ERE 722

Dr. Qasem Abdelal

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Source: Ch4, design of thermal systems

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 To develop equations that represent the
performance characteristics of the equipment,
the behavior of the process, and the
thermodynamic properties of substances.

This session and the next one will both be

serving one purpose, here were are dealing
purely with numbers, next session, we’ll be
utilizing some physical laws to help with the
equation development.

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 1. Systematic techniques for determining the
constants and coefficients in equations.

2. Proposing the form of the equation that

best fits the process, this is an art !

3. Methods for determining equations that fit a

limited number of data perfectly

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 Can be used for solving systems of linear
equations.
5 −2 0
7 3
[A]= , [B] = 3 1 −1 = (3X3) matrix
1 2
0 1 1

Transpose of a matrix [A]T is when rows are

inverted to columns and vise versa

5 3 0
[B]T= −2 1 1
0 −1 1

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 Multiplication of matrices, the contents of the
first row of the first matrix are multiplied with
the contents of the first column in the second
matrix. For example, the multiplication of:

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 Determinant , this is a number that is written
between two vertical lines. The technique is to
sum the products of diagonal elements,
assigning a positive sign to the diagonal
moving downward to the right and negative to
the product downwards to the left.

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 For a 3X3 matrix, the determinant is given by:
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
[A]= 𝑑 𝑒 𝑓
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖

|A| = a(ei - fh) - b(di - fg) + c(dh - eg)

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
X
X
𝑒 𝑓 - 𝑑 X 𝑓 + 𝑑 𝑒
ℎ 𝑖 𝑔 𝑖 𝑔 ℎ

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 For a 4 X 4 matrix and larger, Excel’s
=MDETERM (Array ) can be used.

Matrices can be used for solving sets of

simultaneous equations as previously outlined.
The two procedures of interest are the
Cramer’s rule and the Gaussian elimination

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 Cramer’s rule uses the following concept:
For the following equations :

According to the setup above, the following

formulation can be used to solve for each of
the xis:

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 Example: Using Cramer’s rule, solve for X2 in
this set of simultaneous linear equations

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 Gaussian Elimination

This process involves the conversion of the

coefficient matrix into a triangular matric and
solution of Xn to X1 by back substitution.
Example, solve the following set of equations
using Gauss elimination.

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 A polynomial is of the form:

Y= ao+a1x+a2x2+a3x3+…+anxn

So here, the dependent variable is a function of

only one independent variable. In many cases, it
will be a function of more than one independent
variable.

When number of data points is precisely the same

as the degree of the equation plus 1, a polynomial
can be devised that exactly expresses those data
points.
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 See for example a case where two data points
are available, here you can fit a linear
polynomial (first order) of the form:
Y=ao+a1x
Here, the two known points:
(xo,yo) and (x1,y1) are used to
generate two equations:
Yo =ao +a1 xo
Y1 =ao +a1 x1
So it is our duty to identify the coefficients ao
and a1
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 For a second degree, or quadratic equation,
three data points are needed.
Y =ao+ a1x+ a2x2

The three points give the

Following set of equations:

These can be solved for the values of the

parameters ao, a1, a2
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 In this special case,
if we wanted to fit a 4th
order polynomial for
example, while having
the space between the
observed points uniform. The following
representation can be used for the 4th order
polynomial

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 The goal is to plug in
numbers (x1,y1),(x2,y2),
… (xn,yn) in the equation
before to get n equations
with n unknowns
(a1,a2…an)
These equations can be solved simultaneously.

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 So the following table contains the set of
constants to solve the equation:

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 This is applicable in the case where the interval
between the data points is not uniform. So it is
more general than the previous method.
So…
A second degree polynomial of the form:

Can be represented by:

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 By setting x= x1, x=x2, x=x3, the constants
become:

The general form of the equation when n data

points are available is given by:

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 Where the product sign indicates multiplication

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 Very often, the function will be dependent on
more than one variable. For example, pressure
developed by a pump depends on the speed
and flow rate.

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 If the need is to produce a function of ΔP in
terms of a second order equation of S and Q.
Separate equations need to be written for each
of the three curves.
Therefore, for the S1=30 r/s
∆𝑃1 = 𝑎1 + 𝑏1 𝑄 + 𝑐1 𝑄 2
Similarly, for the other two speeds, two other
equations are developed:
∆𝑃2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 𝑄 + 𝑐2 𝑄 2
∆𝑃3 = 𝑎3 + 𝑏3 𝑄 + 𝑐3 𝑄 2

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 So now, the constants a, b, c can be expressed as a
second degree equations in terms of S. Such
equations will have the form:
𝑎 = 𝐴𝑜 + 𝐴1 𝑆 + 𝐴2 𝑆 2
Similarly:
𝑏 = 𝐵𝑜 + 𝐵1 𝑆 + 𝐵2 𝑆 2
𝑐 = 𝐶𝑜 + 𝐶1 𝑆 + 𝐶2 𝑆 2
Substituting in the original formula:
∆𝑝
= 𝐴𝑜 + 𝐴1 𝑆 + 𝐴2 𝑆 2 + 𝐵𝑜 + 𝐵1 𝑆 + 𝐵2 𝑆 2 𝑄
+ 𝐶𝑜 + 𝐶1 𝑆 + 𝐶2 𝑆 2 𝑄 2
This formula can be solved if 9 data points are
available (three on each of the three curves)
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 Exit Temp as a function of the WBT
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Exit Temp

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28

27

26

25
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

WBT

10 16 22

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 Exit Temp as a function of the range
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30
Exit Temp.

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28

27

26

25
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Range

20 23 26

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 This form of functions is very common in
engineering practice:
y=bxm
On a log-log graph, the exponential plot turn
linear, with the intercept at x=1 representing b
and the slope representing m

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 This method is handy when more data points are
available than the “m” coefficients needed for the
fit curve.

One definition of the best fit is the one where the

sum of the absolute values of the deviations from
the data point is a minimum.

Another, the sum of the squares of the deviation is

a minimum.

The method of establishing the coefficients is

called the method of least squares.

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 This method will be developed here for first
and second degree polynomials:
Y= a+bx
A number (m) of data points is available.
(x1,y1), (x2,y2), (x3,y3),…(xm,ym)
The deviation of the data point is given by the
equation: a+bxi-yi. Therefore, the sum of
square deviations is given by:

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 The minimization is obtained when the partial
derivative of the equations above with respect
to a and b is equal to zero.

And

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 Dividing by two and separating the two
equations into individual terms yield:

And so, these will be simultaneous equations

that can be solved with any of the previously
discussed methods.

Work out example 4.4, page 69

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 Here, the function is of the form:
Y = a+bx+cx2
It can be shown that three equation will be developed
for the determination of a,b,c. In a matrix format:
𝑚 ෍ 𝑥𝑖 ෍ 𝑥𝑖 2 ෍ 𝑦𝑖

𝑎
෍ 𝑥𝑖 ෍ 𝑥𝑖 2 ෍ 𝑥𝑖 3 𝑏 = ෍ 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖
𝑐
෍ 𝑥𝑖 2 ෍ 𝑥𝑖 3 ෍ 𝑥𝑖 4 ෍ y𝑖 𝑥𝑖 2

The pattern can be developed for higher order

equations
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 Same principles developed earlier are
applicable for non polynomial equations as
long as the coefficients are constants.
For example:

Can be solved for:

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 In most cases, data points are available and
little is known about the type of function that
best represents the data. Here is where the art
of the curve fitting comes.

The most intuitive step is to plot the data and

observe the shape.

Below are examples of different types of

curves:

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 Z= ao+a1x+a2x2+a3y

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 This would probably be your first guess if there are
no special indicators otherwise:

At least a third order polynomial

needed

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 Y=ao+a1x-1+a2x-2 OR Y =a C-x

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 𝑐𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑏
Where a,b,c are constants with b,c less than
unity

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 y=y1+y2 = (a+bx)+(c+dxm)
M is a negative exponent

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 Work out the following problems:
1. 4.6
2. 4.14
3. 4.22

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