16CV44 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION AND PLANNING

Unit-1

Foundation
The foundations of the building transfer the weight of the building to the ground.
While 'foundation' is a general word, normally, every building has a number of
individual foundations, commonly called footings.

FUNCTIONS OF FOUNDATION

1. REDUCTION OF LOAD INTENSITY

Foundation distributes the loads of the super structure, to a larger area so that the
intensity of the load at its base (i.e. total load divided by the total area) does not exceed
the safe bearing capacityof the sub-soil.
2. EVEN DISTRIBUTION OF LOAD

Foundations distribute the non-uniform load of the super structure evenly to the sub
soil. For example, two columns carrying unequal loads can have a combined footing
which may transmit the load to sub soil evenly with uniform soil pressure. Due to this,
unequal or differential settlements are minimized.

3. PROVISION OF LEVEL SURFACE

Foundation provide leveled and hard surface over which the super structure can be
built.
4. LATERAL STABILITY

It anchors the super structure to the ground, thus imparting lateral stability to the super
structure. The stability of the building, against sliding and overturning, due to
horizontal forces (such as wind, earthquake etc.) is increased due to foundations.
5. SAFETY AGAINST UNDERMINING

It provides the structural safety against undermining or scouring due to burrowing

animals and flood water.
6. PROTECTION AGAINST SOIL MOVEMENTS

Special foundation measures prevents or minimizes the distress (or cracks) in the super
structure, due to expansion or contraction of the sub soil because of moisture
movement in some problematic soils.

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What is bearing capacity of Soil?

The bearing capacity of soil is defined as the capacity of the soil to bear the loads coming
from the foundation. The pressure which the soil can easily withstand against load is
called allowable bearing pressure.
Following are some types of bearing capacity of soil:

Ultimate bearing capacity of soil (qu)

The gross pressure at the base of the foundation at which soil fails is called ultimate
bearing capacity.

Net ultimate bearing capacity (qnu)

By neglecting the overburden pressure from ultimate bearing capacity we will get net
ultimate bearing capacity.

Where = unit weight of soil, Df = depth of foundation

Net safe bearing capacity of soil (qns)

By considering only shear failure, net ultimate bearing capacity is divided by certain
factor of safety will give the net safe bearing capacity.
qns = qnu/ F
Where F = factor of safety = 3 (usual value)

Gross safe bearing capacity (qs)

When ultimate bearing capacity is divided by factor of safety it will give gross safe
bearing capacity.
qs = qu/F

Net safe settlement pressure (qnp)

The pressure with which the soil can carry without exceeding the allowable settlement
is called net safe settlement pressure.

Net allowable bearing pressure (qna)

This is the pressure we can used for the design of foundations. This is equal to net safe
bearing pressure if qnp > qns. In the reverse case it is equal to net safe settlement
pressure.

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Factors Affecting Selection of Foundation are:

1. Loads from Building:
The first factor considered is loads from building on the foundation. This load is a
combination of dead load and imposed loads on the buildings. Other loads such as wind
loads, earthquake loads, snow loads etc. are also considered based on location.

The quantity of loads depends on the type of structure, number of floors and material of
construction. As the number of floors increases, the dead load and imposed loads also
increase. Choice of material for construction such as reinforced concrete or steel
construction also has impacts on foundation. Reinforced concrete buildings exert more
loads on the foundation compared to steel structures.
Based on the safe bearing capacity of structure and quantity of loads on foundation,
type of foundation and its base area is calculated.
2. Type of Soils:
Soil is a mixture of solid particles, moisture and air. Soil can be of many types such as
clayey soil or expansive soil, sandy soil or loose soils etc. The soil near surface is called
as top soil and below a depth of 300mm is called as sub soil. Generally subsoil is used as
base for foundation for small buildings.
However, soil investigation should be carried out to know the nature of soil, depth of
water table, type of soil, depth of different layers of soil and to know the bearing
capacity of soil at different levels for large structures.
When the load is transferred from the structure to soil through foundations, the soil
tends to consolidate and settlement of foundation occurs. This consolidation process
can be quick in case of non-cohesive soils such as sands and can even take years for
other soils. The complete settlement of foundation in sandy soil may occur even before
the building construction has been completed. Clayey soil can hold the water for longer

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time and thus settlement is very slow and can take years. Soil clayey holds large amount
of water, and thus settlement of foundation is large in such soils.

The settlement of foundation causes cracks in building walls, beams, slabs etc. and
building can even fail in case of large settlement.

The soil investigation is necessary when the loads from the building are large and the
bearing capacity cannot be estimated based on type of soil condition at site.
The soil investigation should be carried out for following information:
The nature and thickness of made-up ground/top soil above the sub-soil
The nature, thickness and stratum depth of sub-soil
An assessment of allowable bearing pressure
Groundwater levels, chemicals in the ground, etc.
Existing structures or hazards in the ground.

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3. Type of Structure in Neighborhood:

The selection of foundation for building construction can also be done based on the type
of foundation selected for the buildings in the neighboring buildings for the same types.
Based on the success or failure of foundations for such buildings, decision can be taken
for the selection of foundation.
4. Types of Foundations:
Types of foundation such as isolated foundations, combined footings, pile foundations
and raft or mat foundations etc. based on the type of soils and loads from the buildings
can be selected based on suitability and requirement.

METHODS OF SOIL EXPLORATION

1. Open excavation
2. Borings
3. Sub surface soundings
4. Geographical methods
1. OPEN EXCAVATION
A pit, eventually, can be excavated for exploring shallower depths, say of the order of 2
to 5 m, or so. Such a pit can be easily excavated at the proposed construction site, if the
soil has a bit of cohesion, and the soil samples can be lifted from such different depths,
besides making the easy visualization and examination of the different strata. Even
undisturbed soil samples can be lifted from such a pit by a process called chunk
sampling.
2. BORING:
Soil samples can be lifted from deeper depths by drilling bore holes by using mechanical
devices called samplers.
The process consists of
i. Drilling a hole and visually examining the cuttings coming out from different depths
ii. Lifting the soil samples from different depths by using mechanical devices called
samplers.

Methods of boring
i. Auger boring: This is simplest method of boring a whole by hand drilling. These can
be used for shallower depths generally confined to depths of about 5 m or so. In
cohesive and other soft soils above water table, augers may be used.

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ii. Auger and Shell boring: Augers are suitable for soft or stiff clays and very stiff and
hard clays and sand pumps for sandy soils. Cylindrical augers and shells are used for
making deep boring. Hand operated, mechanized ring are used for depths 25m, 50m
respectively.
iii. Wash boring: this is a simple and fastest method, used for making holes in all types
of soils except boulders and rocks.
iv. Percussion boring: This method is used to make hole in all types of soils including
boulders and rocks.
v. Rotary boring (Mud rotary drilling): This method is used to advance hole in rocks and
soils. Rotating core barrels which are provided with commercial diamond bits or a steel
bit with slots are used for rotary drilling. This method is used to obtain the rock cores,
so this method is called as core boring or core drilling.
Soil samples and sampling
i. Disturbed sample: in disturbed sampling, the natural structures of soils gets partly
or fully modified or destroyed, although with suitable precaution the natural water
content may be preserved. Disturbed sample can be obtained by direct excavations by
auger and thick wall samplers.
ii. Undisturbed sample: in undisturbed sample, the natural structure and properties
remain preserved. These samples are used to tests for shear, consolidation and
permeability.
iii. Non-representative sample: it consists of a mixture of soil from different soil strata.
Size of the soil grains as well as the mineral constituents, might thus, have changed in
such samples. Soil samples obtained from auger cuttings and settlings in sum well of
wash borings, can be classified in this category. Such samples may help in determining
the depths at which major changes may be occurring in sub surface soil strata.
Sample Disturbance
This depends on the design of samplers and methods of samplings.
Design factors governing the degree of disturbances:
i. Cutting edge: A typical cutting edge of a sampler is shown in the figure

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The important design features of the cutting edge are

a) Area ratio,

Where D1 and D2 are internal and external diameters of the cutting edge respectively.
The area ratio should not exceed 25%. For soft sensitive soils, it should not exceed 10%.
b) Inside clearance: It allows elastic expansion of sample when it enters the tube.

Where D3= inside diameter of the sample tube.

The inside clearance must lie between 1 to 10%, for undisturbed sample it should be
between 0.5 and 3%.
c) Outside clearance: It should not be much greater than the inside clearance.
Normally it lies between 0 and 2 percent. It helps in reducing the force required to
withdraw the tube.

Where D4 is the external diameter of the sample tube.

ii. Inside wall friction: The walls of the sampler should be smooth and kept properly
oiled.
iii. Non-return valve: The non-return valve should permit easy and quick escape of
water and air when the sample is driven.
3. SUB-SURFACE SOUNDING TESTS

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These tests are carried our to measure the resistance to penetration of a sampling
spoon, a cone or other shaped tools under dynamic or static loading. These tests are
used for exploration of erratic solid profiles for finding depth to bed rock or stratum and
to get approximate indication of the strength and other properties of soil.
There are two important tests used.

i. Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

This test is carried out in a clean hole of diameter about 55 to 150mm. the sides of the
holes are supported by casing or drilling mud. A split tube sampler with 50.8mm outer
diameter, 38mm inner diameter is driven into the undisturbed soil, placed at the bottom
of the hole under the blows of 65kg drive weight with 75cm free fall. The minimum
open length of the sampler is 60cm, the samplers is first driven through 15cm as a
seating drive and then through 30cm or until 100 blows have been applied. Number of
blows required to drive sampler 30cm beyond the seating drive is known as penetration
resistance and it is denoted by N.
When N is greater than 15, Terzaghi and Peck have recommended the use of an
equivalent penetration resistance, Ne in place of the actually observed value of N.

Gibbs and Holtz have studied experimentally the effect of overburden pressure on the
value of N and their modification for air dry or moist sand can be represented by the
relation,

Where Ne= Corrected value of overburden effect

N= actual values of blows
= effective overburden pressure (kN/sq.m)
Note: The overburden correction is applied first and then dilatancy correction is
applied.
ii. Cone penetration test or Dutch cone test
This type of test is carried out to get a continuous record of the resistance of the soil by
penetrating steadily under static pressure, a cone with base of 10 sq.cm (3.6 cm in dia.)
and an angle of 60 degree at the vortex. To find out the cone resistance, the cone alone is
first forced down for a distance of 8cm and the maximum value of resistance is
recorded. This test is very useful in finding bearing capacity of pits in cohesionless soil.

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Cone resistance qc (kg/sq.cm) is approximately equal to 10 times the penetration

resistance N.

4. GEOGRAPHICAL METHODS
i. Electrical resistivity method
This method is based on the measurement and recording of changes in the mean
resistivity or apparent specific resistance of various soils. The test is done by driving
four metal spikes to act as electrodes into the ground along a straight line at equal
distances. This is shown in the figure. Direct voltage is applied between the two outer
potentiometer electrodes and then mean for the potential drop between the inner
electrodes is calculated.

Mean resistivity (ohm-cm)

Where D= distance between the electrodes (cm)

E= potential drop between outer electrodes (volts)
I= current flowing between outer electrodes (amperes)
R= resistance (ohms)
Resistivity mapping: This method is used to find out the horizontal changes in the sub
soil, the electrodes kept at a constant spacing, are moved as a group along the line of
tests.
Resistivity sounding: This method is used to study the vertical changes; the electrode
system is expanded, about a fixed central point by increasing the spacing gradually from
an initial small value to a distance roughly equal to the depth of exploration desired.

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ii. Seismic refraction method

This method is very fast and reliable in establishing profiles of different strata, provided
the deeper layers have increasingly greater density, higher velocities and greater
thickness.

Field Tests are performed in the field. You have understood the advantages of field tests
over laboratory tests for obtaining the desired property of soil. The biggest advantages
are that there is no need to extract soil sample and the conditions during testing are
identical to the actual situation.
Major advantages of field tests are
 Sampling not required
 Soil disturbance minimum
 Major disadvantages of field tests are
 Labourious
 Time consuming
 Heavy equipment to be carried to field
 Short duration behavior

Plate Load Test

Sand Bags
Platform for
loading
Dial Gauge

Testing Plate
Foundation Level

Foundation
Soil

typical set up for Plate Load test assembly

It is a field test for the determination of bearing capacity and settlement characteristics
of ground in field at the foundation level.
The test involves preparing a test pit up to the desired foundation level.

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 A rigid steel plate, round or square in shape, 300 mm to 750 mm in size, 25 mm

thick acts as model footing.
 Dial gauges, at least 2, of required accuracy (0.002 mm) are placed on plate on
plate at corners to measure the vertical deflection.
 Loading is provided either as gravity loading or as reaction loading. For smaller
loads gravity loading is acceptable where sand bags apply the load.
 In reaction loading, a reaction truss or beam is anchored to the ground. A
hydraulic jack applies the reaction load.
 At every applied load, the plate settles gradually. The dial gauge readings are
recorded after the settlement reduces to least count of gauge (0.002 mm) &
average settlement of 2 or more gauges is recorded.
 Load Vs settlement graph is plotted as shown. Load (P) is plotted on the
horizontal scale and settlement (Δ) is plotted on the vertical scale.
 Red curve indicates the general shear failure & the blue one indicates the local or
punching shear failure.
 The maximum load at which the shear failure occurs gives the ultimate bearing
capacity of soil.
 Reference can be made to IS 1888 - 1982.
The advantages of Plate Load Test are
 It provides the allowable bearing pressure at the location considering both shear
failure and settlement.
 Being a field test, there is no requirement of extracting soil samples.
 The loading techniques and other arrangements for field testing are identical to
the actual conditions in the field.
 It is a fast method of estimating ABP and P – Δ behaviour of ground.

The disadvantages of Plate Load Test are

 The test results reflect the behaviour of soil below the plate (for a distance of
~2Bp), not that of actual footing which is generally very large.
 It is essentially a short duration test. Hence, it does not reflect the long term
consolidation settlement of clayey soil.
 Size effect is pronounced in granular soil. Correction for size effect is essential in
such soils.
 It is a cumbersome procedure to carry equipment, apply huge load and carry out
testing for several days in the tough field environment.

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Types of Shallow Foundations

The different types of shallow foundation are:
 Strip footing

 Spread or isolated footing

 Combined footing Strap or cantilever footing

 Mat or raft Foundation.

1. Strip Footing:
A strip footing is provided for a load-bearing wall. A strip footing is also provided for a
row of columns which are so closely spaced that their spread footings overlap or nearly
touch each other. In such a case, it is more economical to provide a strip footing than to
provide a number of spread footings in one line. A strip footing is also known as
continuous footing.

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2. Spread or Isolated Footing:

A spread footing (or isolated or pad) footing is provided to support an individual
column. A spread footing is circular, square or rectangular slab of uniform thickness.
Sometimes, it is stepped or haunched to spread the load over a large area.

3. Combined Footing:
A combined footing supports two columns. It is used when the two columns are so close
to each other that their individual footings would overlap. A combined footing is also
provided when the property line is so close to one column that a spread footing would
be eccentrically loaded when kept entirely within the property line. By combining it
with that of an interior column, the load is evenly distributed. A combined footing may
be rectangular or trapezoidal in plan.

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4. Strap or Cantilever footing:

A strap (or cantilever) footing consists of two isolated footings connected with a
structural strap or a lever. The strap connects the two footings such that they behave as
one unit. The strap is designed as a rigid beam. The individual footings are so designed
that their combined line of action passes through the resultant of the total load. a strap
footing is more economical than a combined footing when the allowable soil pressure is
relatively high and the distance between the columns is large.

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5. Mat or Raft Foundations:

A mat or raft foundation is a large slab supporting a number of columns and walls under
the entire structure or a large part of the structure. A mat is required when the
allowable soil pressure is low or where the columns and walls are so close that
individual footings would overlap or nearly touch each other.

Mat foundations are useful in reducing the differential settlements on non-

homogeneous soils or where there is a large variation in the loads on individual
columns.

Deep foundations

Deep foundations are required to carry loads from a structure through weak
compressible soils or fills on to stronger and less compressible soils or rocks at depth,
or for functional reasons. These foundations are those founding too deeply below the
finished ground surface for their base bearing capacity to be affected by surface
conditions, this is usually at depths >3 m below finished ground level. Deep foundations
can be used to transfer the loading to a deeper, more competent strata at depth if
unsuitable soils are present near the surface.

The types of deep foundations in general use are as follows:

1) Basements
2) Buoyancy rafts (hollow box foundations)
3) Caissons
4) Cylinders
5) Shaft foundations
6) Piles
Basement foundations:
These are hollow substructures designed to provide working or storage space below
ground level. The structural design is governed by their functional requirements rather
than from considerations of the most efficient method of resisting external earth and
hydrostatic pressures. They are constructed in place in open excavations.

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Buoyancy rafts (hollow box foundations)

Buoyancy rafts are hollow substructures designed to provide a buoyant or semi-
buoyant substructure beneath which the net loading on the soil is reduced to the
desired low intensity. Buoyancy rafts can be designed to be sunk as caissons, they can
also be constructed in place in open excavations.

Caissons foundations:
Caissons are hollow substructures designed to be constructed on or near the surface
and then sunk as a single unit to their required level.

Cylinders:
Cylinders are small single-cell caissons.

Shaft foundations:
Shaft foundations are constructed within deep excavations supported by lining
constructed in place and subsequently filled with concrete or other pre-fabricated load-
bearing units.

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Pile foundations:

Pile foundations are relatively long and slender members constructed by driving
preformed units to the desired founding level, or by driving or drilling-in tubes to the
required depth – the tubes being filled with concrete before or during withdrawal or by
drilling unlined or wholly or partly lined boreholes which are then filled with concrete.

PILE FOUNDATIONS

A pile is basically a long cylinder of a strong material such as concrete that is pushed
into the ground so that structures can be supported on top of it.

Pile foundations are used in the following situations:

1. When there is a layer of weak soil at the surface. This layer cannot support the
weight of the building, so the loads of the building have to bypass this layer and
be transferred to the layer of stronger soil or rock that is below the weak layer.

2. When a building has very heavy, concentrated loads, such as in a high rise
structure.

Pile foundations are capable of taking higher loads than spread footings.

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There are two types of pile foundations, each of which works in its own way.

End Bearing Piles

In end bearing piles, the bottom end of the pile rests on a layer of especially strong
soil or rock. The load of the building is transferred through the pile onto the strong
layer. In a sense, this pile acts like a column. The key principle is that the bottom end
rests on the surface which is the intersection of a weak and strong layer. The load
therefore bypasses the weak layer and is safely transferred to the strong layer.

Friction Piles

Friction piles work on a different principle. The pile transfers the load of the building to
the soil across the full height of the pile, by friction. In other words, the entire surface of
the pile, which is cylindrical in shape, works to transfer the forces to the soil.

To visualise how this works, imagine you are pushing a solid metal rod of say 4mm
diameter into a tub of frozen ice cream. Once you have pushed it in, it is strong enough
to support some load. The greater the embedment depth in the ice cream, the more load
it can support. This is very similar to how a friction pile works. In a friction pile, the
amount of load a pile can support is directly proportionate to its length.

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Foundation - Black Cotton Soils.

Strip or Pad Foundation - Black Cotton Soils.

For medium loads, strip foundation (for walls) and pad foundation (for columns) may
be provided, along with special design features discussed above. Fig. 3.31 shows some
typical section of shallow footings sutable for black cotton and other expansive soils.

FIG. 3.31 STRIP FOOTING WITH SPECIAL TREATMENT.

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Section of Fig. 3.31 (a) is suitable when the soil, though expansive, ha little swelling
pressure. A 60 cm thick layer of cohesionless sand is placed below the foundation
concrete, and is compacted. Sand is also filled around the footing. When the soil swells,
the sand grains would yield by moving up, thus relieving the swelling
pressure. When the soil shrinks, the sand layer would expand, but there will be no
discontinuity in the soil support. Sand fill should also be used below flooring. Section
of Fig. 3.31 (b) is suitable where the swelling pressures are relatively high. The
alternate layers of mooram (or ballast) and sand act as a spring which can compress or
expand along with the sub-soil movements. It will, thus absorb all the movements, thus
keeping the footing free from these cffects. If the soil is soft and has poor bearing
capacity, a 30 cm thick layer of ballast and mooram should first be rammed into the soil.
Over the top of it, a min. of 30 cm thick layer of coarse grained sand may be placed. In all
the three cases, the foundation concrete may be done in rigid cement concrete, and if
possible, it may contain nominal reinforcement. Fig. 3.31 (d) shows a section which
may be used for soils of high swelling pressure, and having high shrinkage properties.
After compacting the base of the tranch, 25 to 30 cm wide strips of concrete, 25 to 30
cm thick, may first be laid and compacted. Afer the strip concrete is cured, the space
between the two is filled with sand. The space between the two strips of concrete(i.e.
width of sand fill) may be kept equal to width of the bottom caurse of masonry. On thc
top of this, the foundation concrete layer, preferably of reinforced concrete is laid. The
sides of the masonry footings is filled with sand as usual. In addition to this, 80 mm dia.
pipes spaced at 1.5 to 2 m etc. are placed through masonry and concrete bed, so as to
reach the bottom sand fill a shown, and sand is filled in the pipe. A plug may be placed
on the top of the pipe, to facilitate the inspection from time to time, and to pour fresh
sand if required.

FIG. 3.32 PIER FOUNDATIONS WITH ARCH.

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FIG. 3.33 UNDER-REAMED PILE FOUNDATION.

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