CEM Unit 4-1

Unit - IV
METALS
Metals are opaque, lustrous elements that are good conductors of
heat and electricity. Most metals are malleable and ductile and
are, in general, denser than the other elemental substances.
Metals are used in:

• Transportation -- Cars, buses, trucks, trains, ships, and
airplanes.
• Aerospace -- Unmanned and manned rockets and the
space shuttle.
• Computers and other electronic devices that require
conductors (TV, radio, stereo, calculators, security
devices, etc.)
• Communications including satellites that depend on a
tough but light metal shell.
• Food processing and preservation -- Microwave and
conventional ovens and refrigerators and freezers.
• Construction -- Nails in conventional lumber construction
and structural steel in other buildings.
• Biomedical applications -- As artificial replacement for
joints and other prostheses.
• Electrical power production and distribution -- Boilers,
turbines, generators, transformers, power lines, nuclear
reactors, oil wells, and pipelines.
• Farming -- Tractors, combines, planters, etc.
• Household conveniences -- Ovens, dish and clothes
washers, vacuum cleaners, blenders, pumps, lawn mowers
and trimmers, plumbing, water heaters, heating/cooling,
etc.
Physical Properties of Metals

Metals are hard, non-adhesive, cold and smooth; they are very
often shiny and strong. They are also ductile and malleable, do
not break easily. Metals are very good conductors of electricity
sound and heat. When temperature rises they expand, and when it
Metals, Materials - Unit IV
falls, they always contract. They can be easily welded to other

metals.
Chemical Properties
Metals react with oxygen in water and air. It's known as oxidation
or rusting and it's a reddish- or yellowish-brown flaky coating of
iron oxide that is formed on iron or steel, especially in the
presence of moisture.
Ecological Properties
Most metal are recyclable and some metals such as lead or
mercury are toxic and they are a danger for humans being and for
the environment.
Extraction of metals
There are two types of mines to obtain metals:
• Surface mining that is used when the mineral is near the
surface.
• Underground mining that is used when the mineral is
deep below the surface.
Its used excavators, drills, explosives for extracting minerals

from the rock. The minerals are separated into ore and gangue.
Classification of metals
Metals can be divided into two main groups: ferrous metals are
those which contain iron and non-ferrous metals that are those
which contain no iron.
Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE, Bengaluru-560059 Page 2

Ferrous Metals
Pure Iron is of little use as an engineering material because it is

too soft and ductile. When iron cools and changes from a liquid
to a solid, most of the atoms in the metal pack, tightly together in
orderly layers. Some however become misaligned, creating areas
of weaknesses called dislocations. When a piece of iron is put
under stress, layers of atoms in these areas slip over one another
and the metal deforms. This begins to explain the ductility of soft
iron. By adding carbon to the iron however, we can produce a
range of alloys with quite different properties. We call these the
carbon steels. An alloy is a mixture of two or more chemical
elements and the primary element is a metal.
Carbon Steels (Their properties and uses)
Mild Steel: carbon content between 0,1% and 0,3%. Properties:

less ductile but harder and tougher than iron, grey colour,
corrodes easily. Uses: girders or beams, screws, nut and bolts,
nails, scaffolding, car bodies, storage units, oil drums.
Medium carbon steel contains between 0.3% and 0.7%

carbon. Properties: harder and less ductile than mild steel, tough
and have a high tensile strength. Uses: it's used for the
manufacture of products which have to be tough and hard
wearing like gears, tools, keys, etc
High carbon steel contains between 0.7% and 1.3%

carbon. Properties: Very hard and brittle material. Uses: It's used
for cutting tools and products which have to withstand wear such
as guillotine, springs, etc.

Stainless steel are iron and chromium alloys. A wide range of

steels are available with chromium content between 13% and
27%. Properties: Chromium prevents rusting with an oxide film.
Ductility, hardness and tensile strength. It's also a shiny attractive
metal. Uses: Cutlery, sinks, pipes, car pieces, etc.
Grey Cast Iron is an alloy of iron (94%), carbon (3%) silicon

(2%) and some traces of magnesium, sulphur and phosphorous.
Properties: brittle but extremely hard and resistant, it corrodes by
rusting, Uses: pistons, machinery parts, streets lamps, drain
covers, tools.
Other chemical elements can be added to steel, to improve or

achieve certain properties. Here you are some examples:
• Silicon makes the alloy magnetic and improves elasticity.

• Manganese makes the alloy harder and heat-resistant. It's
used to make stainless steel.
• Nickel improves strength and prevents corrosion.
• Tungsten makes the steel harder, more heat-resistant and
prevents corrosion.
• Chromium makes the alloy harder and tougher and more
rustproof.
Non-ferrous metals
They are metals that don't contain iron. They have a lot of uses
but they are often expensive because they are more difficult to
extract.
Aluminium
It's the most abundant metal in the earth's crust and after steel, is
the most widely used of all the metals, today. Properties: Silvery

white colour, light, highly resistant to corrosion, soft, malleable

and ductile, low density, good conductor of both electricity and
heat. Uses: high voltage power lines, planes, cars, bicycles, light
metal work. Roofing and windows and doors units, decoration,
kitchen tools and drink cans.
Copper
It's a pure metal that is the world's third most important metal, in
terms of volume of consumption. Properties: a reddish-brown
metal, ductile and moderately strong, very good conductor of
electricity and heat, It corrodes very easily. Uses: electrical wire,
telephone lines, domestic hot water cylinder and pipes, car
radiator core, decoration, architecture.
Brass
This term "brass" covers a wide range of copper-zinc
alloys. Properties: It's gold in colour. It has very good
anticorrosive properties and it's resistant to wear.
Uses: Handicrafts, jewellery, plumbing, capacitors and turbine.
Magnesium
It's shiny and silvery white. Properties: It's very light, soft and
malleable, but not very ductile. It reacts very strongly with
oxygen. Uses: Fireworks, aerospace industry, car industry.
Tin
It's a shiny white metal. Properties: It doesn't oxidise at room
temperatures, it's very soft. Uses: Soft-soldering, tin foil and tin
plate.

Lead
It's a silvery grey metal. Properties: Soft and malleable. It's toxic
when its fumes are inhaled. Uses: Batteries, it's use as an additive
in glass for giving hardness and weight.
Bronze
It's an alloy of copper and tin. Properties: High resistant to wear
and corrosion. Uses: Boat propellers, filters, church bells,
sculpture, bearings and cogs.
Zinc
It's a bluish grey shiny metal. Properties: Anticorrosive, not very
hard, weak at low temperatures.
Uses: Roofing, plumbing because it stops corrosion.
Iron and steel
Think of the greatest structures of the 19th century - the Eiffel

Tower, the Capitol, the Statue of Liberty - and you'll be thinking
of iron. The fourth most common element in Earth's crust, iron
has been in widespread use now for about 6000 years. Hugely
versatile, and one of the strongest and cheapest metals, it became
an important building block of the Industrial Revolution, but it's
also an essential element in plant and animal life. Combined with
varying (but tiny) amounts of carbon, iron makes a much stronger
material called steel, used in a huge range of human-made
objects, from cutlery to warships, skyscrapers, and space rockets.
Let's take a closer look at these two superb materials and find out
what makes them so popular.

Fig. 4.1: The world's first cast-iron bridge, after which the village of
Ironbridge in Shropshire, England was named. It was built across the
River Severn by Abraham Darby III in 1779 using some 384 tons of iron.
Properties of Iron
Fig. 4.2: A sample of iron from a meteorite (next to a pen for scale). From
the mineral collection of Brigham Young University Department of
Geology, Provo, Utah.
We might think of iron as a hard, strong metal tough enough to

support bridges and buildings, but that's not pure iron. What we
have there is alloys of iron (iron combined with carbon and other
elements), which we'll explain in more detail in a moment. Pure
iron is a different matter altogether. Consider its physical
properties (how it behaves by itself) and its chemical properties
(how it combines and reacts with other elements and
compounds).

Physical properties
Pure iron is a silvery-white metal that's easy to work and shape
and it's just soft enough to cut through (with quite a bit of
difficulty) using a knife. You can hammer iron into sheets and
draw it into wires. Like most metals, iron
conducts electricity and heat very well and it's very easy
to magnetize.
Chemical properties
The reason we so rarely see pure iron is that it combines readily
with oxygen (from the air). Indeed, iron's major drawback as a
construction material is that it reacts with moist air (in a process
called corrosion) to form the flaky, reddish-brown oxide we
call rust. Iron reacts in lots of other ways too—with elements
ranging from carbon, sulfur, and silicon to halogens such as
chlorine.
Fig. 4.3: Using magnetic iron (III) oxide in computer's hard drive.
Broadly, iron's compounds can be divided into two groups known

as ferrous and ferric (the old names) or iron (II) and iron (III);
you can always substitute "iron(II)" for "ferrous" and "iron(III)"
for "ferric" in compound names.
• In iron (II) compounds, iron has a valency (chemical

combining ability) of +2. Examples include iron(II) oxide
(FeO), a pigment (coloring chemical); iron (II) chloride
(FeCl2), used in medicine as "tincture of iron"; and an

important dyeing chemical called iron (II) sulfate
(FeSO4).
• In iron (III) compounds, iron's valency is +3. Examples
include iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3), used as the magnetic
material in things like cassette tapes and computer hard
drives and also as a paint pigment; and iron (III) chloride
(FeCl3), used to manufacture many industrial chemicals.
• Sometimes iron (II) and iron (III) are present in the same
compound. A paint pigment called Prussian blue is
actually a complex compound of iron (II), iron (III), and
cyanide with the chemical formula Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3.
Where does iron come from?
Fig. 4.4: Iron in breakfast cereals (Iron is essential for a healthy diet).
Iron is the fourth most common element in Earth's crust (after

oxygen, silicon, and aluminum), and the second most common
metal (after aluminum), but because it reacts so readily with
oxygen it's never mined in its pure form (though meteorites are
occasionally discovered that contain samples of pure iron). Like
aluminum, most iron "locked" inside Earth exists in the form
of oxides (compounds of iron and oxygen). Iron oxides exist in
seven main ores (raw, rocky minerals mined from Earth):

• Hematite (the most plentiful)

• Limonite (also called brown ore or bog iron)
• Goethite
• Magnetite (black ore; the magnetic type of iron oxide,
also called lodestone)
• Pyrite
• Siderite
• Taconite (a combination of hematite and magnetite).
Different ores contain different amounts of iron. Hematite and

magnetite have about 70 percent iron, limonite has about 60
percent, pyrite and siderite have 50 percent, while taconite has
only 30 percent. Using a combination of both deep mining (under
the ground) and opencast mining (on the surface), the world
produces approximately 1000 million tons of iron ore each year,
with China responsible for just over half of it.
Fig. 4.5: Chart showing estimated figures for pig iron for 2018. In the
United States, three companies currently produce pig iron in nine
different locations. Source: US Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity
Summaries, February 2019.

Types of iron
Pure iron is too soft and reactive to be of much real use, so most
of the "iron" we tend to use for everyday purposes is actually in
the form of iron alloys: iron mixed with other elements
(especially carbon) to make stronger, more resilient forms of the
metal including steel. Broadly speaking, steel is an alloy of iron
that contains up to about 2 percent carbon, while other forms of
iron contain about 2–4 percent carbon. In fact, there are
thousands of different kinds of iron and steel, all containing
slightly different amounts of other alloying elements.
Pig iron
Basic raw iron is called pig iron because it's produced in the form
of chunky molded blocks known as pigs. Pig iron is made by
heating an iron ore (rich in iron oxide) in a blast furnace: an
enormous industrial fireplace, shaped like a cylinder, into which
huge drafts of hot air are introduced in regular "blasts". Blast
furnaces are often spectacularly huge: some are 30–60m (100–
200ft) high, hold dozens of trucks worth of raw materials, and
often operate continuously for years at a time without being
switched off or cooled down. Inside the furnace, the iron ore
reacts chemically with coke (a carbon-rich form of coal) and
limestone. The coke "steals" the oxygen from the iron oxide (in a
chemical process called reduction), leaving behind a relatively
pure liquid iron, while the limestone helps to remove the other
parts of the rocky ore (including clay, sand, and small stones),
which form a waste slurry known as slag. The iron made in a
blast furnace is an alloy containing about 90–95 percent iron, 3–4
percent carbon, and traces of other elements such as silicon,
manganese, and phosphorus, depending on the ore used. Pig iron
is much harder than 100 percent pure iron, but still too weak for
most everyday purposes.

Cast iron
One of the world's most famous iron buildings, the Capitol in
Washington, DC has a dome made of 4,041,146kg (8,909,200
pounds) of cast iron. Cast iron is simply liquid iron that has been
cast: poured into a mold and allowed to cool and harden to form a
finished structural shape, such as a pipe, a gear, or a big girder for
an iron bridge. Pig iron is actually a very basic form of cast iron,
but it's molded only very crudely because it's typically melted
down to make steel. The high carbon content of cast iron (the
same as pig iron—roughly 3–4 percent) makes it extremely hard
and brittle: large crystals of carbon embedded in cast iron stop
the crystals of iron from moving about. Cast iron has two big
drawbacks: first, because it's hard and brittle, it's virtually
impossible to shape, even when heated; second, it rusts relatively
easily. It's worth noting that there are actually several different
types of cast iron, including white and gray cast irons (named for
the coloring of the finished product caused by the way the carbon
inside it behaves).
Wrought iron
Cast iron assumes its finished shape the moment the liquid iron
alloy cools down in the mold. Wrought iron is a very different
material made by mixing liquid iron with some slag (leftover
waste). The result is an iron alloy with much lower carbon
content. Wrought iron is softer than cast iron and much less
tough, so you can heat it up to shape it relatively easily, and it's
also much less prone to rusting. However, relatively little
wrought iron is now produced commercially, since most of the
objects originally produced from it are now made from steel,
which is both cheaper and generally of more consistent quality.
Wrought iron is what people used to use before they really
mastered making steel in large quantities in the mid-19th century.

Fig. 4.6: Three types of iron. Left: Pig iron is the raw material used to
make other forms of iron and steel. Each of these iron pieces is one pig.
Middle: Cast iron was used for strong, structural components like bits of
engines and bridges before steel became popular. Right: Wrought iron is
a softer iron once widely used to make everyday things like street railings.
Types of steel
Strictly speaking, steel is just another type of iron alloy, but it has
much lower carbon content than cast and wrought iron and other
metals are often added to give it extra properties. Steel is such an
amazingly useful material that we tend to talk about it as though
it were a metal in its own right—a kind of sleeker, more modern
"son of iron" that's taken over the family firm! It's important to
remember two things, however. First, steel is still essentially (and
overwhelmingly) made from iron. Second, there are literally
thousands of different types of steel, many of them precisely
designed by materials scientists to perform a particular job under
very exacting conditions. When we talk about "steel", we usually
mean "steels"; broadly speaking, steels fall into four groups:
carbon steels, alloy steels, tool steels, and stainless steels. These
names can be confusing, because all alloy steels contain carbon
(as do all other steels), all carbon steels are also alloys, and both
tool steels and stainless steels are alloys too.

Fig. 4.7: Countries producing the world's raw steel
Carbon steels
The vast majority of steel produced each day (around 80–90
percent) is what we call carbon steel, though it contains only a
tiny amount of carbon—sometimes much less than 1 percent. In
other words, carbon steel is just basic, ordinary steel. Steels with
about 1–2 percent carbon are called (not surprisingly) high-
carbon steels and, like cast-iron, they tend to be hard and brittle;
steels with less than 1 percent carbon are known as low-carbon
steels ("mild steels") and like wrought iron, are softer and easier
to shape. A huge range of different everyday items are made with
carbon steels, from car bodies and warship hulls to steel cans
and engine parts.
Alloy steels
As well as iron and carbon, alloy steels contain one or more other
elements, such as chromium, copper, manganese, nickel, silicon,
or vanadium. In alloy steels, it's these extra elements that make

the difference and provide some important additional feature or

improved property compared to ordinary carbon steels. Alloy
steels are generally stronger, harder, tougher, and more durable
than carbon steels.
Tool steels
Tool steels are especially hard alloy steels used to make tools,
dies, and machine parts. They're made from iron and carbon with
added elements such as nickel, molybdenum, or tungsten to give
extra hardness and resistance to wear. Tool steels are also
toughened up by a process called tempering, in which steel is first
heated to a high temperature, then cooled very quickly, then
heated again to a lower temperature.
Stainless steels
The steel you probably see most often is stainless steel—used in
household cutlery, scissors, and medical instruments. Stainless
steels contain a high proportion of chromium and nickel, are very
resistant to corrosion and other chemical reactions, and are easy
to clean, polish, and sterilize. They're corrosion-proof because the
chromium atoms react with oxygen in the air to form a kind of
protective outer skin that stops oxygen and water from attacking
the vulnerable iron atoms inside.
Manufacturing of steel
There are three main stages involved in making a steel product.
First, you make the steel from iron. Second, you treat the steel to
improve its properties (perhaps by tempering it or plating it with
another metal). Finally, you roll or otherwise shape the steel into
the finished product.

Manufacturing of steel from iron
Fig. 4.8: Manufacturing of steel from iron with a Bessemer converter. It

turns iron into steel with help from oxygen in the air (Photo by Alfred T.
Palmer courtesy of US Library of Congress).
Most steel is made from pig iron (remember: that's an iron alloy
containing up to 4 percent carbon) by one of several different
processes designed to remove some of the carbon and
(optionally) substitute one or more other elements. The three
main steelmaking processes are:
• Basic oxygen process (BOP): The steel is made in a giant

egg-shaped container, open at the top, called a basic
oxygen furnace, which is similar to an ordinary blast
furnace, only it can rotate to one side to pour off the
finished metal. The air draft used in a blast furnace is
replaced with an injection of pure oxygen through a pipe
called a lance. The basic idea is based on the Bessemer
process developed by Sir Henry Bessemer in the 1850s.
• Open-hearth process (also called the regenerative open
hearth): A bit like a giant fireplace in which pig iron,

scrap steel, and iron ore are burned with limestone until
they fuse together. More pig iron is added, the unwanted
carbon combines with oxygen, the impurities are removed
as slag and the iron turns to molten steel. Skilled workers
sample the steel and continue the process until the iron
has exactly the right carbon content to make a particular
type of steel.
• Electric-furnace process: You don't cook your dinner with
an open fire, so why make steel in such a primitive way?
That's the thinking behind the electric furnace, which uses
electric arcs (effectively giant sparks) to melt pig iron or
scrap steel. Since they're much more controllable, electric
furnaces are generally used to make higher-specification
alloy, carbon, and tool steels.
Fig. 4.9: Making steel for weaponry with the three-ton electric arc furnace
at Rock Island Arsenal (Photo Courtesy, Tony Lopez courtesy of Defense
Imagery).
Manufacturing of steel products

Liquid steel made by one of these processes is cast into huge bars
called ingots, each of which weighs anything from a couple of
tons (in typical steel plants) to hundreds of tons (in really big
plants making giant steel objects). The ingots are rolled and
pressed to make three types of basic steel "building blocks"
known as blooms (giant bars with square ends), slabs (blooms

with rectangular ends), and billets (longer than blooms but with
smaller square ends).
These blocks are then shaped and worked to make all kinds of
final steel products. The basic shaping process usually
involves hot rolling (for example, reheating blooms and then
rolling them over and over again to make them thinner). Girders
are made by rolling steel then forcing it through dies or milling
machines to make such things as beams for buildings and railroad
tracks. Rollers that are very close together can be used to squeeze
steel into extremely thin sheets. Pipes are made by wrapping
sheets round into circles then forcing the two edges together so
they fuse under pressure where they join.
Shaped steel can be further treated in all kinds of ways. For

example, "tins" for food containers (which are mostly steel) are
made by electroplating steel sheets with molten tin using the
process of electrolysis (the reverse of the electro-chemical
process that happens in batteries). Steel that needs to be
especially resistant to weathering can be galvanized (dipped into
a hot bath of molten zinc so it acquires an overall protective
coating).
Advantages and Disadvantages of alloy steel:

The important advantages and disadvantages in the choice of
alloy steel from the general point of view in relation to plain
carbon steel are listed in the following.
Advantages:
• Greater hardenability.
• Less distortion and cracking
• Greater stress relief at given hardness

• Less grain growth
• Higher elastic ration and endurance strength
• Greater high temperature strength
• Batter machinability at high hardness
• Greater ductility at high strength.
Disadvantages:
• Cost
• Special handling
• Tendency toward austenite retention
• Temper brittleness in certain grades.
Aluminium
Aluminium has properties which makes it suitable as a building /
construction material. Nowadays in advanced countries,
aluminium became the important construction material for
buildings especially for industrial buildings along with brick,
cement and steel.
The aluminium is one of the abundantly available non-ferrous
metals on the surface of earth. But it is not available in direct
form; generally it is extracted from bauxite. Aluminium also
available in the form of oxides, sulphates, silicates and
phosphates etc..
Properties of Aluminium as Building Material

Following are the properties of aluminium which makes
aluminium as one of the important building materials.

1. Air tightness
2. High strength to weight ratio
3. Ease in fabrication and assembly
4. Cryogenics
5. Low Handling and transportation cost
6. High reflectivity
7. Corrosion resistance
8. Appearance
9. High Scrap value
10. Sound proof
11. Maintenance
Air Tightness
Doors and windows or its frames made form aluminium are
perfectly air tight which cannot permit dust or air or water when
they are closed. Now a days for fully air conditioned buildings
like seminar rooms, theatres etc. aluminium doors and windows
are using.
Fig. 4.10 Aluminium Doors

Strength to Weight Ratio

Aluminium as a construction material has a property of very high
value of strength to weight ratio. It represents that small amount
of aluminium can give more strength to structure. Because of less
weight we can construct the structure in less time and load
transferring to foundation also reduces.
Fig. 4.11 Aluminium in construction of building
Ease in Fabrication and Assembly

Compared to other metals aluminium alloys can be cast, forged,
extruded, rolled or welded easily. During or after composition of
aluminium alloy it cannot break because it is not having brittle
nature. The assembly of aluminium structures can be easily
dismantled or transported or assembled.
Cryogenics
Study of phenomena occurs at very low temperature is called
cryogenics. At very low temperature steel becomes brittle and
lost its strength. But in the case of aluminium, it is highly suitable

for sub-zero temperatures. So, for snow bound areas aluminium

structures are highly preferable.
Low Handling and Transportation Cost

Handling of aluminium is very easy because of its less weight.
So, we can transport it easily in large quantity to any place with
low transportation cost.
Reflectivity
Reflectivity of aluminium is also very high. Aluminium does not
absorb radiant heat and low absorption heat. So, during summer it
maintains the interior cooler and during winter maintains warmer
conditions.
Fig. 4.12 Reflectivity of aluminium
Corrosion Resistance
Corrosion resistance of aluminium is very high. It doesn’t
effected by weathering conditions. They can withstand against
humid or hot dry conditions very well. Because of its good
corrosion resistance, aluminium corrugated sheets are widely
used for power plants, chemical plants, paper mills, petroleum
refineries etc.
Fig. 4.13 Corrosion resistance of aluminium
Appearance
Aluminium also gives beauty to the structure. Smooth and bright
finishing is possible for aluminium structures. We can also
provide various shades of colours on the aluminium sheets to
enhance decorative style.
Fig. 4.14 Appearance of aluminium
High Scrap Value

Scrap value of aluminium is very high. So, it cannot be damaged
easily and highly durable. Because of high scrap value, we can
resale it for good value.

Sound Proof
Aluminium sheets acts as sound proof materials. They are
excellent reflectors of sound waves as well as electromagnetic
waves. So, they do not allow external noise into the building and
also interior sounds to outside.
Fig. 4.15 Sound proofing of building using aluminium panels
Low Maintenance Cost

As said above, aluminium have high corrosive resistance and
good properties against low temperature so, maintenance of
aluminium is negligible. Even though it is expensive to buy, it
will with stand for 25-30 years without any maintenance.
Applications of Aluminum
The most common uses of aluminium include:
• Transportation
• Construction
• Electrical
• Consumer Goods
Transportation
Aluminium is used in transportation because of its unbeatable
strength to weight ratio. Its lighter weight means that less force is

required to move the vehicle, leading to greater fuel efficiency.

Although aluminium is not the strongest metal, alloying it with
other metals helps to increase its strength. Its corrosion resistance
is an added bonus, eliminating the need for heavy and expensive
anti-corrosion coatings.
While the auto industry still relies heavily on steel, the drive to
increase fuel efficiency and reduce CO2 emissions has led to a
much wider use of aluminium. Experts predict that the average
aluminium content in a car will increase by 60% by 2025.
Fig. 4.16: Shinkansen E6 train
High-speed rail systems like the Shinkansen in Japan and the

Maglev in Shanghai also use aluminum. The metal allows
designers to reduce the weight of the trains, cutting down on
friction resistance.
Aluminium is also known as the ‘winged metal’ because it is

ideal for aircraft; again, due to being light, strong and flexible. In

fact, aluminium was used in the frames of Zeppelin airships

before airplanes had even been invented. Today, modern aircraft
use aluminium alloys throughout, from the fuselage to the cockpit
instruments. Even spacecraft, such as space shuttles, contain 50%
to 90% of aluminium alloys in their parts.
Construction
Buildings made with aluminium are virtually maintenance free
due to aluminium’s resistance to corrosion. Aluminium is also
thermally efficient, which keeps homes warm in winter and cool
in summer. Add the fact that aluminium has a pleasing finish and
can be curved, cut and welded to any desired shape, it allows
modern architects unlimited freedom to create buildings that
would be impossible to make from wood, plastic, or steel.
Fig. 4.17: The London Aquatics Centre
The first building in which aluminium was widely used was the
Empire State Building in New York, built in 1931. Today,
aluminium is regularly used in the construction of high-rise
buildings and bridges. The lighter weight of aluminium makes it
easier, faster and more convenient to work with. It also helps
reduce other costs. A building constructed of steel would require

much deeper foundations due to the added weight, which would

drive up construction costs.
Notable modern buildings made from aluminium include the

Bank of China headquarters in Hong Kong and Zaha Hadid’s
London Aquatics Centre in London.
Electrical
Although it has just 63% of the electrical conductivity of copper,
aluminium’s low density makes it the best option for long
distance power lines. If copper was used, support structures
would be heavier, more numerous, and more expensive.
Aluminium is also more ductile than copper, enabling it to be
formed into wires much more easily. Lastly, its corrosion-
resistance helps protect wires from the elements.
In addition to power lines and cables, aluminium is used in

motors, appliances, and power systems. Television antennae and
satellite dishes, even some LED bulbs are made of aluminium.
Consumer Goods
Aluminium’s appearance is the reason it is used frequently in
consumer goods.
Smartphones, tablets, laptops, and flat screen TVs are being made
with an increasing amount of aluminium. Its appearance makes
modern tech gadgets look sleek and sophisticated while being
light and durable. It is the perfect combination of form and
function which is critical for consumer products. More and more,
aluminium is replacing plastic and steel components, as it is
stronger and tougher than plastic and lighter than steel. It also

allows heat to dissipate quickly, keeping electronic devices from

overheating.
Fig. 4.18: Apple’s Macbook
Apple uses predominantly aluminium parts in its iPhones and

MacBooks. Other hi-end electronics brands like audio
manufacturer Bang & Olufsen also heavily favour aluminium.
Interior designers enjoy using aluminium as it’s easy to shape and

looks great. Furniture items made from aluminium include tables,
chairs, lamps, picture frames and decorative panels.
Of course, the foil in your kitchen is aluminium, as well as pots

and frying pans which are frequently made from aluminium.
These Aluminium products conduct heat well, are non-toxic,
resistant to rust, and are easy to clean.
Aluminium cans are used to package food and beverages. Coca-

Cola and Pepsi have been using aluminium cans since 1967.

HYSD and TMT bars
HYSD Bar stands for High Yielding Strength Deformed Bar. It

has more yield (tensile) strength than the other Mild steel bars. It
is corrosion resistant and more weldable.
Its material is generally medium carbon steel alloy. In HYSD ribs

are made on the surface of the bar, which increases the bonding
between Concrete and bar. It is generally used for reinforcement
of mass Concrete work.
HYSD, or High Yielding Strength Deformed Steel, goes through

heat treatments much like TMT bars, but the steps following this
are completely different. Subsequent to the heat treatment
procedure, the heated rods are shaped through heat rolling or cold
twisting. Thus HYSD rods are also subjected to various kinds of
mechanical and thermal treatments.
TMT stands for Thermo Mechanically Treated. The TMT bars

have a hard outer surface and a softer core. Their manufacturing
process includes hot rolled steel wires passed through water. This
makes the surface hard and keeps the core warmer and softer.
This helps in making the steel corrosion resistance and also
increases its weldability.
Reasons to Consider TMT Bars Over HYSD Steel Bars

• TMT bars are devoid of torsional stress as they aren’t put
through any physical deformations. Hence, chances of
surface defects are almost negligible.
• Reduction in surface defects means that TMT bars are less
prone to harmful oxidation, like corrosion, in comparison to
HYSD bars.

• TMT bars are more affordable. This is because they don’t go

through additional hardening processes; water quenching
methods harden TMT bar sufficiently. This reduces energy
as well as money spent on deformation processes, thereby
boosting its affordability. Moreover, TMT bars use 8-11%
less steel compared to HYSD bars, further improving their
affordability.
Fig. 4.19: TMT Bars (Left) and HYSD Bars (Right)
MATERIALS
Clay Products
Clay is the result of chemical reactions with felspar of Igneous

rock. The theoretical formula for clay is Al2O32SiO2 2H2O, an
alumina-silicate, but none are that pure and uncontaminated. Clay
products are one of the most important classes of structural
materials.
Classification of Clay Products:
Brick Clay
• Bricks
• Tiles
• Earthen wares

China clay (kaolin)

• Stone
• Wares
• Porcelain
• Faience
• Terracota
Fire clay
• Fire brick
• Acidic
• Basic
• Neutral
Bentonite
is a clay generated frequently from the alteration of volcanic ash,
consisting predominantly of smectite minerals, usually
montmorillonite.
Brick
Clay is the most important raw material used for making bricks,
Thus this type of clay is known as Brick clay. One of the oldest
building material brick continues to be a most popular and
leading construction material because of being cheap, durable
and easy to handle and work with. Clay bricks are used for
building-up exterior and interior walls, partitions, piers, footings
and other load bearing structures.
Clay bricks are commonly used since these are economical and
easily available. The length, width and height of a brick are
interrelated as below:
Length of brick = 2 × width of brick + thickness of mortar
Height of brick = width of brick
Standard brick: 19 × 9 × 9 cm and 19 x 9 x 4 cm

Clay bricks are commonly used since these are economical and
easily available.
Fig. 4.20: Clay Bricks
Tiles
Tiles are like bricks reduced thickness. They can be prepared
from selected clay after molding and drying in kilns. These give a
very pleasing appearance and good service properties. Roofing
tiles, flooring tiles, wall tiles and partition tiles are some of the
examples.
Fig. 4.21: Roofing and floor tiles

Earthen Wares
• These are made by burning the ordinary clay at low
temperature and cooling slowly.
• To check shrinkage, sand and crushed pottery is mixed
with clay.
• This also increases the toughness, hardness and strength
of the ware.
• Earthenware is used for manufacturing drain pipes and
light weight partition walls.
• Earthenware is commonly used in the making of terra
cotta pots, roofing tiles, and other low-fire ware.
China Clay
Clays are subdivided as residual and transported clays. Residual
clays, known as Kaolin or China clay are formed from the decay
of underlying rocks and are used for making pottery.
Fig. 4.22: China Clay
Stone Wares
A hard ceramic material resembling porcelain with a different
colour, usually grey or brownish is made from refractory clay
mixed with crushed pottery, stones and sand burned at high
temperatures and cooled slowly.

Uses :
• Light sanitary wares, e.g. wash basins, water closets, etc.
• Flooring tiles and wall tiles in toilets and kitchens.
Porcelain
White, thin and semi-transparent earthenware prepared from pure
plastic clay feldspar and quartz is known as porcelain, a high
grade ceramic ware having white colour, zero water absorption
and glazed surface which can be soft or hard.
Fig. 4.23: Porcelain as building material
Terra-cotta
It is an Italian word; Terra means clay and Cotta means burnt.
Terracotta is refractory clay product and is used in ornamental
parts of buildings.
Uses
• Terra-cotta is used for decorative and ornamental works.
• Cornices and arches.
• Being fire proof, terracotta is most suitable as casing for
steel columns and beams.
• Porous terracotta is used for sound insulation.

Fig. 4.24: Terra-Cotta brick tiled floor
Fire Clay
Fireclay is a type of clay that is able to withstand intense heat. It
is suitable for making articles which will not melt, nor even
perceptibly soften when exposed to a high temperature.
• It is used to make fire brick or refractory brick.
• Fireclay consists alumina and silica.
A fire brick or refractory brick is a block of refractory ceramic

material used in lining furnaces, kilns, fireboxes, and fireplaces.
A refractory brick is built primarily to withstand high
temperature, but will also usually have a low thermal
conductivity for greater energy efficiency.

Fig. 4.24: Fire clay bricks in construction
Bentonite
It is a clay generated frequently from the alteration of volcanic
ash, consisting predominantly of smectite minerals, usually
montmorillonite.
Uses:
Bentonite used as a filler material for soap, leather and rubber
industries. Also used with cement for grouting.
CERAMICS
Ceramics are a material often used in construction, made from a
mixture of minerals, typically silica sand, with a clay binder and
some impurities, and up to 30% water. They are fired at a
higher temperature than bricks, so that the silica re-crystallises to
form a glassy material that has greater density, strength, hardness,
resistance to chemicals and frost and a greater dimensional
stability.
During firing, the water is driven off, though this may be reduced
from 30% to 2-5% by drying before firing. At this
reduced water content products are moulded as powder before

being fired at 1,800-2,000 degrees for days or weeks at a time,

depending on the ceramic and process details. Ceramics may
have an as-fired appearance or be glazed (a glass-like coating).
These materials are environmentally stable - they will not oxidise

further in the atmosphere, therefore, they are economical in terms
of maintenance costs. Problems are likely to occur when they are
combined with other materials, typically fixings which are highly
stressed and subject to corrosion. If fixings fail, the result can be
dramatic. Unlike metals, ceramics are not capable of ductile
behaviour. They fail in a brittle manner, directly after their elastic
limit.
Types of ceramics Fire clays and shales:

These products include ordinary bricks, clay roof tiles, flooring
quarries and pavers.
Terracotta
This is literally ‘burnt earth’. It is made from yellow to brownish-
red clays with a uniformity and fineness between brick and
vitrified wall tiles. Terracotta is often used for
unglazed chimney pots, air bricks, copings and planters.
Faience
This is a glazed form of terra-cotta or stoneware. The
base material may be fired to the ‘biscuit’ stage
before glazing and re-firing, or a ‘once-fired’ process may be
used. The latter improves resistance of the glaze to crazing (the

spread of lines or cracks on the glazed surface), but reduces the

range of colours available.
Fireclay
This contains a high proportion of clay resistant to
high temperatures (kaolin). It is used for chimney flue linings and
firebacks.
Stoneware
This is similar in composition to fireclay, but is fired at a
higher temperature than fireclay and contains a higher proportion
of glass. As a result it is harder and less absorbent. Modern
manufacturing processes mean that stoneware no longer has to be
glazed for use in drainage pipes.
Earthenware
The raw materials are blended and may contain a considerable
proportion of limestone. It is a finer product than stoneware and
is used as the body for glazed wall tiles and table
‘china’. Water absorption may be up to 15%, however, making it
less suitable for sanitaryware than vitreous china.
Vitreous china
This has higher glass content than earthenware, and
its water absorption is only about 0.5%, which makes it suitable
for sanitary fittings. It is stronger than earthenware.

Porcelain
Porcelain is very similar to vitreous china, but is often made from
purer materials under more strictly controlled conditions. It is
used for special uses, such as electrical insulators.
New ceramics
These are also called ‘technical’ or ‘engineering’ ceramics. Their
purity is far higher than traditional ceramics, not using raw clay
mined directly from the ground. Powders are formed which are
then cast, pressed, extruded or moulded into shape. The powders
may be set in organic binders. The combination of
pure materials and exacting production techniques ensures the
very high strength of these materials.
Refractories
Refractory, any material that has an unusually high melting
point and that maintains its structural properties at very
high temperatures. Composed principally of ceramics,
refractories are employed in great quantities in
the metallurgical, glassmaking, and ceramics industries, where
they are formed into a variety of shapes to line the interiors
of furnaces, kilns, and other devices that process materials at high
temperatures.
In this article the essential properties of ceramic refractories are
reviewed, as are the principal refractory materials and their
applications. At certain points in the article reference is made to
the processing techniques employed in the manufacture of
ceramic refractories; more detailed description of these processes
can be found in the articles traditional ceramics and advanced
ceramics. The connection between the properties of ceramic

refractories and their chemistry and microstructure is explained

in ceramic composition and properties.
Properties
Because of the high strengths exhibited by their primary chemical
bonds, many ceramics possess unusually good combinations of
high melting point and chemical inertness. This makes them
useful as refractories. (The word refractory comes from the
French réfractaire, meaning “high-melting.”) The property of
chemical inertness is of special importance in metallurgy and
glassmaking, where the furnaces are exposed to extremely
corrosive molten materials and gases. In addition
to temperature and corrosion resistance, refractories must possess
superior physical wear or abrasion resistance, and they also must
be resistant to thermal shock. Thermal shock occurs when an
object is rapidly cooled from high temperature. The surface
layers contract against the inner layers, leading to the
development of tensile stress and the propagation of cracks.
Ceramics, in spite of their well-known brittleness, can be made
resistant to thermal shock by adjusting their microstructure
during processing. The microstructure of ceramic refractories is
quite coarse when compared with white wares such as porcelain
or even with less finely textured structural clay products such
as brick. The size of filler grains can be on the scale of
millimetres, instead of the micrometre scale seen in white
ware ceramics. In addition, most ceramic refractory products are
quite porous, with large amounts of air spaces of varying size
incorporated into the material. The presence of large grains and
pores can reduce the load-bearing strength of the product, but it
also can blunt cracks and thereby reduce susceptibility to thermal
shock. However, in cases where a refractory will come into
contact with corrosive substances (for example, in glass-melting
furnaces), a porous structure is undesirable. The ceramic material
can then be made with a higher density, incorporating smaller

amounts of pores.
Composition and Processing

The composition and processing of ceramic refractories vary
widely according to the application and the type of refractory.
Most refractories can be classified on the basis of composition as
either clay-based or non-clay based. In addition, they can be
classified as either acidic (containing silica [SiO2] or zirconia
[ZrO2]) or basic (containing alumina [Al2O3] or alkaline-
earth oxides such as lime [CaO] or magnesia [MgO]). Among the
clay-based refractories are fireclay, high-alumina, and mullite
ceramics. There is a wide range of non-clay refractories,
including basic, extra-high alumina, silica, silicon carbide, and
zircon materials. Most clay-based products are processed in a
manner similar to other traditional ceramics such as structural
clay products; e.g., stiff-mud processes such as press forming or
extrusion are employed to form the ware, which is subsequently
dried and passed through long tunnel kilns for firing. Firing, as
described in the article traditional ceramics, induces partial
vitrification, or glass formation, which is a liquid-
sintering process that binds particles together. Non-clay-based
refractories, on the other hand, are bonded using techniques
reserved for advanced ceramic materials. For instance, extra-high
alumina and zircon ceramics are bonded by transient-liquid or
solid-state sintering, basic bricks are bonded by chemical
reactions between constituents, and silicon carbide is reaction-
bonded from silica sand and coke. These processes are described
in the article advanced ceramics.

Clay-Based Refractories
In this section the composition and properties of the clay-based
refractories are described. Most are produced as preformed brick.
Much of the remaining products are so-called monolithics,
materials that can be formed and solidified on-site. This category
includes mortars for cementing bricks and mixes for ramming or
gunning (spraying from a pressure gun) into place. In addition,
lightweight refractory insulation can be made in the form of
fibreboards, blankets, and vacuum-cast shapes.
Fireclay
The work horse of the clay-based refractories are the so-called
fireclay materials. These are made from clays containing the
aluminosilicate mineral kaolinite (Al2[Si2O5][OH]4) plus
impurities such as alkalis and iron oxides. The alumina content
ranges from 25% to 45%. Depending upon the impurity content
and the alumina-to-silica ratio, fireclays are classified as low-
duty, medium-duty, high-duty, and super-duty, with use
temperature rising as alumina content increases. Fireclay bricks,
or firebricks, exhibit relatively low expansion upon heating and
are therefore moderately resistant against thermal shock. They
are fairly inert in acidic environments but are quite reactive in
basic environments. Fireclay bricks are used to line portions of
the interiors of blast furnaces, blast-furnace stoves,
and coke ovens.
High alumina
High-alumina refractories are made from bauxite, a naturally
occurring material containing aluminum hydroxide (Al[OH]3)
and kaolinitic clays. These raw materials are roasted to produce a

mixture of synthetic alumina and mullite (an aluminosilicate

mineral with the chemical formula 3Al2O3 · 2SiO2). By definition
high-alumina refractories contain between 50% and 87.5%
alumina. They are much more robust than fireclay refractories at
high temperatures and in basic environments. In addition, they
exhibit better volume stability and abrasion resistance. High-
alumina bricks are used in blast furnaces, blast-furnace stoves,
and liquid-steel ladles.
Mullite
Mullite is an aluminosilicate compound with the specific formula
3Al2O3 · 2SiO3 and an alumina content of approximately 70%. It
has a melting point of 1,850° C (3,360° F). Various clays are
mixed with bauxite in order to achieve this composition. Mullite
refractories are solidified by sintering in electric furnaces at high
temperatures. They are the most stable of the aluminosilicate
refractories and have excellent resistance to high-temperature
loading. Mullite bricks are used in blast-furnace stoves and in the
forehearth roofs of glass-melting furnaces.
Non-Clay-Based Refractories
Nonclay refractories such as those described below are produced
almost exclusively as bricks and pressed shapes, though
some magnesite-chrome and alumina materials are fuse-cast into
molds. The usual starting materials for these products
are carbonates or oxides of metals such
as magnesium, aluminum, and zirconium.
Basic
Basic refractories include magnesia, dolomite, chrome, and
combinations of these materials. Magnesia brick is made
from periclase, the mineral form of magnesia (MgO). Periclase is
produced from magnesite (a magnesium carbonate, MgCO3), or it

is produced from magnesium hydroxide (Mg[OH]2), which in

turn is derived from seawater or underground brine solutions.
Magnesia bricks can be chemically bonded, pitch-bonded,
burned, or burned and then pitch-impregnated.
Dolomite refractories take their name from the dolomite ore, a
combination of calcium and magnesium carbonates (CaCO3 ·
MgCO3), from which they are produced. After burning they must
be impregnated with tar or pitch to prevent rehydration of lime
(CaO). Chrome brick is made from chromium ores, which are
complex solid solutions of the spinel type (a series
of oxide minerals including chromite and magnetite)
plus silicate gangue, or impurity phases.
All the basic refractories exhibit outstanding resistance to iron
oxides and the basic slags associated with steelmaking—
especially when they incorporate carbon additions either as flakes
or as residual carbon from pitch-bonding or tar-impregnation. For
this reason they find wide employment in the linings of
basic oxygen furnaces, electric furnaces, and open-hearth
furnaces. They also are used to line the insides
of copper converters.
Extra-high alumina
Extra-high alumina refractories are classified as having between
87.5% and 100% Al2O3 content. The alumina grains are fused or
densely sintered together to obtain high density. Extra-high
alumina refractories exhibit excellent volume stability to over
1,800° C (3,275° F).
Silica
Silica refractories are made
from quartzites and silica gravel deposits with low alumina and
alkali contents. They are chemically bonded with 3 - 3.5% lime.
Silica refractories have good load resistance at high temperatures,

are abrasion-resistant, and are particularly suited to containing

acidic slags. Of the various grades—coke-oven quality,
conventional, and super-duty—the super-duty, which has
particularly low impurity contents, is used in the superstructures
of glass-melting furnaces.
Zircon
Refractories made of zircon (a zirconium silicate, ZrSiO4) also
are used in glass tanks because of their good resistance to the
corrosive action of molten glasses. They possess good volume
stability for extended periods at elevated temperatures, and they
also show good creep resistance (i.e., low deformation under hot
loading).
Silicon carbide
Silicon carbide (SiC) ceramics are made by a process referred to

as reaction bonding, invented by the American Edward G.
Acheson in 1891. In the Acheson process, pure silica sand and
finely divided carbon (coke) are reacted in an electric furnace at
temperatures in the range of 2,200°–2,480° C (4,000°–4,500° F).
SiC ceramics have outstanding high-temperature load-bearing
strength and dimensional stability. They also exhibit great
thermal shock resistance because of their high thermal
conductivity. (In this case, high thermal conductivity prevents the
formation of extreme temperature differences between inner and
outer layers of a material, which frequently are a source
of thermal expansion stresses.) Therefore, SiC makes
good kiln furniture for supporting other ceramics during their
firing.

Other non-clay-based refractories

Other refractories produced in smaller quantities for special
applications include graphite (a layered, multi crystalline form of
carbon), zirconia (ZrO2), forsterite (Mg2SiO4), and combinations
such as magnesia-alumina, magnesite-chrome, chrome-alumina,
and alumina-zirconia-silica. Alumina-zirconia-silica (AZS),
which is melted and cast into molds or directly into the melting
tanks of glass furnaces, is an excellent corrosion-resistant
refractory that does not release impurities into the glass melt.
AZS is also poured to make tank blocks (also called soldier
blocks or sidewall blocks) used in the construction and repair of
glass furnaces.
Geosynthetics
A planar product manufactured from polymeric material used
with soil, rock, earth, or other geotechnical engineering related
materials as an integral part of a man-made project, structure, or
system
Families of Geosynthetics
Geotextiles, Geogrids, Geonets, Geomembranes, Geosynthetic
clay liners, Geopipes, Geocomposites.
Geotextiles
They are indeed textiles in the traditional sense, but consist of

synthetic fibers rather than natural ones such as cotton, wool or
silk. Thus biodegradtion is not a problem. They are made into a
flexible, porous fabric by standard weaving machinery or are
matted together in a random, or nonwoven, manner.

Fig. 4.25: Woven and Non Woven Geotextiles
Functions
Separation, Reinforcement, Filtration, Drainage, Liquid barrier
(when impregnated).
Design Considerations
Determine critical function Filtration, Reinforcement, Separation
or Drainage, If Filtration → FOS, If Reinforcement → Tensile
strength and Modulus, If Separation → Survivability, Consider
long-term performance.
Applications of Geotextiles
Fig. 4.26: Geotextiles used in seperation

Fig. 4.27: Geotextiles used for reinforcement
Fig. 4.28: Geotextiles used for drainage and filtration
Geogrids
Geogrids are plastics formed into a very open, grid like
configuration i.e. they have large apertures, they are either
stretched in one or two directions for improved physical
properties or made on weaving machinery by unique methods
used primarily as reinforcement of unstable soil and waste masses
Fig. 4.29: Uniaxial geogrid, Biaxial geogrid, Woven or Welded geogrid

Design Considerations of Geogrids

• Tensile modulus and strength
• Mechanical interlock with granular fills
• Damage during construction
Fig. 4.30: Use of geogrids in site
Geonets
They are usually formed by a continuous extrusion of parallel sets

of polymeric ribs at acute angles to one another when the ribs are
opened, relatively large apertures are formed into a netlike
configuration their design function is completely within the
drainage area where they have been used to convey fluids of all
types.
Though they are used for the drainage function but they have high
tensile strength generally used along with one or two geotextile

matter one at the top and other at the bottom to prevent soil
intrusion.
Fig. 4.31: Geonets
Design Considerations of Geonets

• Flow rate (Proffered to transmissivity)
• Normal stress
• Hydraulic gradient
Geo-membranes
The materials themselves are "impervious" thin sheets
of rubber or plastic material used primarily for linings
and covers of liquid- or solid-storage or disposal
facilities, thus the primary function is always as a liquid
or vapor barrier.

Fig. 4.32: Geo-membranes
Design Considerations of Geo-membranes

• Leakage rates are determined by Quality Control
• Compatibility with retained liquid or waste
• Consider Geo-membrane as potential slip-surface on
slopes
• Consider exposure to long-term environmental agents of
weathering (sunlight, air, burrowing rodents)
Fig. 4.33: Installation of geo-membranes

Fig. 4.34: Installation of geo-membranes for drainage

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Unit - IV

Metals are used in:

Physical Properties of Metals

falls, they always contract. They can be easily welded to other

Its used excavators, drills, explosives for extracting minerals

Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE, Bengaluru-560059 Page 2

Pure Iron is of little use as an engineering material because it is

Carbon Steels (Their properties and uses)

Mild Steel: carbon content between 0,1% and 0,3%. Properties:

Medium carbon steel contains between 0.3% and 0.7%

High carbon steel contains between 0.7% and 1.3%

Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE, Bengaluru-560059 Page 3

Stainless steel are iron and chromium alloys. A wide range of

Grey Cast Iron is an alloy of iron (94%), carbon (3%) silicon

Other chemical elements can be added to steel, to improve or

• Silicon makes the alloy magnetic and improves elasticity.

Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE, Bengaluru-560059 Page 4

white colour, light, highly resistant to corrosion, soft, malleable

Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE, Bengaluru-560059 Page 5

Iron and steel

Think of the greatest structures of the 19th century - the Eiffel

Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE, Bengaluru-560059 Page 6

We might think of iron as a hard, strong metal tough enough to

Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE, Bengaluru-560059 Page 7

Broadly, iron's compounds can be divided into two groups known

• In iron (II) compounds, iron has a valency (chemical

(FeCl2), used in medicine as "tincture of iron"; and an

Where does iron come from?

Iron is the fourth most common element in Earth's crust (after

Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE, Bengaluru-560059 Page 9

• Hematite (the most plentiful)

Different ores contain different amounts of iron. Hematite and

Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE, Bengaluru-560059 Page 10

Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE, Bengaluru-560059 Page 11

Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE, Bengaluru-560059 Page 12

Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE, Bengaluru-560059 Page 13

Fig. 4.7: Countries producing the world's raw steel

Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE, Bengaluru-560059 Page 14

the difference and provide some important additional feature or

Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE, Bengaluru-560059 Page 15

Manufacturing of steel from iron

Fig. 4.8: Manufacturing of steel from iron with a Bessemer converter. It

• Basic oxygen process (BOP): The steel is made in a giant

Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE, Bengaluru-560059 Page 16

Manufacturing of steel products

known as blooms (giant bars with square ends), slabs (blooms

Shaped steel can be further treated in all kinds of ways. For

Advantages and Disadvantages of alloy steel:

• Greater stress relief at given hardness

Properties of Aluminium as Building Material

Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE, Bengaluru-560059 Page 19

Fig. 4.10 Aluminium Doors

Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE, Bengaluru-560059 Page 20

Strength to Weight Ratio

Fig. 4.11 Aluminium in construction of building

Ease in Fabrication and Assembly

Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE, Bengaluru-560059 Page 21

for sub-zero temperatures. So, for snow bound areas aluminium

Low Handling and Transportation Cost