disintegration. The arrangement is the quantity of
focuses per centimeter that can be plotted on a level plane and vertically. Goal of a
screen in our lab is 1048 *768

A portion of the screens may have goal of 1280×1024

3) Aspect proportion

It is proportion of vertical focuses to the level focuses important to deliver equivalent

length lines in both the course on the screen. For instance viewpoint proportion of 3/4
methods vertical line plotted with three focuses on screen, has same length as level line
plotted with four focuses.
Favorable circumstances:

a) They work at any goal, math and perspective proportion without the requirement for
rescaling the picture.

b) CRTs run at the highest pixel resolutions generally available.

c) Produce a very dark black and the highest contrast levels normally available.
Suitable for use even in dimly lit or dark environments.

d) CRTs produce the very best color and gray-scale and are the reference standard
for all professional calibrations. They have a perfectly smooth gray-scale with an
infinite number of intensity levels.

e) CRTs have fast response times and no motion artifacts. Best for rapidly moving
or changing images.

f) CRTs are less expensive than comparable displays using other display
technologies.

Disadvantages:

a) The CRT's Gaussian beam profile produces images with softer edges that are
not as sharp as an LCD at its native resolution. Imperfect focus and color
registration also reduce sharpness. Generally sharper than LCDs at other than
native resolutions.

b) Subject to geometric distortion and screen regulation problems. Also affected

by magnetic fields from other equipment including other CRTs.

c) Relatively bright but not as bright as LCDs. Not suitable for very brightly lit
environments.

d) Some CRTs have a rounded spherical or cylindrical shape screen. Newer CRTs
are flat.

e) They are large, heavy, and bulky. They consume a lot of electricity and produce
a lot of heat.
Display methods of CRT

There are two methods which are used in CRT namely,

1) Raster scan display

2) Random scan display

1) Raster scan display

This technology is similar to television technology here the electron beam continuously
move up line by line from top to bottom. As the electron beam moves across each row,
the beam intensity is turned on or off according to the requirement. Picture definition is
stored in the memory area known as refresh buffer or frame buffer.

Figure 5 Raster Scan Display

This memory zone holds the arrangement of power esteems for all the screen focuses.
At that point put away power esteems are attempted from the cushion and painted on
the screen, each column in turn. Each point is known as a pixel or PEL. Illustration of
Rasta skin show are Home TV, Printer and so forth

Power range for pixel positions rely upon the accessibility of the list framework. For high
contrast framework the slightest bit pixel is required, it could be either on or off. Some
great framework utilizes around 24 pieces for every pixel, which requires a few
megabytes of capacity for outline cushion, contingent upon the goal of the framework.

For example a system with 24 bits per pixel and resolution of 102 4 x 1024 requires 3
MB of storage capacity for the buffer.

Bitmap

A buffer which is used to store information about system in which only one bit is
required pixel

Pix map

If multiple bits are used for pixel then the buffer is known as pix map.

Interlacing

Scanning is always start from top left position of the screen, when it scans first line, the
electron beam returns to the left side of the screen, that dress from right to left is known
as the horizontal retrace of the electron beam.

At the end of the each frame the electron beam returns to the top left corner of the
screen to begin next frame is known as vertical retrace.

Usually refreshing rate of the system is 60 to 80 frames per second. It is measured

either by cycles per second or Hertz. Some systems support higher rate. Older system
use only 30 frames per second but it suffered by the problem of flickering known as
Flicker this problem was solved by using 60 frames per second

But instead of displaying all lines, interlacing concept was used interlacing used to
passes. In first pass, it displays all or lines and then in second part, it displays remaining
even lines. So it displays all D’s 60 frames in half of the time period.

Application areas: Interlacing is used with slow refreshing rate.

Devices example television set

2) Random Scan Display

It is otherwise called Stroke composing or Calligraphic presentation or Vector show. In

irregular sweep show, an electron shaft is coordinated uniquely to the pieces of the
screen where an image is to be drawn. Randoms check screen draw just each line in
turn, that is the reason it is known as vector show or/composing or calligraphic
presentation. Invigorate pace of irregular trick framework relies upon the quantity of
lines to be shown.

Revive cradle or show program or show list contains set of line drawing orders rather
than force esteems. To show a predefined picture, the framework get line order from
support and adhere to a meaningful boundary as indicated by the order. At the point
when all line orders have been handled, again framework begins from the principal
order. Irregular sweep shows all line orders of an image 30 to multiple times each
second. Excellent vector frameworks are taken care of around one lakh lines as at this
invigorate rate.

Color CRT monitor

CRT can display different colours by using a combination of phosphorus, which can
produce different coloured lights on screen. By combining omitted light from the different
phosphorus, a range of colours can be generated. These are two methods to produce
colour on the screen.

1) Beam penetration method

2) Shadow mask method

1) Beam penetration method

It is used with random scan monitors. Two layers of phosphorus, red and green, or
quoted on the inside of the CRT screen. If the beam content slow speed electrons, then
the outer read layer is excited. If the beam content past electrons, then the inner green
layer is excited. If speed is medium, then we can get orange and yellow colours. The
colour of screen depends on the speed of the electrons, that speed is controlled by
beam accelerating voltage.

Advantage : it is in expensive (cheap)

Disadvantage : It produces only four colors namely red, green, orange and yellow, so
picture quality is also not good

Shadow mask method

It is used and ask and systems like television. It produces wide range of colours
compare to the beam penetration method. There are three phosphorus coloured dots at
each pixel of the screen. One phosphorus emits a red light, another Emits green light
and the third emits a blue light.

Figure 6 Shadow Mask CRT/Colour CRT Monitors

A shadow Mask grid is just behind the screen. There are three electron gun is one for
each colour, to produce red, green and blue colours. The electron beams are passed
through the shadow mask. Different colours can be produced by different intensity of the
beam from all the guns.
For example all guns with equal intensity gives White colour. In high quality systems, 24
bids for pixels are used in frame buffer. This type of systems are called true colour or
full colour system.

Colour CRT is in graphic systems are designed as RGB monitors. This monitors are
using shadow mask methods and take the intensity level for such electron gun that is
RGB directly from the computer system without any intermediate

Direct view storage tubes

Direct view storage tubes are used for maintaining picture on the screen and to refresh
screen frequently. It stores the picture information as a charge distribution just behind
the phosphorus quoted screen. Two electron guns are used in DVST. One is the
primary gun, used to store the picture Pattern.

Advantage: here refreshing is not required and thus, we can show high resolution
images without any Flickr.

Disadvantage: It do not display color. The selected portion of the image cannot be
erased and the modified picture has to be redrawn. The erasing and re-drawing process
can take several seconds for complex picture, because of all these reasons raster
systems are more popular.

Flat Panel Display

Graphic monitors are constructed with

1) CRT
2) Flat panel

1) Flat panel display:

It is a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and power requirements
compared to a CRT. It is thinner than CRT, and we can hang them on walls or wear
them on our wrists. This technology is used in pocket notepads, small TV, monitors,
calculator, pocket video games, laptop, computers, Armrest viewing of movies on
airlines, as advertisement boards and elevators, and as graphic displays in applications
requiring rugged, portable monitors. Flat panel displays are categorised into two
categories namely:

Emissive Displays (Emitters): - Emissive display are those which convert electrical
energy to light. For example 1. Plasma Panel Display 2. LED (Light Emitting Diode) 3.
Thin Electroluminescent Devices.

Non Emissive Displays (Non-Emitters): - Non Emissive use optional effects to

convert sun light or light from any other sources to graphical pattern for example LCD
(Liquid Crystal Display).

1) Emissive displays
These device converts electrical energy into light for example plasma panels, thin film
electroluminescent displays, light emitting diode (LED).

Non-Emissive displays (Non emitters)

These devices uses optical effects to convert sunlight or light from another source into
graphic patterns. Example liquid crystal device LCD

Applications of emissive devices

1) Plasma Panel (Gas discharge display)
It is constructed by using two glass plates and the region between two glass plates are
filled by a mixture of gases that usually includes neon. A series of vertical ribbons is
placed on one glass panel and a set of horizontal ribbons is built into the other glass
panel. When the firing voltage is applied to a pair of horizontal and vertical conductors,
the gas at the intersection point starts glowing the electrons and the ions of the plasma.
Picture definition is stored in a refresh buffer and the firing voltage applied to refresh
pixel positions. It refresh the screen 60 times per second. Initially, plasma panel
displayed only black and white colour but now it is capable of displaying colour and grey
scale. The alternating current method is used to provide faster application of firing
voltage and brighter display.

Figure 7 Basic design of Plasma Panel Display

2) Light Emitting Diode (LED)

A matrix of diodes is arranged to form the pixel positions in the display. And picture
information is stored in a refresh buffer. Similar to CRT, information is read from the
buffer and converted to voltage levels that are applied to the diodes to produce the light
pattern in the display.

3) Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD)

LCD are commonly used in small systems, such as calculators and portable laptop
computers. It produces a picture by passing polarised light from the surroundings or
from an internal light source through a liquid crystal material that can be aligned to
either block or transferred the light. It is known as liquid crystal because these
compounds have a crystal type arrangement of the molecules, which flew like a liquid.
Flat panel displays commonly use pneumatic thread like liquid crystal compounds.
 Figure 8 LCD construction

Applications of Non-Emissive devices:

 Figure 9 The light-twisting, shutter effect used in design of most liquid-crystal display devices

There are two glass plates, each containing a light polariser at right angles to the other
plate, which sandwich the liquid crystal material. Rows of horizontal transparent
conductors are built into one glass plate, and columns of vertical conductor are put into
the other plate. The intersection of two conductors are present or defines a pixel
position.

Passive Matrix LCD

In the On- state condition, polarise light passing through the material is twisted, so it
will pass through the opposite polarised.
For Off-state condition, the light passing through the metrics is twisted to pass through
other polarising to turn off the voltage so that the light is not wasted. This type of device
is known as Passive Matrix LCD.
Here, picture definitions and stored in a refresh buffer and the screen is refreshed at the
rate of 60 frames per second. Colours can be displayed by using different materials or
dyes.

Active matrix LCD

In active matrix LCD, a transistor is placed at its pixel location, using thin film transistor
technology. The transistors are used to control the voltage at the pixel locations and to
prevent charge from leaking out of the liquid crystal cells.