This verdant tree illustrates the Strategic Plan of Action for Disaster Risk Reduction

in Philippine Agriculture and Fisheries.

The roots and trunk, which are designed as pathways, represent the four priority
areas of actions of this Plan. They also represent the four thematic areas of the NDRRM
(National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management) framework. They have the four
colors of the logo of the Sendai Framework.

The canopy stands for the sub-sectors of crops, livestock and fisheries, and the
many support services provided by the Department of Agriculture. It is colored green to
signify resilience and sustainable growth of the agriculture and fisheries sector.

Cover Design by Bess M. Lim

II III
 The designations employed and the presentations of material in this information product do not imply the
expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(FAO) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or
concerning the delimitation of its frontiers zor boundaries. The mention of specific companies or products of
manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or
recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. The views expressed in
this information product are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of FAO.

IV V
 FOREWORD
Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) in the agri-fishery sector is one of the key challenges faced
by Department of Agriculture, considering that most of the government efforts in DRRM (Disaster Risk Reduction
and Management) and CCA (Climate Change Adaptation) are still focused on responding and recovering from
the impacts of disaster.

The Philippines experiences about 20-22 tropical storms/typhoons; along with severe continuous rains,
widespread flooding, land slides, drought, volcanic eruptions, pest and disease infestations and civil conflicts;
which result to heavy damages and losses in the agriculture and fisheries sector.

The development of the Strategic Plan of Action for DRR in Agriculture and Fisheries, in partnership with the
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), builds on the lessons learned from experiences
in mitigating, preparing, responding and recovering from the impacts of disasters to the agriculture and fisheries
Republic of the Philippines
sector. This document also takes into account the current gaps and issues on mainstreaming DRR/CCA in
Department of Agriculture
agriculture and fisheries, which were identified through the consultation workshops.

To sustain the benefits gained from initial DRR/CCA projects and to achieve the goals and objectives of
Strategic Plan of Action for Disaster Risk Reduction in
this plan; the Department of Agriculture needs the cooperation and commitment from partner institutions, LGUs,
Philippine Agriculture and Fisheries 2015-2025
civil society, and the private sector to become responsive in providing the appropriate services to its clientele—
the farmers and fisherfolk.
Prepared with the technical support of the
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

All Rights Reserved 2019

Any part of this document may be reproduced or used in any legal forum or means without an expressed written
consent from the Department of Agriculture of the Philippines, provided that this Plan is indicated as the source.

For rights of reproduction of the entire work, applications must be made through the Field Programs Operational
Planning Division of the Department of Agriculture.

Technical Facilitator:
Bess M. Lim

Responsible Office at DA:

Field Programs Operational Planning Division (FPOPD)

Published by:
Department of Agriculture
Elliptical Road, Diliman, Quezon City
Telephone numbers:
(632) 273-2474 to 78
(632) 928-8741 / 928-6602
(632) 928-8743 to 64
Website: www.da.gov.ph

VI VII
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
A number of institutions and individuals supported and contributed to the formulation of the Strategic
Plan of Action for Disaster Risk Reduction in Agriculture and Fisheries:
Distinguished individuals at the national, regional, provincial and municipal levels; officials and staff of Local
Government Units (LGUs); non-government organizations and other institutions who have shared their thoughts
and valuable experience during the consultation process;

The officials and staff of Department of Agriculture (Office of the Secretary—Central Office, regional
offices, bureaus and attached agencies) for providing valuable inputs during meetings and workshops;

Engr. Roy M. Abaya, Director of the Field Operations Service, and Engr. Christopher V. Morales, Chief of
the Field Programs Operational Planning Division (FPOPD), for their indispensable support to the project;

The staff of the FPOPD, particularly Mr. Xerxees R. Remorozo, Ms. Lorna Belinda L. Calda and Ms. Perla L.
Gines, who shared their experiences in disaster risk reduction and management;

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO): Country Representative José Luis
Fernandez and Mr. Aristeo A. Portugal for their continued support in promoting resilient agriculture;

To Dr. Stephan Baas and Dr. Roberto C. Sandoval, for their invaluable insights and direction in the
development of this strategic plan.

And finally to Ms. Bess M. Lim for providing support for the formulation of the Strategic Plan with her
invaluable knowledge, expertise and experience in disaster risk reduction and management.

Towards a disaster-resilient agriculture and fisheries sector!

ENGR. ARIEL T. CAYANAN

Undersecretary for Operations
and Agri-Fisheries Mechanization

VIII
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD VII
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT VIII
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Overview 2
1.2 Land and Soil Resources 2
1.3 Fisheries and Aquatic Resources 4
1.4 Water Resources 4
1.5 Climate 5
1.6 Agro-Ecological Zones 6

2. AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES PROFILE 6

2.1 Agriculture, Fisheries and the Economy 6
2.2 Food Security 7
2.3 Agriculture and the Environment 8

3. HAZARD AND RISK CONTEXT 8

3.1 Natural Hazards 8
3.1.1 Tropical Cyclones / Tyhphoon 9
3.1.2 Flooding 10
3.1.3 Storm Surge and Sea Level Rise 11
3.1.4 El Niño Southern Oscillation 11
3.1.5 Drought 12
3.1.6 Volcanic Eruption 12
3.1.7 Earthquake 13
3.1.8 Land Slide 13
3.1.9 Tsunami 14
3.1.10 Trans-Boundary Animal Diseases 14
3.1.11 Trans-Boundary Plant Pests and Diseases 15
3.2 Beyond Natural Hazards 15
3.2.1 Climate Change 16
3.2.2 Environmental Pollution 17
3.2.3 Radioactivity 17
3.2.4 Complex emergencies 17

4. UNDERLYING VULNERABILITIES 18
4.1 Land Degradation 18
4.2 Poverty 18
4.3 Gender Concerns 19

5. NEED FOR A STRATEGIC PLAN OF ACTION FOR DRR IN AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES 19

6. EXISTING DRRM POLICY FRAMEWORKS 20

7. DRR STRATEGIC FRAMEWORK 21

7.1 Vision 21
7.2 Goal 21
7.3 Outcome 21
7.4 Objective 22
7.5 DRRM Priority Areas and Strategies
8. IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGY 36 INTRODUCTION
8.1 Guiding Principles 36
8.2 Government Implementing Mechanisms and Structure 37
8.3 Funding 38
The Philippines has the second highest exposure to natural hazards of any country in the world (World Risk
9. KEY ISSUES, LESSON LEARNED AND GAPS 38 Report, 2014). It is exposed to typhoons, intense rainfall events, floods, landslides, droughts, volcanic eruptions,
9.1 Addressing the Underlying Causes of Vulnerability 38 earthquakes, storm surges and tsunamis.
9.2 Integrating DRRM and CCA 38
9.3 IEC (Infomation, Education and Communication) and KM for DRRM and CCA 39 This is due to its location. The Philippines lies in the so-called typhoon belt where storms generated in the
9.4 DRRM be Align with the Sendai Framework 39 western Pacific Ocean passes through. It being archipelagic, its low-lying coasts are exposed to storm surges,
9.5 Capacity Development 39 tsunamis and sea level rise. Moreover, the Philippines sits along the “Pacific Ring of Fire.” It is situated between
9.6 Building Forward Better 40 two major plate boundaries and is transected by a large fault from the Northwest Luzon to Southeast Mindanao.
Its unique tectonic setting is ideal for volcano formation. Its mountainous landscape also means it is prone to
RELEVANT INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS 41 landslides.
RELEVANT PHILIPPINE LAWS 41
GLOSSARY 42 The trend over the past years points to greater frequency and intensity of impacts of hydro–meteorological
REFERENCES 48 hazards (Figure 1 and Figure 2). The agriculture and fisheries sector absorbs on average 27% of the economic
impacts caused by natural hazards and disasters from 1995 to 2013. In 2010-2013, production losses jumped by 37
LIST OF FIGURES percent from the previous period 2005-2009.

FIGURE 1 Incresing Frequency of Disasters Impacting Agriculture and Fisheries 1

FIGURE 2 Production Loss in Agriculture & Fisheries, in Million Metric Tons. 1
FIGURE 3 Distribution of Agricultural Area by Type of Utilization 2
FIGURE 4 Soil Type Map 3
FIGURE 5 Water Withdrawal by Sector in 2009. Source: FAO AQUASTAT 4
FIGURE 6 Climate Map of the Philippines Based on the Modified Corona Classification.
SOURCE: PAGASA 5
FIGURE 7 The Food Security Rating of the Philippines is Moderate Based on Affordability,
Availability, and Quality and Safety 7
FIGURE 8 Food Available Per Capita 7
FIGURE 9 Land and Water Resources used by Agriculture 8
FIGURE 10 The Disaster Occurences, 2000-20015 8
FIGURE 11 Pproduction Loss (MT) in Agriculture and Fisheries 9
FIGURE 12 Rice Production, Requirement and Volume of Imports During El Niño Events 11
Figure 1. Increasing frequency of disasters impacting Figure 2. Production loss in agriculture & fisheries, in
FIGURE 13 Eruption and Lahar of Mt.Pinatubo, Philippines 12 agriculture and fisheries. million metric tons.
FIGURE 14 Active Faults and Trenches in the Philippines 13 Source: Management Information Division, DA Source: Management Information Division, DA
FIGURE 15 Time Travelled by the Moro Gulf Tsunami on August 1976 14
FIGURE 16 A Fisherman views some of the damages from the oil spill in Central Philippines 17
The concentration of the poor has been in the entire agriculture sector and poverty is commonly
FIGURE 17 Philippine NDRRM Framework 20 associated with bigger family size, lower educational achievement, and engagement in agricultural activities.
FIGURE 18 DA Organization and Coordination Structure for DRR at Policy and One of the correlates of poverty is engagement in agricultural activities (Reyes, 2012).
Operational Levels 37

LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 1 Soil Distribution 3
TABLE 2 Agro Ecological Zones (in million hectares) 6
TABLE 3 Severe Weather Events, 2003-2013 10
TABLE 4 DRRM Priority Areas and Strategies 22

1
1.1 Overview Based on the interpretation of the Soil Map of the Philippines, the country’s soils may be grouped into six
soil orders, namely: Ultisols, Inceptisols, Alfisols, Vertisols, Entisols and Oxisols as shown in Figure 4. Except for the
Aridisols and Spodosols, the other soil orders, Histosols and Mollisols, are also observed but to a limited extent. In
about 8.6 million hectares or approximately 41.5 percent of the total land area followed by 13.7
terms of distribution, the Ultisols cover about 8.6 million hectares or approximately 41.5 percent of the total land
The Philippines, an archipelago, lies in Southeastern Asia, between the Philippine Sea (Pacific Ocean), percent.
area (Mariano
followed & Valmidiano,
by 13.7 percent. (Mariano &1972; Badayo,
Valmidiano, 1994,
1972; as cited
Badayo, bycited
1994, as FAO). (Table(Table
by FAO). 1) 1)
and the West Philippine Sea east of Vietnam, just above the equator, between latitude 21°25'N and 4°23'N and
longitude 116°E and 127°E. It consists of more than 7,000 islands (1,000 are habitable). The Philippines also has Table 1. Soil distribution
one of the world’s longest coastlines.

The country is characterized by mountainous terrain bordered by narrow coastal plains. The country’s
topography is steep, with the highest peaks reaching nearly 3,000 m above sea level, located at a distance of
less than 30 km from the sea. The Philippines is also endowed with interior lowland plains, of which the central
plain and Cagayan Valley on the island of Luzon, and the Agusan and Cotabato valleys of Mindanao are the
most extensive.

The country is divided into three main geographic areas: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. Administratively,
it is divided into a hierarchy of local government units (LGU) with 81 provinces as the primary units. The provinces
are further divided into cities and municipalities, which are further subdivided into barangays – the smallest local
government unit. For administrative convenience, the provinces and cities are grouped into 17 administrative
regions.

The population is 98,393,574 (Prevention Web, 2014) where urban population is 44.63 percent of total
population, while rural population is 55.37 percent. The Philippines has one of the highest birth rates in Asia.

1.2 Land and soil resources

The country’s total land area is 300,000 square kilometers (30 million hectares). It is composed of forestland,
65 percent; agricultural land, 32 percent; and others, 3 percent. (NEDA-NLUC, 2002).

Agricultural land, which represents 32 percent of the country's total land area, is about 9.7 million hectares.
Of this, 51 percent and 44 percent are arable and permanent croplands (Figure 3), respectively. (PSA CountrySTAT,
2002 Census of Agriculture and Fisheries).

Figure 3. Distribution of agricultural area

by type of utilization, 2002 CAF. Source: PSA
CountrySTAT
Figure 4 . Soil Type Map

Figure 4 . Soil Type Map

2 3
1.3 Fisheries and aquatic resources 1.5 Climate

The Philippines consists of 7,100 islands and islets with a coastline of about 36,289 kilometers. Its territorial
waters cover about 2.2 million square kilometers, twelve percent (12%) of which is coastal, while eighty-eight
percent (88%) is oceanic, including the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). The Philippine coastal ecosystem is
comprised of biologically productive habitats such as mangroves, seagrasses and coral reefs that support the
country’s marine fisheries. The country is also endowed with 569,600 hectares of freshwater ecosystem that includes
lakes, major rivers, reservoirs, swamplands and fishponds. The diverse aquatic resources favor the development
of the various interrelated but distinct components of the coastal zone.
The Climate of the Philippines is described by Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical
Services Administration (PAGASA) as tropical and maritime, with relatively high temperature, high humidity and
abundant rainfall, which are characterized as follows:
Temperature ¬– On the average, excluding Baguio, the mean annual temperature is 26.6°C. The coolest
months fall in January with a mean temperature of 25.5°C while the warmest month occurs in May with a mean
temperature of 28.3°C.

Humidity – Humidity refers to the moisture content of the atmosphere. Due to high temperature and the
surrounding bodies of water, the Philippines has a high relative humidity. The average monthly relative humidity
varies between 71 percent in March and 85 percent in September.

1.4 Water resources
The country has 421 rivers and numerous small mountain streams that swell many times its size after heavy
rains; 59 natural lakes; more than 100,000 hectares of freshwater swamps and 50,000 km2 of ground water
resources.
The average annual precipitation is about 2,348 mm. The total actual renewable water resources is 479 km3/year,
of which 444 km3 constitute as renewable surface water resources. In 2009, freshwater was the only source of
water withdrawal with 96 percent surface water and 4 percent groundwater.
Agriculture is the heaviest water user, accounting for 82 percent of total water withdrawal in 2009 (Figure
5) and 88 percent in 1995 (FAO AQUASTAT). If one were to compare the total available supply of freshwater with
the total demand, supply will exceed the demand. However, due to temporal and geographic variations, water
may not always be available at the right time and place. Thus, seasonal water shortages may occur. Based on
projected withdrawals, Central Luzon, Western Visayas and Central Visayas Regions will have long–run surface
water problems. In the Visayas and Mindanao regions, rain and groundwater would then extensively be used.
(First National Philippine Assessment on Philippine Water Resources, 1974, Asset Account, 1994)
Changes in land use patterns (e.g. conversion
of watersheds, rapid urbanization, and increasing
discharges of untreated wastes and various pollutants)
also affect the availability of water. Metro Manila,
Cebu, Bulacan, Pampanga, Capiz, and Sorsogon
have problems of water quality – wells are yielding
saline water (Philippine Asset Accounts, 1996)
Rainfall – Rainfall distribution throughout the country varies from one region to another, depending upon the
direction of the moisture-bearing winds and the location of the mountain systems. The mean annual rainfall of
the Philippines varies from 965 to 4,064 millimeters annually. Baguio City, eastern Samar, and eastern Surigao
receive the greatest amount of rainfall while the southern portion of Cotabato receives the least amount of rain.
At General Santos City in Cotabato, the average annual rainfall is only 978 millimeters.
The Seasons – Using temperature and rainfall as bases, the climate of the country can be divided into two
major seasons: (1) the rainy season, from June to November; and (2) the dry season, from December to May. The
dry season may be subdivided further into (a) the cool dry season, from December to February; and (b) the hot
dry season, from March to May.
Climate types – Based on the distribution of rainfall, four climate types are recognized, which are described in
Figure 6.
Typhoons have a great influence on the climate and weather conditions of the Philippines. A great portion of the
rainfall, humidity and cloudiness are due to the influence of typhoons. They generally originate in the region of
the Marianas and Caroline Islands of the Pacific Ocean, which have the same latitudinal location as Mindanao.
Their movements follow a northwesterly direction, sparing Mindanao from being directly hit by majority of the
typhoons that cross the country. This makes the southern Philippines very desirable for agriculture and industrial
development.
Type I Two pronounced seasons: dry from
November to April and wet during the rest of the year.
Type II No dry season with a pronounced
rainfall from November to January.

Type III Seasons are not very pronounced,

relatively dry from November to April, and wet during
the rest of the year.

Type IV Rainfall is more or less evenly

distribute throughout the year. This type resembles Type
II since it has no dry season.

Figure 5. Water withdrawal by sector in 2009. Figure 6. Climate Map of the Philippines based on the
Source: FAO AQUASTAT Modified Corona Classification.
Source: PAGASA

4 5
1.6 Agro-ecological zones
Based on rainfall, temperature, and other parameters such as elevation and land form, there are three
agro-ecological zones, which can provide generalized physical and ecological information for crop suitability
determination. (BSWM, 1993 abc, as cited by FAO): The zones are:
Wet zone – Areas with rainfall usually greater than 2,500 millimeters annually, with slight moisture deficit
during the dry season and a crop growing period of 270 to 320 days. Average temperature is cool ranging
from 19.0°C to 22.90°C. These conditions dominate in the hilly/mountainous to highland regions. This zone
is favorable for plants, which require semi-temperate conditions.
Moist zone – Areas with rainfall ranging from 1,500 to 2,500 mm annually with moderate moisture
deficit during the dry season and a crop growing period of 210 to 270 days. It covers most of the present
agricultural and expansion area in the lowland, upland and hilly regions.
Similarly, the Philippines is the world’s 3rd largest producer of aquatic plants (including seaweeds) having
produced a total of 1.75 million metric tons or nearly 7.36% of the total world production of 23.78 million metric
tons (FAO).
Excluding Eastern Visayas, labor force in 2014 totaled 40.05 million persons. About 11.21 million persons were
employed in the agriculture sector and this comprised 30 percent of the national employment. In terms of number
of farmers and fisherfolk, about 1.61 million farmers are engaged in fishing (25.1%), 1.4 million are in coconut
(21.7%), 1.35 million in rice (21.0%), 0.68 million in corn (10.6%), 0.07 million in sugarcane (1.0%) and around 1.32
million in other commodities (20.6%). In 2010, out of a 47.985 million rural population, 10.177 million are male
economically active population in agriculture, and 3.249 million are female economically active population in
agriculture (PSA Country Stat).
The sub-sector shares are: crops - 50 percent; livestock -13 percent; poultry- 11 percent, fishery- 19 percent;
agricultural activities and services - 7 percent. The main agricultural commodities are rice, corn, cassavas,
coconuts, sugarcane, bananas, pineapples, mangos, eggs, pork, beef and fish.

Dry zone – Low rainfall areas with precipitation of less than 1,500 mm annually and with considerable
moisture deficit during the dry season. The crop growing period is less than 6 months in some lowland and
upland areas.
Table 2. Agro-ecological zones 2.2 Food security

The Philippines is ranked 72nd of 109 countries

in the 2015 Global Food Security Index (GFSI) of the
Economic Intelligence Unit (EIU), which lists the most
and least vulnerable nations to food inadequacy.
Philippine food security is rated moderate using data
on three core issues – affordability, availability, and
quality and safety (Figure 7).

Table Source: BSWM, as cited

2. Agro-ecological by FAO. Note: Numbers are rounded off. Percentage (%) is in
zones Rice is the staple food of Filipinos. Fish, hog,
reference to the area (hectares) of the respective island group. chicken and chicken egg are included in the
Source: BSWM, as cited by FAO. Note: Numbers are rounded off. Percentage (%) is in reference to the area
(hectares) of the respective island group. common Filipino diet. Corn, cassava, sweet potato
and banana (saba) are traditionally part of the

Agriculture and fisheries profile

meal in the rural areas of Visayas and Mindanao. On
average, an individual Filipino consumes 120 kilograms
of rice annually. Rice accounts for 65 percent of the
available food per capita (Figure 8), (PSA PhilFSIS). It Figure 7. The food security rating of the Philippines
2. Agriculture and fisheries profile supplies 47 percent of the daily calorie intake and 35 is moderate based on affordability, availability, and
2.1 Agriculture, fisheries 2.1
and Agriculture,
the economy fisheries and the economy percent of the protein requirement in the Filipino diet.
A typical Filipino household spends 55 percent of its
quality and safety.
Source: GFIS of EIU
food budget or 11 percent of its annual income on
Agriculture, including fisheries is important to the Philippine economy. In 2012, rice (Bordey).
Agriculture, including fisheries is important to the Philippine economy. In 2012, agriculture contributed 11.1
agriculture
percent contributed
to the gross 11.1 percent
domestic product. to the9.7gross
Approximately milliondomestic
hectares or product. Approximately
one third of the total land area 9.7
of million The government continues to rely on the
30hectares or one
million hectares third
is used for of the total
agriculture land
(2002 area Census
Philippine of 30 million hectares
of Agriculture is usedThere
and Fisheries). for agriculture
are about (2002 production of rice in achieving food security and
4.8 million agricultural farms occupying that area. The top four crops with the highest hectarage are coconut self-sufficiency in staples. The government intends
Philippine
(3.33 Censusfollowed
million hectares), of Agriculture
by rice (2.47and Fisheries).
million There
hectares), corn (1.35are about
million 4.8 million
hectares), agricultural
and sugarcane (0.36 farms to increase areas suitable to palay production as
million hectares).
occupying that area. The top four crops with the highest hectarage are coconut (3.33 million one component strategy in achieving 100-percent
In 2012, the Philippines ranked 7th among the top fish producing countries in the world with its total production rice self-sufficiency by 2014 and beyond. Rice area
ofhectares), followed
4.87 million metric tons ofby
fish,rice (2.47 million
crustaceans, mollusks,hectares),
and aquatic corn
plants (1.35 million
(including hectares),
seaweeds). and sugarcane
The production harvested has expanded from nearly 4.5 million
constitutes 2.66% of the total world production of 182.9 million metric tons. The Philippines’ 0.791 million metric
(0.36 million hectares).
tons aquaculture production of fish, crustaceans and mollusks in 2012 ranked 11th in the world and a 1.19%
hectares in 2011 to about 4.7 million hectares in 2014
(PSA CountrySTAT).
share to the total global aquaculture production of 66.63 million metric tons. In terms of value, the country’s
aquaculture Inproduction
2012, the of Philippines
fish, crustaceansranked 7th among
and mollusks the top
has amounted fish 1.95
to over producing countries in the world
billion dollars.

with its total production of 4.87 million metric tons of fish, crustaceans, mollusks, and aquatic Figure 8. Food available per capita.
plants (including seaweeds). The production constitutes 2.66% of the total world production of Source: PSA PhilFSIS (PSA CountrySTAT).
182.9 million metric tons. The Philippines’ 0.791 million metric tons aquaculture production of
6 7
fish, crustaceans and mollusks in 2012 ranked 11th in the world and a 1.19% share to the total
global aquaculture production of 66.63 million metric tons. In terms of value, the country’s
2.3 Agriculture and the environment 3.1.1 Tropical Cyclones / Typhoon

Agriculture is natural resource-based. It The Philippines is the country most exposed to typhoons. Typhoon season occurs from June to December
occupies 33% of the total land area and withdraws for and more than 20 typhoons affect the country annually, with 8 or 9 making landfall. Those that come from the
its use 82 percent of the freshwater (Figure 9). southeast are generally the strongest, with the island of Luzon at a higher risk than the southern areas.

The state of environment directly affects food Based on the strength of winds, PAGASA categorized tropical cyclones as follows: tropical depression
production through its role in soil, water, and nutrient (30-60 kph), tropical storm (61-120 kph), typhoon (171-220 kph), and super typhoon (more than 220 kph). There
cycling, weather and micro-climate buffering/ used to be only four classifications for what Juan de la Cruz calls bagyo – the local term for typhoon; but with the
regulation, and hosting insects that are important increasing occurrence of typhoons with maximum sustained winds greater than 220 kph in the last decade, the
for pollination and pest management. Conversely, Super Typhoon (STY) category for more than 220 kph of maximum sustained winds had to be officially adopted in
agriculture and related land use can have beneficial 2014.
or harmful effects on the environment and it has the
potential to degrade the land, water, atmosphere, and Since 2006, very strong typhoons have occurred in the Philippines in almost annual succession resulting
biological resources – or enhance them – depending in loss of lives and livelihood and damages to houses, facilities and infrastructures. Sometimes, the country is
on the farming, land and water management practices Figure 9. Land and water resources used by struck by typhoons so close together that the impact is very damaging, such as the four tropical cyclone systems
of the farmers (FAO). As such, agriculture plays a key agriculture. FAO Source: Unding, Violeta, Winnie and Yoyong striking within a span of two weeks. The agriculture and fisheries sector
role in land management and has a major responsibility in the preservation of natural resources. It is in this context inordinately takes the brunt of the impact.
that farmers are also considered as gatekeepers of natural resources where they can perform tasks with a view Due to its frequency and increasing intensity, typhoons (and storms) have caused the heaviest damages
to the protection, preservation and improvement of the quality of water, air and soil, and abundance of bio- to agriculture and fisheries (68% of the total production losses) in the period 1995-2013. Drought, the second
diversity. destructive disaster, caused 23% of the production losses (Figure 11).

3. Hazard and risk context

At least 60 percent of the land area of the country is exposed to multiple hazards, which include periodic
typhoons, tropical cyclones, floods, droughts, earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, landslides, forest-fires
and pandemics. It is also facing agricultural and natural resource risks including those associated with rapid
urbanization, migration and socio-economic changes. The country has a history of large-scale disasters, including
the Mindanao Tsunami, the 1990 Luzon earthquake, the Mt. Pinatubo Eruption in 1991, the 2009 typhoons Ondoy
and Pepeng, and the 2013 Typhoon Yolanda.

3.1 Natural hazards

The Philippines' exposure to disasters is
correlated to the country's geographical and physical
characteristics. As recorded in the EM-DAT CRED
International Database, tropical cyclones/storms is
the most frequent occurring natural hazard in the
Philippines at 51 percent followed by floods (35%),
volcanic eruptions (4%), earthquakes (3%), landslides
(6%), and (1%) droughts (Figure 10).

Figure 11. Production loss (mt) in agriculture and fisheries, 1995-2013. Discrepancy in the total is due to
rounding-off of numbers. Source: Management Information Division, Department of Agriculture
Figure 10. The disaster occurrences, 2000-2015.
Source: CRED EM-DAT International Disaster Database
8 9
 Direct damage and losses to agriculture and fisheries due to these severe events, for the
Direct damage and losses to agriculture and fisheries due to these severe events, for the period 2003-2013
period 2003-2013 amounted to Php126.66 billion (Table 3).
amounted to Php126.66 billion (Table 3).
3.1.3 Storm surge and sea level rise
Table
Table3.3.Severe
Severe Weather
Weather Events,
Events, 2003-2013
2003-2013
The Philippines is particularly vulnerable to sea level rise and storm surge since about 60 percent of its
municipalities and 10 of its largest cities are located along the coast (where roughly 60 percent of the population
resides). With very long narrow coastlines (36,289 kilometers or 22,499 miles) and frequent strong typhoons, the
country is highly exposed to storm surges.

In 1897, a devastating storm surge killed thousands of people in the coast of Samar and Leyte. (Algue,
1897 and Australian newspaper Barrier Mariner, 1/2/1898 as cited by Ocampo, A, 2013).
In 1912, thousands of people in Tacloban and Capiz perished from a strong storm surge. (The Washington Herald,
1912; Washington Times 1912). A century later, in December 2013, storm surges spawned by super typhoon
Yolanda hit the Visayas. These storm surges were as high as 7.14 meters in Guian, Samar and 6.27 in San Jose,
Tacloban. Considered as the strongest storm surges in Philippine written history, they were primarily responsible for
the 6,190 dead, 1,785 missing and 28,626 injured in Yolanda’s aftermath.

3.1.4 El Niño Southern Oscillation

The Philippines is periodically affected by the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon. The 1997-
1998 El Niño impact was so severe that it had caused widespread crop failures, water shortages, forest fires and
dried out 20 percent of the country’s fishponds (WB, 2011). Rice production had dropped sharply, so that the
Sources: * Based on PAGASA’s modified tropical cyclone categorization. ** NDRRMC, ***DA government had to import 2.17 million metric tons of rice, 3 times more than the previous years importations.
Sources: * Based on PAGASA’s modified tropical cyclone categorization. ** NDRRMC, ***DA
%%- -means
means percentage
percentage damage
damagein agriculture andand
in agriculture fisheries to alltosector
fisheries damages
all sector damages
The impact of the ENSO was again evident when rice production followed a downward trend from 2008 to 2010,
a period that coincided with the 2007-2008 strong La Nina and 2009-2010 moderate El Niño (Figure 12).
3.1.2 Flooding
3.1.2 Flooding
Floods often result from heavy or prolonged rains associated with typhoons, tropical
depressions, intertropical convergence zones or monsoon rains. Floods cause damages to
agriculture. On-rushing
Floods oft waters
en result from heavy canor sweep
prolongedaway soil,
rains crops, animals,
associated seeds and
with typhoons, even
tropical farm tools.
depressions,
intertropical convergence zones or monsoon rains. Floods cause damages to agriculture.
Long standing floods destroy submerged crops and harbor diseases and pests. Contaminated On-rushing waters can
sweep away soil, crops, animals, seeds and even farm tools. Long standing floods destroy submerged crops and
waterdiseases
harbor can pollute farmlands
and pests. and put
Contaminated animals’
water health
can pollute at risk.and
farmlands Floods can also
put animals’ compromise
health food
at risk. Floods
safety. The cost of agricultural losses from floods from 1995-2013 is Php 8.9 billion.
can also compromise food safety. The cost of agricultural losses from floods from 1995-2013 is Php 8.9 billion.

The top ten flood prone provinces are: Pampanga, Nueva Ecija, Pangasinan, Tarlac, Maguindanao,
The top
Bulacan, Metro tenNorth
Manila, flood prone Oriental
Cotabato, provinces are: and
Mindoro, Pampanga, Nueva
Ilocos Norte (Mines Ecija,
and GeoPangasinan, Tarlac,
Science Bureau).
The major river basins of Agno, Cagayan, Pampanga, Bicol and the Pantabangan sub-basin,
Maguindanao, Bulacan, Metro Manila, North Cotabato, Oriental Mindoro, and Ilocos Norte which are naturally
flood-prone, are being monitored by PAGASA because of their strategic importance to human settlements and
(Mines and Geo Science Bureau). The major river basins of Agno, Cagayan, Pampanga, Bicol
agriculture.
and the Pantabangan sub-basin, which are naturally flood-prone, are being monitored by
PAGASA because of their strategic importance to human settlements and agriculture.

3.1.3 Storm surge and sea level rise

The Philippines is particularly vulnerable to sea level rise and storm surge since about
60 percent of its municipalities and 10 of its largest cities are located along the coast (where
roughly 60 percent of the population resides). With very long narrow coastlines (36,289 Figure 12. Rice production, requirement and volume of imports during El Niño events.
Source: BAS
kilometers or 22,499 miles) and frequent strong typhoons, the country is highly exposed to
storm surges. 10 11
3.1.5 Drought 3.1.7 Earthquake

Drought is characterized as an unusual dry season, without rainfall or with rainfall deficit. In agriculture, this
translates to adverse effects on crop production or range production, as well as below average water in streams,
ground water aquifers, lakes, reservoirs and dams.
The Philippines has a 1,200-km-long major
tectonic fault that transects the whole archipelago
from northwestern Luzon to southeastern Mindanao.
This fault, which is divided into several segments, is the
source of large-magnitude earthquakes in recent years,
such as the 1973 Ragay Gulf earthquake (M 7.0), 1990
Luzon (Baguio) earthquake (Mw 7.7), 2003 Masbate

3.1.6 Volcanic eruption earthquake (Ms 6.2) and Central Visayas Earthquake
(M7.2). (PHIVOLCS)

Earthquakes can trigger tsunamis, landslides,

volcanic disturbances and flashfloods from broken
mountain lakes or dams. Although earthquakes are
The Philippines lies on the so-called Pacific Ring usually associated with destruction of urban areas, the
of Fire and sits on a unique tectonic setting ideal to effects on agriculture and food security can also be
volcano formation. The PHIVOLCS has listed 23 active, far reaching when it is followed by secondary hazards
26 potentially active and more than 350 inactive such as tsunamis, landslides and flashfloods.
volcanoes. The eruptions of the most active ones - Mt.
Mayon, Mt. Kanlaon, Mt. Bulusan and Taal volcano - Figure 14. Active faults and trenches in the Philippines.
occur with almost regularity. Source: PHIVOLCS

The Mt. Pinatubo eruption in 1991 is

considered as the most violent eruption of
the 20th century. It buried towns, destroyed 3.1.8 Landslide
homes and displaced 10,000 families or more
than 50,000 persons (Bautista, undated). It
was assessed in 1993 that lahar and mudflow
had reduced the extent of farmlands by Figure 13. Eruption and Lahar of Mt. Pinatubo, Philippines. Landslides resulting from heavy rainfall are common throughout the Philippines. Landslides can also result
from earthquakes, which for instance, break loose mountain lakes. The Mines and GeoSciences Bureau (MGB)
25,610 hectares. Since then, a series of lahar Source: https://pubs.usgs.gov/pinatubo/ has identified landslide prone provinces. Six of the top ten landslide prone provinces are in the Cordilleras. The
episodes have continually caused severe spatial extent of the top ten are: Benguet (90.3%), Mt. Province (87.1%), Nueva Vizcaya, (86.7%), Kalinga Apayao
damages to both agricultural lands and urban areas. (Environmental and Natural Resource (84.7%), Southern Leyte (82.8%), Abra (82.1%), Marinduque (78.6%), Cebu (77.8%), Catanduanes (77.4%), and
Accounting. Part 1. Philippine Land and Soil Resources Devoted to Agricultural Uses). The Ifugao (77.3).
indigenous Aeta people were hardest hit – many remain displaced from their livelihood and
their cultural roots. The effects of the lahar continue to this day. The massive landslides caused by the Luzon earthquake in 1990 badly damaged roadways, preventing
the transport of highland vegetables of Cordillera farmers whose livelihoods are based on vegetable farming.
The landslides also silted river channels, which aggravated flooding in lowland agricultural areas (USGS).
Scientists observed that the sulfate aerosol sent to the stratosphere by the Mt. Pinatubo
eruption caused climate forcing, a decrease in the amount of net radiation reaching the
earth’s surface. There was an observed surface cooling in the Northern Hemisphere of up to
0.5 to 0.6°C and a cooling of as large as -0.4°C over large parts of the earth in 1992-93. The
Pinatubo climate forcing was stronger than the opposite of warming effects of either the El
Niño event or anthropogenic greenhouse gases in the period 1991-1993 (Self, 2013).

12 13
3.1.9 Tsunami 3.1.11 Trans-boundary plant pests and diseases
Incidences of trans-boundary plant pests and diseases have increased rapidly due to globalization and
The Philippines had experienced several tsunamis. A trade. It can sneak into a country unnoticed, spread quickly and become very difficult to control. Outbreaks
tsunami is a series of sea waves commonly generated can cause huge crop losses and threaten the livelihoods and food security of farmers. Locusts, black bugs,
by under-the-sea earthquakes and whose heights armyworms, fruit flies, banana diseases, cassava diseases and aspidiotus and brontispa are among the most
could be greater than 5 meters. It is erroneously called destructive transboundary plant pests and diseases in the country.
tidal waves and sometimes mistakenly associated with
storm surges. The recent case of the plant disease aspidiotus destructor (coconut scale), which ostensibly came from
a southern neighboring country through the Batangas port, is now reported to reach the Visayas regions. The
The Moro Gulf Earthquake and Tsunami, which brontispa, another new coconut pest presumably introduced to the Philippines in 2004 through the importation of
directly impacted Southern Mindanao on ornamental palms, is now in Mindanao. These two pests put at risk the coconut industry that employs 1.4 million
August 1976, is the worst recorded tsunami in farmers (21.7% of 6.5 million people in the agriculture labor sub-sector). It can dampen coconut production,
which accounts for 59% of the world output of coconut oil.
Philippine history. The wave heights reached
14-15 feet (4.27m-4.57m). The tsunami hit
hardest the coastal communities of Cotabato
and Pagadian City, killing 3,608 people with Figure 15. Time travelled by the Moro Gulf Tsunami
4,244 missing (95% more than those missing on August 1976. .Source: Badillo, V. L. & Astilla, Z. Manila
and dead from the earthquake), damaged Observatory, 1978.
houses, infrastructure fishponds and seaweed
farms, and destroyed 3,418 fishing boats and 13 commercial fishing vessels. Figure 15 shows
the directions and time travelled by the tsunami. The same Cotabato area was again hit by
a weaker tsunami in 1992. (Arguillas, C.) 3.2 Beyond Natural Hazards

The risks of natural hazards to agriculture and fisheries, to food security and nutrition, are increased by
global climate change and a number of other emerging threats such as high impact trans-boundary animal
3.1.10 Trans-boundary animal diseases and plant pest and diseases (including fish and forests); increasing environmental pollution (oil spills included);
radiological events; increasing risk of bio-terrorism; possible adverse effects of new food technologies; risk of
failure of food safety controls; and protracted civil conflicts. As these threats could impact the food chain from
production to consumption, they can harm people’s everyday access to food and nutrition security, livelihoods
Trans-boundary animal diseases are highly contagious epidemic diseases that can spread very rapidly, and health.
irrespective of national borders. They cause high rates of death and disease in animals, while some animal
diseases can even infect humans. One example, the dreaded avian influenza or bird flu is caused by a highly
contagious influenza virus H5N1. The infected chickens can transmit the virus to humans leading to severe disease
with high mortality. It has affected countries in Asia and has already resulted in mass deaths and destruction of
chickens.

The Philippines enjoys the status of being bird-flu free and it continues to keep tight watch on importation
of birds and poultry products to prevent the highly pathogenic virus from coming into the country. An infection
can jeopardize food safety, affect human health and will have trade implications that would be hard on those
whose livelihoods or food supply depend on poultry.

14 15
3.2.1 Climate Change 3.2.2 Environmental pollution

It is generally recognized that global climate change is exacerbating the natural hazards that affect the
Red Tide. Algal blooms - commonly called red tide -
country. The impacts are expected to be more severe with rising global temperature, sea level rise, more intense
usually occur during the onset of the rainy season when
rainfall events (thus, more floods and landslides), longer dry spells, and stronger monsoon rainfall variability.
an excess of nutrients, particularly phosphorus and
Increasing climate variability and more frequent extreme weather events will have serious consequences to
nitrogen are released into waters. The bloom releases
agriculture and fisheries, as demonstrated by the high costs of recent extreme weather events and related
neurotoxins that make shellfishes, such as tahong, and
disasters.
other marine life, such as alamang, not safe for human
consumption.
The global temperature, the one most cited indicator of global climate change, has risen. In the Philippines,
PAGASA has observed that the temperature has also increased. The annual mean temperature during the period
Oil Spill. Oil spill is always a threat from vessels that
1951 to 2010 increased by 0.65 °C or an average of 0.0108 °C per year-increase. There is a significant increase in
ply the seas of the archipelagic Philippines. Spilled oil
the number of hot days and warm nights. Extreme daily rainfall is found to be more intense and more frequent.
from these vessels destroys critical habitats: coral reefs,
sea grass beds and mangrove forests, that take years
PAGASA simulated the future changes in temperature and precipitation in A1B scenarios for two time-
to repair. The toxicity of the oil itself poison exposed fish,
slices centered on 2020 (2006-2038) and 2050 (2039–2065) relative to the 1971-2000 baseline. The results are
shellfishes and other marine organisms that are linked Figure 16. A fisherman views some of the damages
documented by PAGASA in Climate Change in the Philippines. The significant results are:
to a complex food chain that includes human food from the oil spill in central Philippines. Photo by Pat
resources. Roque. AP file
(1) Increases in temperature: Temperature will exhibit increasing trends, both in 2020 and in 2050. Significant
warming will occur in the middle of the next century in the Philippines, with the largest warming occurring in June- The oil spill from a sunken oil tanker off Guimaras Island in 2006 had contaminated the island’s rich and
July-August and March-April-May over Mindanao. diverse ecology and was considered the country’s worst marine disaster. It affected 1,000 hectares of mangrove
forests including parts of the Taclong Island Sanctuary, a feeding and breeding ground for fish and other species
(2) Changes in precipitation: The drier seasons of March-April-May will become drier still in most parts of the - along with seaweed farms and beach resorts. Roughly 40,000 people who rely on fishing and harvest of other
country in 2020 and 2050. The wetter seasons of June- August and September-November will become wetter in marine products have lost their livelihood. Those in the fishing communities had to be evacuated to keep them
Luzon and Visayas in 2020 and 2050; and away from the fumes of the spilled oil.
(3) More active southwest monsoon: An active southwest monsoon in Luzon and Visayas – with future increases
in rainfall which is more pronounced in June-July-August – will become greater with time.
3.2.3 Radioactivity

In the event of a radiological emergency, the food chain is a potential source of population exposure.
Radioactivity can move with the ocean current, wind and rain. It can contaminate the food chain by tainting
the water, the plants that the animals eat, the fish, marine life, the crops and ultimately, the humans who eat the
tainted food and drink the tainted water, milk and fruit juices.

3.2.4 Complex emergencies

The IPCC Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES, 2000) has depicted scenarios of climate change. “The
SRES scenarios are grouped into four scenario families (A1, A2, B1 and B2) that explore alternative development
pathways, covering a wide range of demographic, economic and technological driving forces and resulting
GHG emissions. The SRES scenarios do not include additional climate policies above current ones.
The A1 storyline assumes a world of very rapid economic growth, a global population that peaks in mid-century
and rapid introduction of new and more efficient technologies. A1 is divided into three groups that describe
alternative directions of technological change: fossil intensive (A1FI), non-fossil energy resources (A1T) and a
balance across all sources (A1B). “
A complex emergency is a major humanitarian crisis that is often the result of a combination of political
instability, conflict and violence, social inequities and underlying poverty”. Complex emergencies are essentially
political in nature and can erode the cultural, civil, political and economic stability of societies, particularly when
exacerbated by natural hazards and diseases, which further undermine livelihoods and worsen poverty (FAO).
In the case of agriculture-dependent families in Maguindanao, they suffered from the combined impacts
of conflict, drought and flooding that affected the province during the first half of 2015. They lost their harvestable
crops when they moved to evacuation centers to avoid armed hostilities for about three months. They also lost
their productive farm assets such as tools, small machinery and animals. Upon returning to their homes, they were
confronted by a dry spell, followed by floods caused by torrential rains and overflowing rivers and tributaries. As
a result, more than 24,000 metric tons of crop and vegetable production were lost in Maguindanao for the said
period.

16 17
4. Underlying vulnerabilities
Environmental degradation, poverty, climate change and rapid urbanization are major determinants
of the population’s vulnerability to hazards. Seventy-four percent of the country’s population is vulnerable to
hazards with the poor being the most vulnerable to the damages caused by natural disasters (WB, 2011).
4.1 Land degradation
The 2008 Global Assessment of Land Degradation and Improvement reported that 44.09 percent (132,275
km2) of the total area of the Philippines is degraded, affecting about 33,064,628 Filipinos.
In terms of soil quality, “problem soils” are estimated to cover an area of about 22.6 million ha (74.9%
of total area), resulting from both natural and anthropogenic processes. The big bulk of this area (12 million
ha) is classified as having fertility limitations. Of the remaining amount (10.6 million ha), about 11.7 percent are
characterized by physical problems (i.e. cracking clays, coarse texture, etc.), while another 4.6 percent have
chemical constraints, such as high salinity (400,000 ha) (BSWM, Briones, 2009).
The continued use of unsustainable production practices such as the extensive use of chemical inputs,
expansion of grazing lands, slash and burn practices, and deforestation especially in watershed areas, have
resulted in land degradation (i.e., erosion, declining soil fertility), problems of water quality and availability, and
loss of biodiversity (BSWM, 2004 as cited in Philippine Development Plan 2010–2016).
4.2 Poverty
Human Development Index. The Philippines has a Human Development Index (HDI) of 0.660 in 2013, ranking
117 out of 187 countries. It ranked higher than the average for countries in the medium human development
group, but it ranked lower than the average in East Asia Pacific relative to selected countries and groups. When
the HDI was discounted for inequality, the value went down. The most recent Multidimensional Poverty Index
(MPI) figures show that 7.3 percent of the population is multi-dimensionally poor while an additional 12.2 percent
are near multidimensional poverty. The Philippines slightly improved in human development but at a slow pace.
However, this slow progress could be undermined by disasters or economic slump.
Poverty among farmers and fisherfolk. Poverty incidence is highest among fisherfolk and farmers at 41.4 percent
and 36.7 percent in 2009, way above the poverty incidence for the whole country at 26.5 percent in 2009.
Among regions, Zamboanga Peninsula has the highest poverty incidence of farmers (at 54.0 percent), while
CARAGA has the highest poverty incidence (at 59.2 percent) among fisherfolk (World Bank). They receive the
lowest average daily basic wage and salary compared to non-agriculture sectors. Farmers and fisherfolk are
paid an average daily wage and salary of Php 156.8 and Php 178.43, respectively in 2011 (PSA).
Child labor. In 2011, an estimated 56.6 percent of working children aged 5-17 years are employed in the
agriculture sector. The most number of children working in agriculture are found in Northern Mindanao, which in
2009, is a region with one of the highest poverty incidences for farmers at 52.3 percent. Eastern Visayas has the
most number of children working in the fishing industry at 14.5 percent (Albert, 2013).
18
4.3 Gender concerns
The Philippines ranks 78 out of 149 countries in the Gender Inequality Index (GII) in 2013 with a value of
0.406. The Gender Development Index (GDI) value of the Philippines is at 0.989, higher than average in the
medium HDI group and in the East Asia and the Pacific.
The incidence and severity of poverty is significantly lower among elderly and female headed households
in the Philippines, in striking contrast to the evidence from other developing countries, again because these
households tend to be absorbed into others. It also reflects women's strong position in the labor market in terms
of relative pay and attachment compared with many other Asian countries and even relative to many OECD
countries (WB).
5. Need for a strategic plan of action for DRR in agriculture
and fisheries
In the face of the high exposure of agriculture to natural hazards, climate change, and other emerging
threats, the Department of Agriculture is determined to take on a more proactive DRRM. To a certain degree,
it knows the risks and takes action. Several DRR measures are currently implemented, however, integration has
yet to be concretely established. The challenge now is how to systematically put together adequate integrated
strategies to (1) reduce existing risks; (2) avoid new risks; and (3) address vulnerabilities of farmers and fisherfolk by
sustainably improving agricultural production systems and livelihoods and their immediate natural resource base.
Specifically, the Plan shall:
1. Set policies and goals and provide clear focus for DRRM implementation;
2. Serve as the umbrella for regional action plans for disaster risk reduction;
3. Define priority strategic measures to reduce risks in the sector in a holistic manner, with corresponding
implementation resources; and
4. Address emerging issues such as food safety as an integral part of agricultural risk management.
The plan was prepared in consultation with various stakeholders. It is aligned with the agriculture and
fisheries sector development goals and adopts complementary approaches such as eco-system-based DRR, the
sustainable livelihoods approach, and other multi-disciplinary approaches. It is also aligned with the Philippine
DRRM framework and the Sendai Framework for DRR. It echoes the Philippines Statement at the Third UN World
Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction (WCDRR): DRR efforts shall go hand-in-hand with our Climate Change
Adaptation and Sustainable Development plans and programs.
19
6. Existing DRRM policy frameworks 7. DRR strategic framework

At the national level, there are two important related legislations on disaster risk management. One is
the Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act of 2010 (RA 10121), which provides the legal basis
for policies, plans and programs to deal with disasters. It highlights the policy shift from a reactive to a proactive
stance in addressing disasters, stressing that the root causes of disasters be addressed to mitigate the impacts
of disasters. It called for the development of the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Framework
7.1 To have disaster resilient farming
VISION
which envisions a country of “safer, adaptive and disaster resilient Filipino communities toward sustainable
development” (Figure 17). and fishing communities

DRRM is fully mainstreamed into the 7.2

agriculture and fisheries sector in 2030
GOAL

Figure17. Philippine NDRRM Framework

DRRM is mainstreamed into
The other important law is the Climate Change Act of 2009 (RA 9729), which was enacted to strengthen
climate change adaptation in the country. It calls for mainstreaming climate change into government policy
7.3 development planning and actions in
the agriculture and fisheries sector by
formulations, establishing the framework strategy and program on climate change.
OUTCOME 2025
Being a party to international agreements, the Philippines is also guided by the Sendai Framework for
Action on Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR). The Sendai Framework - as it is commonly called – is the successor of
the Hyogo Framework of Action, which had served as the guidance for the development of the existing Philippine
National Disaster Risk Reduction Plan. Compared to its predecessor, the SFDRR has clear targets and four priorities
for action that will lead to a substantial reduction of disaster risk and losses in lives, livelihoods and health for
the next 15 years. The four priorities for action focus on: a better understanding of risk; strengthened disaster
risk governance; increased investment in DRR; and more effective disaster preparedness and embedding the
‘build back better’ principle into recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction. The Sendai Framework is particularly
significant to the agriculture and fisheries sector because commitments were made for the agriculture sector’s
engagement and delivery in DRR. To reduce existing risks and prevent future risks
to disasters, and to protect and enhance the 7.4
resilience of the agriculture and fisheries sector to
natural hazards and disasters OBJECTIVE

20 21
7.5 DRRM priority areas and strategies

The Strategic Plan of Action is grouped into four priority areas, namely: (1) understanding risk, (2) enabling
environment, (3) reducing disaster risks for resilience, and (4) preparing to respond and to build forward better.
The plan of actions is aligned with the SFDRR and the NDRRM thematic areas. (Table 4) 

Table 2. Table
Priority4. Priority
areas areas and strategies
and strategies





23

22 23
 25

25
24

24 25



27


26

26 27
 29 30

28 29
 -
-
-

- 32
-
-
31 -

30 31
8. Implementation strategy
8.1 Guiding principles
This Plan is in accordance with duly established national policies and is aligned with the international
agreements entered into by the Philippines, such as the Blue Economy of Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
(APEC, 2015). It incorporates internationally accepted principles and guidelines of DRR.
Specifically, it adopts the following:
• DRR is essential to sustainable development, including food security and nutrition. Adopt
DRRM to address the threats to sustainable development, food security and nutrition. Disaster
impacts negatively on developmental gains, food security and nutrition.
• Focus support to agricultural communities. Focus support to enhance resilience of small
farmers and fisherfolk and communities most vulnerable to hazards and threats.
8.2 Government implementing mechanisms
and structure
The Department of Agriculture is the main agency responsible for implementing the National Strategic
Plan of Action for DRR in Agriculture and Fisheries. It bears the institutional arrangements and mechanisms to
provide the leadership, guidance and the coordination for the implementation, monitoring and evaluation of
the Plan. The mechanism for implementation and coordination is built upon existing institutional frameworks of
the DA and the NDRRMC, allowing an easy integration of DRR into regular planning and operations. Figure 17
depicts the organization of the DA for addressing DRR, climate change and food safety issues. It shows the flow
of coordination at policy and operational levels for DRRM, CCA and the regulation of food safety. The units within
the light green-colored area have policy functions, while the units inside the sky blue-colored area pertain to
operations.

• DRRM engages all key stakeholders responsibly. DRRM requires the responsible
involvement of all key stakeholders: (a) the government; (b) those in the agricultural value
chain: the producers, the farmers and fisherfolk, the input suppliers, the intermediaries, the
processors, the marketers and the consumers; (c) the academe and science centers; (d)
businesses, (e) the organized advocates and supporters of DRRM: multi-lateral and bilateral
institutions, INGOs, NGOs, community-based organizations; and (f) the media, as appropriate
to their circumstances. The involvement of women is essential for effective DRRM.

• Build on existing initiatives. Build on and seek synergies with existing structures, processes,
strategies, projects, knowledge, and capacities.

• Coherence in the delivery of DRRM. Promote coherence across policies, plans, programs,
projects, systems at different levels of the DA organization. Connect national and local priorities
and implementation approaches of DRRM.

• Do no harm, “build forward better”. In managing disaster risks, avoid causing inadvertent
damage to the community, economy, environment, culture, and future recovery. Build forward
in a way to reduce vulnerability and to strengthen resilience. Know the local conditions, be
mindful of sensitivities, respect rights, learn from the past, build on best practices, and take into
account future hazards and risks. (Issue Brief, Reconstructing after disasters: Build back better
Ministerial Roundtable, UNC on WDRR)

• Adopt multi-hazard, multi-sector, multi-discipline approach. (Ecosystem-based DRR,

sustainable livelihood approach and others)

Figure 18. DA organization and coordination structure for DRR at policy and operational levels

32 33
8.3 Funding
The implementation of the Plan will be supported by both public and private resources. The Department
of Agriculture’s cost of implementing DRRM programs shall be at least twenty percent (20%) of the DA’s total
budget appropriations. The funding can come from:
a) The Quick Response Fund of the DA under the General Appropriations Act (GAA);
b) A Buffer Fund as provided for under the Price Act (RA 7581) can be allocated in the DA’s annual
appropriations. The DA can use it to procure, purchase, import, or stockpile any basic necessity or prime
commodity, devise ways and means of distributing them for sale at reasonable prices in areas where there is
shortage of supply
c)
d)
Budget head
Inclusion of DRR activities/features to existing/proposed development programs such as FMRs and
irrigation projects
While the DA is the lead implementor of the Plan, full mainstreaming can only be realized through multi-
funding of the private sector and the civil society. It may also source local and international grants and donations
in support of DRR program/project implementation and in accordance with relevant laws.
9.Key issues, lesson learned and gaps
9.1 Addressing the underlying causes of vulnerability
At the core of disaster risk reduction is addressing the underlying causes of people’s vulnerability – social,
economic, physical and environmental. Agriculture is climate-sensitive. Many small farmers and fisherfolk and
their communities lack the capacity to cope and adapt to disaster impacts due to conditions of poverty, lack
of information, inadequate extension services, inadequate production and postharvest facilities, and lack of
access to credit. More effort is needed to understand hazards and vulnerabilities and build capacities towards
resilient livelihoods options.
9.2 Integrating DRRM and CCA
DRRM and CCA have been handled somewhat differently. At the national level, however, there is now
an increasing understanding of the significant complementarities between DRRM and CCA. DRRM can deal with
current climate variability and can be the first line defense against climate change. Conversely, DRRM needs to
take account of the shifting risks associated with climate change. With that is an overwhelming agreement on
the need to find ways to: (1) understand CCA and DRRM as complementary and not as competitive; (2) reduce
overlaps while putting synergies at work.
34
9.3 IEC (Information, education and
communication) and KM for DRRM and CCA
Disaster risk reduction policy and practice require knowledge for informed decision- making and
coordinated action. While efforts and improvements have been made with regards to data and information
production, only limited attention is given to integrating this information into systems that would bring them to the
different users, most particularly to the farmers and fisherfolk. For example, outputs of Early Warning Systems (EWS)
and Automatic Weather Stations (AWS) should be translated into clear advisories that can be used by farmers;
Results of researches studies should be applied into extension methodologies and materials.
9.4 DRRM be aligned with the Sendai Framework
The current DRRM for agriculture is aligned with the national DRRM framework, which consists of four
areas, namely (a) disaster prevention and mitigation, (b) disaster preparedness, (c) disaster response, and (d)
disaster rehabilitation and recovery. While considerable work has been done within this DRRM framework, the
gap between policy and practice remains considerable. Rehabilitation and recovery still takes precedence over
prevention, preparedness and mitigation. By way of addressing these issues, the Sendai framework puts forward
that investments be prioritized for risk reduction highlighting among others, on strengthening the understanding
of risks.
9.5 Capacity development
Capacities reside on three interrelated levels- the individual, the organization and the enabling
environment (FAO, UNDP, CADRI). In the agriculture and fisheries context, the individual means the wide range
of actors, such as famers and fisherfolk, businessmen, policy makers and staff of organizations. The organization
includes the DA, the LGUs, farmers and fisherfolk organizations, and other government and non-government
institutions, particularly those related to agriculture and fisheries. The enabling environment covers policy and
legal frameworks, social norms, power relations and institutional arrangements.
The capacity needs identified during the scoping workshops for this Plan were cross-cutting in nature;
meaning, they are not confined to a particular sector or commodity. A number of capacity needs are directly
related to building the resiliency of farmers and fisherfolk. These include enhanced package of technologies and
approaches and EWS for pest and diseases.
Others relate to DRRM programming and mainstreaming. These include planning, monitoring and
evaluation, research; vulnerability, damage and needs assessment and modeling; awareness raising and
education strategies; and post-disaster planning and recovery interventions. Other needs relate to the
improvement of the enabling environment and include DRRM policy review and reward systems to enhance
service delivery.
35
9.6 Building forward better RELEVANT INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS
The Philippines is a signatory to the following international agreements / treaties:

1. International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC), 1951

Build forward better is about rebuilding communities to a much better state than they were before the
2. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), Rio de Janeiro, 1992
calamities. Build forward better means avoiding the vicious cycle of destruction and reconstruction. President
3. UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), New York, 1992
Aquino said that build forward better “not just the towns and damaged infrastructures, but the very lives of those
4. International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, (IT PGRFA), Rome, 1983
affected … Matapos ang relief, ibabangon natin ang mga apektadong komunidad sa kasalukuyan, at sisiguruhin
5. Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High Seas, Geneva, 1958
na magiging mas matatag ang kanilang kinabukasan”. He said part of the government's rehabilitation efforts
6. UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), Paris, 1994
would also address livelihoods, so that victims can lead better lives. He said coconut farmers would be taught
intercropping to increase their earnings, "so when they rise again they will not just return to normal but be in a
better status."

Build forward better also implies additional investments. Budget Secretary Florencio Abad said, “We have
RELEVANT PHILIPPINE LAWS:
to induce resiliency in a way, for vulnerable areas to adjust their designs so that they can take on Yolanda-like
1. PD 1433 - Plant Quarantine Law of 1978
eventualities, and that means an increase in their costs of change in design.” (Editorial, Philippine Daily Inquirer,
2. RA 7308 - Seed Industry Development Act of 1992
2014)
3. RA 8435 - Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act of 1997
4. RA 8550 - The Philippine Fisheries Code of 1998
5. RA 10654 - Amending RA 8550 -The Philippine Fisheries Code of 1998
6. RA 9729 - Climate Change Act of 2009
7. RA 10121 - Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act of 2010
8. RA 10611 - Food Safety Act of 2013
9. RA 10068 - Organic Agriculture Act of 2010

36 37
 GLOSSARY Capacity
The sources of some terms are referenced as follows: The combination of all the strengths, attributes, and resources available to an individual, community,
society, or organization, which can be used to achieve established goals. (IPCC, 2012)
APEC Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity A combination of all strengths and resources available within a community, society or organization that
IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute can reduce the level of risk, or effects of a disaster. `Capacity may include infrastructure and physical
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change means, institutions, societal coping abilities, as well as human knowledge, skills and collective attributes
ISO International Organization for Standardization such as social relationships, leadership and management. Capacity may also be described as capability.
PhilFSIS Philippine Food Security Information System (RA 10121, Section 3b)
RA 7308 Republic Act No. 7308: Seed Industry Development Act of 1992
RA 10611 Republic Act No. 10611: Food Safety Act of 2013 Capacity development
RA 10121 Republic Act No. 10121: Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act of 2010 The process by which people, organizations and society systematically stimulate and develop their
UNDP United Nations Development Programme capacities over time to achieve social and economic goals, including through improvement of knowledge,
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change skills, systems, and institutions. (UNISDR)
UNISDR United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Climate change
WMO World Meteorological Organization A change in the state of the climate that can be identified (e.g. by using statistical tests) by changes in
the mean and/or the variability of its properties and that persists for an extended period, typically decades
Adaptation or longer. Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcings, or to persistent
In human systems, the process of adjustment to actual or expected climate and its effects, in order to anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use. See also Climate variability
moderate harm or exploit beneficial opportunities. In natural systems, the process of adjustment to actual and Detection and attribution. (IPCC, 2012)
climate and its effects; human intervention may facilitate adjustment to expected climate. (IPCC, 2012)
Climate change
Adaptation A change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition
The adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable
which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities. (UNISDR, 2009) time periods. (UNFCCC)

Agrobiodiversity
The variety and variability of animals, plants and micro-organisms that are used directly or indirectly for
food and agriculture, including crops, livestock, forestry and fisheries. It comprises the diversity of genetic
resources (varieties, breeds) and species used for food, fodder, fibre, fuel and pharmaceuticals. It also
includes the diversity of non-harvested species that support production (soil micro-organisms, predators,
pollinators), and those in the wider environment that support agro-ecosystems (agricultural, pastoral, forest
and aquatic) as well as the diversity of the agro-ecosystems (FAO, 1999).
The UNFCCC thus makes a distinction between climate change attributable to human activities altering the
atmospheric composition, and climate variability attributable to natural causes.
Climate change
A change in climate that can be identified by changes in the mean and/or variability of its properties and
that persists for an extended period typically decades or longer, whether due to natural variability or as a
result of human activity. (RA 10121, Section 3d)

Agro-ecological zone Contingency planning

Defines zones based on combinations of soil, landform, and climatic characteristics. The particular A management process that analyses specific potential events or emerging situations that might threaten
parameters focus on the climatic and edaphic requirements of crops and on the management systems society or the environment and establishes arrangements in advance to enable timely, effective and
under which the crops are grown. (FAO, 1996) appropriate responses to such events and situations. (UNISDR)

Aquasilviculture Conservation agriculture

Integrates aquaculture and mangrove forestry. It is more resilient to shocks and extreme events, leading to Conservation agriculture aims to achieve sustainable and profitable agriculture through application of
increased production owing to improved ecosystem services. (FAO) three principles: minimal soil disturbance, permanent soil cover and crop rotation. (FAO)

Biotechnology Disaster
Any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving widespread human, material,
or modify products or processes for specific use. economic or environmental losses and impacts, which exceeds the ability of the affected community or
society to cope using its own resources. (UNISDR)
Blue economy
A development approach anchored on sustainable development and utilization of marine resources and Disaster risk
ecosystems in APEC region. (APEC, 2015) The potential disaster losses, in lives, health status, livelihoods, assets and services, which could occur to a
particular community or a society over some specified future time period. (UNISDR)
Capacity (Capability)
The combination of all the strengths, attributes and resources available within a community, society or Disaster risk management
organization that can be used to achieve agreed goals. (UNISDR, 2009) The systematic process of using administrative directives, organizations, and operational skills and capacities
to implement strategies, policies and improved coping capacities in order to lessen the adverse impacts of
hazards and the possibility of disaster. (UNISDR)
38 39

Disaster risk reduction
The concept and practice of reducing disaster risks through systematic efforts to analyse and manage the
causal factors of disasters, including through reduced exposure to hazards, lessened vulnerability of people
and property, wise management of land and the environment, and improved preparedness for adverse
events. (UNISDR)
Disaster Risk Reduction and Management
The systematic process of using administrative directives, organizations, and operational skills and capacities
to implement strategies, policies and improved coping capacities in order to lessen the adverse impacts
of hazards and the possibility of disaster. Prospective disaster risk reduction and management refers to
risk reduction and management activities that address and seek to avoid the development of new or
increased disaster risks, especially if risk reduction policies are not put in place. (RA 10121, Section 3o)
DRM mainstreaming
The incorporation of disaster risk management activities into the day to day government business.
Drought
A period of abnormally dry weather long enough to cause a serious hydrological imbalance. Drought
is a relative term, therefore any discussion in terms of precipitation deficit must refer to the particular
precipitation-related activity that is under discussion. For example, shortage of precipitation: during the
growing season impinges on crop production or ecosystem function in general (due to soil moisture drought,
also termed agricultural drought), and during the runoff and percolation season primarily affects water
supplies (hydrological drought). Storage changes in soil moisture and groundwater are also affected by
increases in actual evapotranspiration in addition to reductions in precipitation. A period with an abnormal
precipitation deficit is defined as a meteorological drought. A megadrought is a very lengthy and pervasive
drought, lasting much longer than normal, usually a decade or more. (IPCC, 2012)
Meteorological drought
It refers to a deficiency of precipitation, as compared to average conditions, over an extended
period of time.
Agricultural drought
It is defined by a reduction in soil moisture availability below the optimal level required by a crop
during each different growth stage, resulting in impaired growth and reduced yields.
Hydrological drought
It results when precipitation deficiencies begin to reduce the availability of natural and artificial
surface and subsurface water resources. It occurs when there is substantial deficit in surface runoff
below normal conditions or when there is a depletion of ground water recharge.
Early warning system
The set of capacities needed to generate and disseminate timely and meaningful warning information
(from the Approved Authority) to enable individuals, communities and organizations threatened by a
hazard to prepare and to act appropriately and in sufficient time to reduce the possibility of harm or loss.
(UNISDR)
El Niño
A phenomenon in the equatorial Pacific Ocean characterized by a positive sea surface temperature
departure from normal (for the 1971-2000 base period) in the Niño 3.4 region greater than or equal in
magnitude to 0.5 degrees C, averaged over three consecutive month. (WMO)
Exposure
The presence of people; livelihoods; environmental services and resources; infrastructure; or economic,
social, or cultural assets in places that could be adversely affected. (IPCC, 2012)
40
Food available per capita
The volume of food commodity available in its original (unprocessed) form for consumption by each
member of the population. (PhilFSIS)
Food safety
Food safety refers to the assurance that food will not cause harm to the consumer when it is prepared or
eaten according to its intended use. (RA 10611, Section 4n)
Food security
Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and
nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. (World
Food Summit, 1996)
Food self-sufficiency
Food self-sufficiency is defined as being able to meet consumption needs (particularly for staple food crops)
from own production rather than by buying or importing. (IFPRI)
Food supply chain
Food supply chain refers to all stages in the production of food from primary production, postharvest
handling, distribution, processing and preparation for human consumption. Preparation is the cooking or
other treatments to which food is subjected prior to its consumption. (RA 10611, Section 4r)
Governance
Governance is a process within which public resources and problems are managed effectively, efficiently
and in response to critical needs of society. Effective governance relies on public participation, accountability
and transparency.
Groundwater
Water that is found underground in spaces in soil, sand, or rocks.
Hazard
A dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity or condition that may cause loss of life, injury or
other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or
environmental damage. (UNISDR)
Human Development Index (HDI)
A summary measure for assessing long-term progress in three basic dimensions of human development: a
long and healthy life, access to knowledge and a decent standard of living. (UNDP)
Impacts
Effects on natural and human systems. In this report, the term ‘impacts’ is used to refer to the effects on
natural and human systems of physical events, of disasters, and of climate change. (IPCC, 2012)
Invasive alien
Invasive alien species as “species whose introduction and/or spread outside their natural past or present
distribution threaten biological diversity. (CBD, 2014)
La Niña
A phenomenon in the equatorial Pacific Ocean characterized by a negative sea surface temperature
departure from normal (for the 1971-2000 base period) in the Niño 3.4 region greater than or equal in
magnitude to 0.5 degrees C, averaged over three consecutive months. (WMO)
Marine protected area
A defined area of the sea established and set aside by law, administrative regulation, or any other
effective means in order to conserve and protect a part of or the entire enclosed environment through the
establishment of management guidelines. It is considered a generic term that includes all declared areas
governed by specific rules or guidelines in order to protect and manage activities within the enclosed area.
(Section 4, Part 60)
41

Mitigation
Structural (physical) and non-structural (non-physical) measures undertaken to protect and/or strengthen
vulnerable elements to minimize the adverse impact of natural hazards, environmental degradation and
technological hazards.
Preparedness
Activities and measures taken in advance by people and organizations to ensure effective mobilization of
response to the potential impact of hazards, including the issuance of timely and effective early warnings,
the temporary removal of people and property from a threatened location and the support to indigenous
coping knowledge and capacity of the population at risk.
Prevention
Measures taken for the purpose of avoiding disasters (natural or human caused) or preventing other
emergencies from occurring (OFDA)
Recovery
The coordinated process of supporting effected communities in immediate recovery and reconstruction of
the physical infrastructure and restoration of emotional, social, economic and physical well-being.
Response
The actions taken immediately before, during and immediately following an emergency or disaster. The
conclusion of response and the commencement of recovery invariably overlap.
Resilience
The ability of a system and its component parts to anticipate, absorb, accommodate, or recover from the
effects of a hazardous event in a timely and efficient manner, including through ensuring the preservation,
restoration, or improvement of its essential basic structures and functions. (IPCC, 2012)
Risk
The probability that loss will occur as the result of an adverse event given the hazard and vulnerability.
Conventionally, risk is expressed by the notation:
Risk = Hazards x Vulnerability/Capacity
Risk assessment
Risk Assessment is a process that is, in turn, made up of three processes: risk identification, risk analysis, and
risk evaluation. (ISO 31000)
Risk identification
is a process that is used to find, recognize, and describe the risks that could affect the achievement
of objectives. (ISO 31000)
Risk analysis
is a process that is used to understand the nature, sources, and causes of the risks that you have
identified and to estimate the level of risk. It is also used to study impacts and consequences and to
examine the controls that currently exist. (ISO 31000)
Risk evaluation
is a process that is used to compare risk analysis results with risk criteria in order to determine whether
or not a specified level of risk is acceptable or tolerable. (ISO 31000)
Risk management
The systematic approach and practice of managing uncertainty to minimize potential harm and loss.
42
(UNISDR)
Risk transfer
The process of formally or informally shifting the financial consequences of particular risks from one party to
another whereby a household, community, enterprise or state authority will obtain resources from the other
party after a disaster occurs, in exchange for ongoing or compensatory social or financial benefits provided
to that other party. (UNISDR)
Seed
Seed shall mean plant material used in the production of food, forage, fibers, industrial crops, oil, flowers,
grasses, herbs and aquatic plants, including but not limited to meristem, and clonal propagules such as
tubers, corms, cuttings, and micro-propagated plantlets. (RA 7308, Section 3a)
Seed Security
Seed Security means access by farming households (men and women) to adequate quantities of good
quality seed and plant materials of adapted crop varieties at all times both good and bad. (FAO)
Staple Foods
Food that is eaten regularly and in such quantities as to constitute the dominant part of the diet and supply
a major proportion of energy and nutrient needs. (FAO)
Storm Surge
A storm surge is a rise in the water level over and above the predicted astronomical tide due to the presence
of the storm. (NOAA, 2013)
Sustainable development
Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their own needs. (UNISDR)
Sustainable land management
The use of land resources, including soils, water, animals and plants, for the production of goods to meet
changing human needs, while simultaneously ensuring the long-term productive potential of these resources
and the maintenance of their environmental functions. (UN Earth Summit, 1992)
Vulnerability
The characteristics and circumstances of a community, system or asset that make it susceptible to the
damaging effects of a hazard. (UNISDR)
The characteristics and circumstances of a community, system or asset that make it susceptible to the
damaging effects of a hazard. Vulnerability may arise from various physical, social, economic, and
environmental factors such as poor design and construction of buildings, inadequate protection of assets,
lack of public information and awareness, limited official recognition of risks and preparedness measures,
and disregard for wise environmental management. (RA 10121, Section 3nn)
The propensity or predisposition to be adversely affected. (IPCC, 2012)
43
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