Unit - I

STONES
1.1 Engineering Rock Classsification:
Building stones are defined as those whose origins are Igneous, Sedimentary and metamorphic
used for construction and decoration, fill material, crushed stone, and coarse-grained grit
material.
In practice, these rocks are differentiated into the so-called hard and soft rocks.
Hard rocks, e.g. granite, rhyolite, and basalt, are difficult to process mechanically. Soft rocks,
e.g. weakly cemented sandstones, tuffs, porous limestones, and serpentinites, can usually be
easily processed.
Rocks are composed of minerals. Rocks are seldom homogenous materials, in contrast to
minerals.

Monomineralic rocks contain only one major mineral. Rocks such as marble or quartzite are
mostly constituted by calcite/ dolomite and quartz, respectively. Polyphase or polymineralic in
composition. Granite, for example, consists of the minerals feldspar, quartz, and mica. In any
case, a rock is made up of an infinite number of crystals of one or more minerals.

The fabric of a rock describes its internal structure. The term ‘‘texture’’ is usually used in the
conventional geological manner for spatial relationships between mineral grains in a rock. It
includes such features as grain shape and size. The structure of a rock describes the size, the
shape, and the interactive relationship (intergrowths) of the constituent minerals (e.g. grain size,
grain shape, grain size distribution, etc.). Fabric deals with the crystallographic- and shape-
preferred orientation, distribution, state and orientation of microfractures, shape and size of
grains, their spatial distribution, relations between grains, etc., i.e. the structural elements of a
rock.

1.2 Identification of Minerals

Chemical composition (microprobes and wet chemical methods)
Crystal structure (X-ray diffraction)
Physical properties

1.3 Physical properties of minerals

External crystal form
Determined by internal arrangement of the molecules
Cubes, octahedrons, hexagonal prisms, etc.
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Fig. 1.1: Ionic Bonding example: halite Fig. 1.2: Covalent Bonds: diamond

Many common minerals are silicates,

Fig1.3: Silicate tetrahedra can combine in several ways to form many common minerals
1.4 Polymorphs
Minerals with the same composition, but different crystal structure are called polymorphs.

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Fig. 1.4: Carbonates Calcite (CaCO3), dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2), siderite (FeCO3), smithsonite
(ZnCO3). Make up many common rocks including limestone and marble

1.4 Lustre
Lusture describes the appearance of a mineral when light is reflected from its surface. Is it shiny
or dull? does it look like a metal or like glass?, Generally it is the first thing to be noticed when
identifying an unknown mineral sample.

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Fig. 1.5: Examples of mineral luster, clockwise from top left: Metallic (galena); Metallic (pyrite);
Vitreous (quartz); Waxy (chalcedony); Pearly (talc); and Earthy (goethite)

1.5 Cleavage and Fracture

The way in which a mineral breaks is determined by the arrangement of its atoms and the
strength of the chemical bonds holding them together.
Careful observation of broken surfaces may aid in mineral identification.
A mineral that exhibits cleavage consistently breaks, or cleaves, along parallel flat surfaces
called cleavage planes.
A mineral fractures if it breaks along random, irregular surfaces.

Fig. 1.6: Atoms of sodium (red) and chlorine (yellow) in the mineral halite are parallel to three
planes that intersect at 90°.

Fig. 1.7: Types of cleavage common in minerals with examples of minerals.

1.6 Hardness

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Hardness is the resistance of a mineral to scratching or abrasion by other materials. Hardness is

determined by scratching the surface of the sample with another mineral or material of known
hardness. Measured by Mohs Hardness Scale, consists of ten minerals ranked in ascending order
of hardness with diamond, the hardest known substance, assigned the number 10.

Table 1.1 Mohs Scale of Hardness

1.7 Colour
Some minerals have characteristic colour determined by their molecular structure – malachite,
azurite, chalcopyrite etc., and some minerals are coloured by impurities. For example, because of
impurities quartz may be white, green, red, yellow etc.

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Fig. 1.8: Colours of Minerals

1.8 Streak
The colour of the ground powder of any mineral. It may be of the same colour as the mineral or
may differ — malachite is green and gives green streak, fluorite is purple or green but gives a
white streak.

Fig. 1.9: The streak of this dark gray mineral (hematite), obtained by rubbing it on the white
streak plate is reddish brown.
1.9 Specific gravity
The ratio between the weight of a given object and the weight of an equal volume of water;
object weighed in air and then weighed in water and divide weight in air by the difference of the
two weights.

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1.10 Taste, Odor, Feel

Some minerals have a distinctive taste (halite is salt, and tastes like it). some a distinctive odor
(the powder of some sulfide minerals, such as sphalerite, a zinc sulfide, smells like rotten eggs),
and some a distinctive feel (talc feels slippery).

1.11 Rock-Forming Minerals

Minerals are solid substances of natural origin. As a rule, minerals have definite chemical
composition with chemical formula. Due to the differences in internal structure, one chemical
formula can be attributed to more than one mineral. Example is CaCO3 - two very distinct
internal structures, mineral called calcite and another mineral named aragonite. In reality, all
mineral specimens have individual appearances with some containing impurities. Minerals can
be further subdivided according to their internal structure. Crystalline varieties have
characteristically regular internal arrangements of atoms, ions, or other compounds and form a
structure called the unit cell. In contrast, amorphous mineraloids have no regular internal
structure, but they are also solid. Opal is an amorphous form of silica-dioxide. Rock-forming
minerals are the most widespread minerals and are the major constituents of rocks.

The systematic subdivision of minerals is based on their chemical composition.

Accordingly, ten major groups are known.
1. Native elements
2. Sulphides
3. Halogenides
4. Oxides and hydroxides
5. Carbonates and nitrates
6. Borates
7. Sulphates
8. Phosphates
9. Silicates
10. Organic compounds
The most common rock-forming minerals are silicates (about 95%), which are compounds of
silicon, oxygen, and other cations. Additional elements, such as iron, magnesium, calcium,
potassium, sodium, aluminum, etc. can also form a part of silicate minerals.

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The most common light-

colored rock-forming
silicate minerals are
‘a’ Plagioclase
(Figure by Geowissenschaftliche
Sammlung of GZG Göttingen),
b K-feldspar (Figure by
Geowissenschaftliche Sammlung of
GZG Göttingen),
c Quartz (Figure by
Geowissenschaftliche
Sammlung of GZG Göttingen),
d Amethyst, a colored
gemstone variety of quartz
(Figure by
Massanek/Geowissenschaftliche
Sammlungen of TU Freiberg),
e Light-colored mica
(muscovite) (Figure by A.
Massanek/Geowissenschaftliche
Sammlungen of TU Freiberg), and
f Kaolinite (clay mineral)
(Figure by Geowissenschaftliche
Sammlung of GZG Göttingen)

Fig: 1.10 The most common light-colored rock-forming non-silicate minerals are
a Calcite (scalenohedral) (Figure by A. Massanek/Geowissenschaftliche Sammlungen of TU
Freiberg),
b Calcite (rhomobehdral) (Figure by Geowissenschaftliche Sammlung of GZG Göttingen),
c Aragonite (Figure by Geowissenschaftliche Sammlung of GZG Göttingen), and
d Dolomite

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Fig. 1.11: The most common dark colored rock-forming silicate minerals are
a Orthopyroxene (Figure by Geowissenschaftliche Sammlung of GZG Göttingen),
b Amphibole (hornblende)
(Figure by Geowissenschaftliche Sammlung of GZG Göttingen),
c Olivine (Figure by A. Massanek/Geowissenschaftliche Sammlungen of TU Freiberg), and
d Dark mica (biotite) (Figure by A. Massanek/Geowissenschaftliche Sammlungen of TU
Freiberg)

Ore and industrial minerals.

Commonly found iron
minerals include
a Pyrite and
b Hematite.
The main lead mineral is c
Galena.
Industrial use of d Rock salt
(halite),
e Gypsum,
and
f Barite
(Figure by Geowissenschaftliche
Sammlung of GZG Göttingen)

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ROCK FORMATION

Fig. 1.12: Formation of Rocks

1.12 Classification and structures;

Igneous
Geologi
Sedimentary
cal
Metamorphic
Stratifie
d
Basic classification of
Physical Un-stratified
rocks
Foliate
d
Siliceou
s
Chemic
Argillaceous
al
Calcareous

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1.13 Geological Rock Classification

Rocks are divided according to their origin into 3 groups viz., IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY
and METAMORPHIC. The study of rocks in all their aspects including their mineralogies,
textures, structures; origin and their relationships to other rocks plays a major role in civil
engineering operations.

Igneous Rocks are formed when hot molten rock material called magma solidifies (or)
igneous rocks form through cooling and crystallization of molten rock material. If the molten
material is below the Earth’s surface, it is called magma or else it comes out about the
surface , it is known as lava.

The molten material of rock is semi-solid in nature and consists of liquid , gas and earlier
formed crystals. The volatiles ( elements and compounds which are dissolved in a silicate
melt ) are dominantly water vapour, CO2 and elements like O, Si, Al, Ca, Na, K, Fe and
Mg.

Sedimentary Rocks are formed due to weathering and erosion of the pre-existing rocks.
Sedimentary rocks are classified on the basis of the character of the material and process which
leads to its deposition. In addition, the depositional environment plays a major role in the
formation of sedimentary rocks ie. Deposited the material by wind action or water action.

Sedimentary rocks
Greywacks Arkose Sandstone Limestone
Chert Conglomerate Shales Dolomite
Siltstone Mudstone/claystone Breccia
Arkoses are indicative of erosion under arid conditions and rapid burial conditions whereas
Greywacks are a common rock type of geosynclines.

Metamorphic Rocks are formed through the transformation of the pre-existing rocks
under increased temperature and pressure conditions. This process of transformation is known
as metamorphism. Formation of metamorphic rock from a pre – existing (igneous or
sedimentary) rock is controlled by the following parameters:
Composition of the rock; Temperature; Pressure;
Chemically active fluids (common fluid is water)
Foliation (under differential stress conditions)
Non-foliation (under hydrostatic stress)

Examples for metamorphic rocks are:

Quartzite Hornfels Marble

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Amphibolite Eclogite Schist

Gneiss Khondalite Slate
Phyllite
Among the igneous and metamorphic rocks; Granites; Quartzites; Gneisses and Basalts are
suitable for construction of a dam. Pure sandstones have good compressive strength but
presence of inter layers of shales decrease its strength.
Limestones usually contain cavities in them. Adequate treatment in terms of grout – filling of
the cavities is to be taken in such cases.

Schists, Phyllites, Shales, Siltstones and clay stones are relatively incompetent and need
proper attention. Clay , if present is totally excavated since clay is incompetent as it swells on
saturation with water. Contacts of igneous intrusive (dyke) and the host rocks often are fractured
and jointed and hence such site is studied with proper care.

Eg: Nagarjuna sagar dam: Contact of a dolerite dyke with the host rock (granite gneisses), a
weak zone was identified along the contact. Excavation followed by back – filling with grout
was adopted.

Table 1.2: Common Features of Rocks

1.14 Physical classification

i)Stratified rocks

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These rocks possess planes of cleavage and rocks can be split up along these planes. Materials
from the disintegration of originally formed rocks form stratified rocks. Example: Sedimentary
rocks.
ii) Unstratified rocks
The structure of these rocks may be crystalline .Example: Igneous rocks.
iii) Foliated rocks
Metamorphic rocks have foliated structure. In this case layers of stratification are not formed due
to deposition but due to metamorphic act ion of heat and pressure.

1.15 Chemical classification

i) Silicious rocks
The main composition of these rock is Silica. The rocks are hard and durable. It is unaffected by
weathering action.
Example: Granite, Quartzites, Basalt.
ii) Argillaceous rocks
The main composition of these rock is Clay. They are brittle but hard and durable.
Example: Laterite, Clay slate.
iii) Calcareous rocks
The main composition of these rock is Lime.
Example: Lime stone, Dolomite. Marble,

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Fig. 1.13: Distrubution of Different types of Rocks across India

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Table 1.3: Availability of Marble and Minerals

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Montani C (2003) Stone 2002—world marketing handbook.

Montani C (2005) Stone 2004—world marketing handbook.
Montani C (2008) Stone 2008—world marketing handbook. Faenza, Gruppo Editoriale Faenza
Editice, Faenza

1.16 Uses of Stone

Following are the uses of stone in civil engineering works:
1. The stones are used for foundations, walls, columns, arches, damp-proof courses, floors. etc.
2. The stone are used facing work to give massive appearance.
3. Crushed stones are widely used in the manufacture of artificial stones.
4. The Stones are used as aggregate for cement concrete, roads, etc.
5. The stones arc used as ballast for railway lines.
6. Stones are used for ornamental works in [he buildings in the form of moldings with large
projections.
7. Flag stone slabs are used for paving.
8. Lime Stone is necessarily used for manufacture or cement.
9. On account of high crushing strength, stones are used in construction of dams, retaining walls,
weirs, harbours abutment for piers, etc.
10. Slate in the form of tiles is used as an excellent roof covering material.

1.17 Characteristics of Good Stones

1. It should be strong hard and durable to withstand the deteriorating action of rough weather.
2. It should have pleasing uniform colour and fine grained compact texture.
3. It should be remain unaffected by smoke and atmospheric acids.
4. It should be free from cracks cavities, flaws, decay or patches of soft material.
5. The surface of a freshly broken stone should be sharp, clean and bright with uniformity of
colour and texture.

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6. The specific gravity of stone should not in any case be less than 2.7.
7. It should be crystalline and homogeneous structure.
8. It should not absorb more than 0.60 % of its weight of water after 24hours of immersion.
9. It should be seasoned.
10. it should be easily workable.
11. It should stand fire well for some time without serious injury.
12. It should be easily obtainable and economical.

1.18 Uses of stones

1. Structure
Stones are used for foundations, walls, columns, lintels, arches, roofs, floors, damp proof course
etc.
2. Face works
Stones are adopted to give massive appearance to the structure. Facing of Walls of bricks is done
in stones of desired shades. This is known as composite masonry.
3. Paving stones
These are used to cover floor of buildings of all types. They are also adopted to form paving of
roads, foot paths etc.
4. Basic material
Stones are disintegrated and converted to form a basic material for cement concrete, moorum of
roads, calcareous cements, artificial stones, hallow blocks etc.
5. Miscellaneous
Stones are also used for (i) ballast for railways (ii) flux in blast furnace (iii) Blocks in the
construction of bridges, piers, abutments, retaining walls, light houses, dams etc.

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Table 1.4: Stones for Specific Uses

Table 1.5: Classification and Uses of Building Stones

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1.19 Granite
The term “Granite” means “grain” in Latin word “Granum” because of its granular nature. It is a
common and widely occurring type of intrusive igneous rock.

Composition: Feldspar, quartz, and small amounts of mica are the primary minerals of the
average granite with minor accessory minerals (usually hornblende).

Properties
It is the hardest building stone.
It provides excellent wearing surface.
It is available in wide ranging colours, usually in grey, green, brown and pink and red. It shows
consistency in colour and texture.
It is a good material for load bearing applications because of its Flexural strength.
Granite usually has a medium- to coarse-grained and homogeneous in texture.
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The Specific Gravity of granite is between 2.65 and 2.75. Its compressive strength usually lies
between 100 – 140 MPa. Melting temperature is 1215- 1260 °C.
It has negligible porosity. Its Water Absorption is 0.1-0.6%
The principal characteristics of granite also include high load bearing capacity, crushing strength,
abrasive strength, amenability to cutting and shaping without secondary flaws, ability to yield
thin and large slabs and - above all - durability.
Due to highly dense grain, it is almost impervious to stain.
Granite is also resistant to many acids and other caustic chemicals. So it is often used as a liner in
commercial vats.

Uses of Granite
Used as building blocks, but has poor resistance to fire as it crumbles when exposed to intense
heat.
Used as road metal, railway ballast, aggregate for concrete; for construction of bridges, piers and
marine works; for luxury flooring, for ornamental and monumental items, etc.

Availability
Good varieties of granite are available in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Karnataka, Kashmir and Gujarat.
India is one of the largest producers of granite blocks, granite tiles and processed granite slabs.

1.20 Basalt
1. Igneous rock
2. It is compact, hard and heavy
3. Available in red, yellow grey, blue and greenish black colour
4. Specific gravity is 3 and compressive strength varies from 153 to 189MPa.
5. Used for ornamental, rail road ballast, aggregates for concrete etc.

1.21 Sand Stone

1. Sedimentary rock
2. It is available in variety of formations: fine grained, coarse grained compact
or porous
3. Available in white, green, blue, black, red and yellow colours.
4. Specific gravity 2.65 to 2.95
5. Compressive strength is 65MPa
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6. Used for ashlar works.

1.22 Lime Stone

Limestone is calcareous sedimentary rock formed at the bottom of lakes and seas with the
accumulation of shells, bones and other calcium rich goods. It is composed of calcite (CaCO3).
It is available in a variety of forms which differ from one another in colour Compaction, texture,
hardness and durability.
Hardness 3 to 4 on Moh’s Scale
Density 2.5 to 2.7 Kg/cm3
Compressive Strength 60-170 N/mm2
Water Absorption Less than 1%
Porosity Quite low
Weather Impact Resistant

Uses of Limestone
· Flooring and roofing
· Wall cladding
· Vanity tops
· Furniture
· Cement Production
· Refining Metals
· Blackboard chalk.
Availability of Limestone:
India: Khasi, Jayantia and Garo Hills of Meghalaya,Satna limstone belt,
Madhya Pradesh.

1.23 Marble
1. Metamorphic rock
2. Available in white, blue, green, yellow black and red colours
3. High compactness,
4. Suitable for decorative works, wall lining columns, pile, table slabs, hearths, tiled floors, steps
of stair case etc.

1.24 Slate
1. Metamorphic rock
2. Non absorbent, compact fine grained and produce metallic ringing sound when struck.

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3. Available in black, dark blue, grey, reddish brown etc.

4. Used for providing damp proof course, paving dados etc.

1.25 Common Uses of Stones

Stones are used in the following civil engineering constructions:
1. Stone masonry is used for the construction of foundations, walls, columns and arches.
2. Stones are used for flooring.
3. Stone slabs are used as damp proof courses, lintels and even as roofing materials.
4. Stones with good appearance are used for the face works of buildings.
Polished marbles and granite are commonly used for face works.
5. Stones are used for paving of roads, footpaths and open spaces round the buildings.
6. Stones are also used in the constructions of piers and abutments of bridges, dams and
retaining walls.
7. Crushed stones with gravel are used to provide base course for roads.
When mixed with tar they form finishing coat.
8. Crushed stones are used in the following works also:
(a)As coarse aggregate in concrete
(b)For making artificial stones and building blocks
(c)As railway ballast

1.26 Availability of Important Stones

Stone : Basalt & Trap
Classification : Igneous
Qualities : Hard &Tough, difficult to work. Sp. gr is 3. comp. strength: 18 to 29KN/mm2
Uses : Foundation work, road metal, rubble masonry,etc
Availability : Maharashtra, Bihar, Gujarat, Bengal &MP
Stone : Granite
Classification : Igneous
Qualities : Hard&durable, can take nice polish, available in different colours. Sp. gr 2.6 to 2.7.
comp. strength: 26 to 27KN/mm2
Uses : Steps, wall, brick piers, columns, road metal, facing work, etc. not suitable for carving
Availability : Kashmir, U.P,Madras, Punjab, M.P, Rajasthan, Assam, Bengal, Bihar, Orissa,
kerala, Gujarat.
Stone : Limestone
Classification : Sedimentary

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Qualities : Consists of carbonate of lime, easy to work. Sp. gr 2 to 2.75. comp. strength:
54N/mm2
Uses : Manufacture of Lime, floors, steps, walls, road metal,etc.
Availability : A.P, M.P, Gujarat Maharashtra, , Punjab, Bengal, Bihar, UP Himachal Pradesh &
Andaman Islands

Stone : Marble
Classification : Metamorphic
Qualities : Available in diff colours, can take good polish. Sp. gr 2.65.
comp. strength: 71N/mm2
Uses : Flooring, Facing, Ornamental work, columns,etc
Availability : Rajasthan, Gujarat, A.P, Maharashtra, Mysore, M.P and U.P
Stone : Sand stone
Classification : Sedimentary
Qualities : Easy to work, available in diff colors, Sp. gr 2.65 to 2.95, comp. strength: 64N/mm2.
Uses : Weight 20to22kN/m3 Columns, facing, flooring, road metal, ornamental work,etc
Availability : A..P, M.P, Punjab, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, U.P,
Bengal, Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Kashmir, Tamilanadu & Andaman
Islands.
Stone : Quartzite
Classification : Metamorphic
Qualities : Hard, crystalline, brittle, difficult to dress.
Uses : Road metal, concrete aggregate, rubble masonry, retaining walls,
facing,etc.
Availability : A.P, H.P, U.P, Bengal, Mysore, Gujarat, Tamilnadu, Punjab and Rajasthan.

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Fig. 1.14: Rocks and Minerals

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