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Tectonic Evolution of the Gyeongsang Basin, Southeastern Korea

from 140 Ma to the Present, Based on a Strike-Slip and Block
Rotation Tectonic Model

Article in International Geology Review · August 2010

DOI: 10.2747/0020-6814.50.4.343

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International Geology Review, Vol. 50, 2008, p. 343–363. DOI: 10.2747/0020-6814.50.4.343
Copyright © 2008 by Bellwether Publishing, Ltd. All rights reserved.

Tectonic Evolution of the Gyeongsang Basin,

Southeastern Korea from 140 Ma to the Present,
Based on a Strike-Slip and Block Rotation Tectonic Model
BYOUNG-HOON HWANG,1
Department of Geological and Environmental Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305 and
Division of Earth Environmental System, Pusan National University, Busan 609-735, Korea

MOON SON, KYOUNGHEE YANG, JIHAE YOON,

Division of Earth Environmental System, Pusan National University, Busan 609-735, Korea

AND W. G. ERNST
Department of Geological and Environmental Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305

Abstract

The geometric model involving two conjugate strike-slip fault sets with opposite-sense block
rotations synthesized by structural, petrological, geochronologic, and paleomagnetic data from the
Gyeongsang Basin from Cretaceous to Tertiary time is placed in the tectonic framework of East Asia.
As a result, the birth and evolution of the Gyeongsang Basin might reflect a regional continental
strike-slip zone in a convergent plate boundary such as the Tan-Lu wrench tectonic system. Accord-
ing to this model, we suggest six major geotectonic stages in the Gyeongsang Basin since the Creta-
ceous—e.g., 140–120, 120–110, 110–99, 99–80, 80–50, and after 50 Ma—which include the
collision of an accretionary plateau with proto-Japan, subduction of the Izanagi–Pacific ridge, colli-
sion of India–Eurasia, northward approach of the Philippine plate, and the East Sea opening. Over
more than 90 m.y., the Gyeongsang Basin apparently underwent three events of block rotations in
opposite directions, and two events of clockwise rotation of the whole basin or the Korean Peninsula.
The first series of events rotated with respect to Eurasia and the second rotated together with
Eurasia. We present the tectonic evolution of the Gyeongsang Basin as a model for the tectonic
development of East Asia from the Cretaceous to the present.

Introduction stress as well as the deforming material (faults and

FOR THE PAST couple of decades, workers have puz-
zled over discrepancies between in situ fault geome-
tries and theoretical predictions in major strike-slip
fault provinces. This could be better explained
under an assumption that strike-slip faults accom-
pany the rotation themselves and the block domains
between them (Nur and Ron, 2003). McKenzie
(1990) proposed the possibility of clockwise rotation
of the E-W–trending sinistral strike-slip faults on
the eastern margin of Tibet, which was produced by
collision of India and Eurasia; their sinistral move-
ment could account for the N-S–trending dextral
strike-slip faults in northeastern China if they
rotated countclockwise. Moreover, Nur and Ron
(2003) suggested that considering the rotation of
1Corresponding author; email: bhhwang@pusan.ac.kr
the blocks between them) provides the key link
between the geology of faults and the mechanical
theory of faulting.
Since Freund (1970a), one of the first to recog-
nize the importance of such rotations, many investi-
gators have described the evolution of strike-slip
faults by their rotations in worldwide strike-slip
fault regions. These include: eastern Iran (Freund,
1970a), Israel and Lebanon (Freund, 1970b; Freund
and Tarling, 1979; Ron et al., 1984), the Dead Sea
transform (Garfunkel, 1970, 1981), New Zealand
(Freund, 1971), the Mojave Desert and southern
California (Garfunkel, 1974; Livaccari, 1979;
Luyendyk et al., 1980; McKenzie and Jackson,
1983; Nur and Ron, 2003), and SE Korea (Hwang et
al., 2007a, in review). Specifically, Ron et al. (1984)
and Nur et al. (1989) established the relation that
conjugate faults showing opposite slip sense by

0020-6814/08/993/343-21 $25.00 343

344 HWANG ET AL.
block rotation in opposite directions evolved from
the basic kinematic idea of Freund (1974).
We found that the two conjugate fault sets, the
WNW-trending sinistral strike-slip Gaum fault set,
and the NNE-trending dextral strike-slip Yangsan
fault set, have undergone block rotation in opposite
directions, clockwise and counterclockwise, respec-
tively, based on paleomagnetic data from the Creta-
ceous Gyeongsang Basin, southeastern Korea
(Hwang et al., 2007a, in review). Moreover, this
geometric model predicts: (1) clockwise rotation of
the Gyeongsang Basin or the entire Korean Penin-
sula with respect to Eurasia before emplacement of
granitic rocks; (2) culminating volcanic eruption
and cauldron subsidence in tensional tectonic
regions; and (3) after block rotation, secondary
movement of the Yangsan fault due to opening of the
East Sea.
In this paper, we examine the birth and evolution
of the Gyeongsang Basin, including the above pre-
dictions and the tectonic setting around the Korean
Peninsula from the Cretaceous to the present. As a
result, we obtained a good correlation between the
geometric model suggested by Hwang et al. (2007a,
in review) and the tectonic evolution of East Asia.
Geological Background
The Korean Peninsula, located along the eastern
Eurasian continental margin, can be divided into
seven major tectonic provinces from northwest to
southeast: the Nangrim Massif, the Pyeongnam
Basin, the Imjingang Belt, the Gyeonggi Massif,
the Okcheon Belt, the Yeongnam Massif, and the
Gyeongsang Basin (Figs. 1A and 1C).
The Nangrim, Gyeonggi, and Yeongnam massifs
are Precambrian terranes. They are made up of Late
Archean to Early Proterozoic basement rocks con-
sisting primarily of high-grade gneisses + schists
and unconformably overlying Middle to Upper
Proterozoic supracrustal sequences (Lee, 1987; Ree
et al., 1996; Chough et al., 2000; Cheong et al.,
2000; Lee and Cho, 2003; Sagong et al., 2003). The
Gyeonggi Massif is juxtaposed against the Nangrim
and Yeongnam massifs by tectonic belts, the Imjin-
gang Belt to the north and the Okcheon Belt to the
south (Fig. 1C). The Imjingang Belt is an east-trend-
ing fold-and-thrust belt consisting of pre-Carbonif-
erous metasedimentary and metavolcanic rocks, and
the Okcheon Belt is a NE-trending fold-and-thrust
belt consisting of the Upper Proterozoic to Lower
Paleozoic metavolcano-sedimentary rocks in the
southwest part and Lower Paleozoic to Lower Meso-
zoic sedimentary rocks in the northeast part (Cluzel
et al., 1991; Sagong et al., 2005).
The Gyeonggi Massif has been regarded as an
eastern promontory of the South China Block
(Yangtze craton), whereas the Nangrim and Yeong-
nam massifs belong to the North China Block (Sino-
Korean craton). Hence, the Imjingang Belt is con-
sidered the eastward extension of the Qinling–
Dabie–Sulu suture zone formed by the collision of
both China blocks, and the dextral ductile shear
zones between the Okcheon Belt and Yeongnam
massif are inferred to a collision boundary between
both China blocks (Cluzel et al., 1991; Yin and Nie,
1993; Li, 1994; Ree et al., 1996; Chough et al.,
2000; Kim et al., 2000; Lee et al., 2000; Ree et al.,
2001; Lee and Cho, 2003). However, recent studies
suggest that the Qinling–Dabie–Sulu collision zone
link through central Korea to southwestern Japan
(Ernst and Liou, 1995) and the candidates for east-
ern extension may be the Hongseong–Odesan line
(southern part of Gyeonggi Massif) in Korea (Oh et
al., 2004, 2005, 2006a, 2006b; Kim et al., 2006;
Oh, 2006; Oh and Kusky, 2007) and the Hida meta-
morphic belt in Japan (Tsujimori, 2002; Tsujimori
and Liou, 2005; Tsujimori et al., 2006). The geody-
namic processes responsible for the amalgamation
of Precambrian massifs in Korea are still debated,
because Mesozoic granites widespread in the
Okcheon Belt have obscured the tectonic bound-
aries, and the latter have been modified by Meso-
Cenozoic tectonic events.
The Pyeongnam Basin in the Nangrim Massif is
the Paleozoic sedimentary basin of the stable plat-
form formed on the folded basement; the complex
consists mainly of an Archean–Lower Paleozoic
basement group, Paleozoic sedimentary systems
(Sangwon-Hwangju and Pyeongan), and a Meso-
Cenozoic graben-type basin that is superimposed on
the underlying strata (Peak et al., 1996; Geological
Society of Korea, 1998).
The Gyeongsang Basin comprises Cretaceous
non-marine sedimentary, volcanic, and pyroclastic
rocks and felsic igneous rocks of Late Cretaceous to
Early Tertiary age (Geological Society of Korea,
1998). It can be divided into four stratigraphic units
in the development of the basin: (1) pre-volcanic; (2)
sparsely volcanic; (3) climactic volcanic; and (4)
granite emplacement, corresponding to the Sindong
Group, the Hayang Group, the Yucheon Group, and
the Bulguksa intrusive group, respectively (Chang,
1975, 1977, 1978; Fig. 2). The Gyeongsang Basin is
 EVOLUTION OF THE GYEONGSANG BASIN 345

FIG. 1. A. Regional tectonic index map of the eastern Eurasian margin compiled from Lin et al. (2003), Niwa et al.
(2005), and Itoh et al. (2006). The encircled numbers are the names of the major faults cited in Xu et al. (1987) and
Niwa et al. (2005): 1 = Nenjiang fault; 2 = Yilan–Yitong fault zone; 3 = Fushan–Mishan fault; 4 = Kurtuhin fault; 5 =
Central Sikhote-Alin fault zone; 6 = Yalujiang–Qingdao fault zone; 7 = Tienmushan–Baijishan fault; 8 = Lishui–Haifeng
fault zone; 9 = Changle–Nagao fault zone; 10 = Korea–Taiwan fault zone; 11 = Median tectonic line; 12 = Itoigawa–
Shizuoka tectonic line; 13 = Tanakura tectonic line; 14 = Hidaka shear zone. The nature of all faults is sinistral (Xu et
al., 1987), except for the Hidaka shear zone in northeast Japan. B. Paleogeographic reconstruction before opening of the
East Sea modified from Itoh et al. (2006). C. Tectonic index map of the southern Korean Peninsula showing distribution
of the tectonic divisions and Cretaceous basins.
346 HWANG ET AL.

FIG. 2. A. Tectonic index map of the Gyeongsang Basin. B. Simplified geological map of the Gyeongsang Basin.
Abbreviations: IT = Irwolsan thrust; AT = Andong thrust; CR = Cheongsong ridge; PL = Palgongsan line; PG = Palgong-
san granite; L-1 = Andong fault; L-2 = Hwanghaksan fault; L-3 = Gumcheon fault; L-4 = Gaum fault; L-5 = Ubo fault;
L-6 = Sinryeong fault; L-7 = Palgongsan fault; R-1 = Jain fault; R-2 = Miryang fault; R-3 = Moryang fault; R-4 =
Yangsan fault; R-5 = Dongrae fault; R-6 = Ilgwang fault.

divided tectonically into three minor subbasins (or
blocks) from north to south: the Yeongyang,
Uiseong, and Miryang blocks (Chang, 1977; Fig. 2).
All these rocks are cut by several systematic fault
sets, so that fault mechanics may constrain the
origin and evolution of the entire Gyeongsang Basin.
WNW-trending sinistral strike-slip faults, the Gaum
fault system, are predominant in the Uiseong Block,
whereas NNE-trending dextral strike-slip faults, the
Yangsan fault system, transect the Miryang Block.
As the former does not crosscut the latter, Lee and
Hwang (1997) suggested that the two fault systems
 EVOLUTION OF THE GYEONGSANG BASIN
might have been produced by non-coeval geological
events, e.g., the Yangsan fault system was generated
after the Gaum fault system. However, Hwang et al.
(2007a, in review) suggested that these geometric
features could be produced by a single geological
event based on the model for evolution of the two
conjugate fault sets by progressive block rotation in
opposite directions (Ron et al., 1984; Nur et al.,
1989). The discrepancy between the two suggestions
may require a serious modification of research
results concerned with the tectonic evolution of the
Gyeongsang Basin.
Besides the Gyeongsang Basin, several Creta-
ceous sedimentary basins are distributed in the
Gyeonggi Massif and the Okcheon Belt (Fig. 1C).
They have been recognized as pull-apart basins
formed by Early Cretaceous sinistral strike-slip
faulting and their stratigraphic units are correlated
with those in the Gyeongsang Basin (Won et al.,
1990; Lee et al., 1992; Kim et al., 1994; Chough
et al., 2000; Lee and Kim, 2003). However the
Gyeongsang Basin differs markedly from these other
basins in scale and structure, so that we must con-
sider different processes under the same tectonic
environment, such as direction of stress. The tec-
tonic process of these Cretaceous structural basins
and the fault mechanism may produce the key to
elucidate the structural evolution of east-central
China–southeast Korea–southwest Japan, because
these structures not only overlap former tectonic
lines but also cut their lines as shown in Figure 1C.
Geometric Model Corresponding
to Paleomagnetic Data
Prior to correlating the tectonic evolution of the
study area with the development of East Asia, we
propose a new process of two conjugate fault sets in
the Gyeongsang Basin based on paleomagnetic data.
We already tested the possibility that the two conju-
gate fault sets rotated 11.8° in opposite directions
and contemporaneously strike-slip moved to oppo-
site senses by NE-SW compressional stress (e.g.,
the WNW-trending sinistral Gaum fault set rotated
clockwise and the NNE-trending dextral Yangsan
fault set rotated counterclockwise) when comparing
the actual structural data with paleomagnetic data
(Hwang et al., 2007a, in review). Hwang et al. pro-
posed a geometric model based on the observations
(a) that the angle between declinations of each
stratigraphic unit from both blocks increases with
age, e.g., Bulguksa intrusive group (9.2°)–Upper
347
Hayang Group (10.8°)–Lower Hayang Group
(16.6°)–Sindong Group (23.6°), and (b) that the
mean of 4.7° of rotation angles calculated by the
geometric model from both blocks is almost same as
the value of the paleomagnetic data, e.g., the angle
between declinations from granitic rocks in both
blocks is 9.2°, so that the rotation angle of each
block is 4.6°.
Here, the boundary line of the opposite rotation
is the Jain fault (R-1 in Fig. 2), which underwent
dextral movement itself. Although the correlation
about the Sindong Group is not identified, as no data
for the right block are available, the value of 20.0°
for declination of the right block is suggested based
on geometric data from the left block (Hwang et al.,
in review). In this paper, we illustrate the tectonic
evolution of the Gyeongsang Basin according to
faulting of two conjugate fault sets using the above
paleomagnetic data.
Figure 3 shows a correlation among the declina-
tions from each stratigraphic unit in both blocks and
declinations of pole positions for current (CP), for
Eurasia at the study area (PP), and for the Gyeong-
sang Basin (PPG) which assumes block rotations in
opposite directions. Figure 3A shows current
observed data for each stratigraphic unit from both
blocks indicating, as follows: (1) the angle of decli-
nation between both blocks increases with time from
younger to older, implying progressive block rota-
tion in opposite directions (Hwang et al., 2007a, in
review); (2) the declination of the pole position for
Eurasia (PP) has a tendency toward right, clockwise
rotation of Eurasia after deposition of the Lower
Hayang Group from 19.9° through 16.3° and 12.9°
to 0° at present; and (3) the declination of the pole
po sit ion fo r t he Gy eo ng sa ng Ba sin ( PPG)
approached that of Eurasia before emplacement of
the Bulguksa intrusive group. This indicates that the
Gyeongsang Basin or the entire Korean Peninsula
rotated clockwise with respect to Eurasia before
formation of the Bulguksa intrusive group, and sub-
sequently the basin and Eurasia may have rotated
clockwise together.
In Figure 3B, the Gyeongsang Basin seems to
have rotated progressively clockwise with respect to
Eurasia from 13.4° (Sindong Group) through 11.1°
(Lower Hayang Group) to 9.2° (Upper Hayang
Group), and steeply rotated 8.1° clockwise to
become coincident with that of Eurasia after Upper
Hayang deposition and before emplacement of the
Bulguksa intrusive group. However, the relative
rotation between the Gyeongsang Basin and Eurasia
348 HWANG ET AL.

FIG. 3. Correlation chart of paleomagnetic declinations from each stratigraphic unit in both blocks in the study area
(36°N/129°E). The CP, PP, and PPG denote the declination of pole positions for current, Eurasia (Besse and Courtillot,
1991; Enkin et al., 1992), and the GB (Gyeongsang Basin), respectively. Figures in (A) show the current observed data
(CP = 0°) in each stratigraphic unit; figures in (B) show after rotation when PP = 0°; figures in (C) are after rotation when
PPG = 0°. Here, the PPG is a pseudomorphed value based on the assumption that each stratigraphic unit is subjected
to the blocks’ rotation in the opposite direction.

will be determined after correlation of the paleomag-
netic data from each tectonic division in the Korean
Peninsula.
The block rotation within the Gyeongsang Basin
and relative clockwise rotation of the entire basin is
shown in Figure 3C. The amounts of opposite block
rotation of each stratigraphic unit are 11.8°, 8.3°,
5.4°, and 4.6°, so we can infer that the Sindong
Group rotated 3.5° before the Lower Hayang Group,
these two groups rotated 2.9° before the Upper
Hayang Group, these three groups rotated 0.8°
before the Bulguksa intrusive group, and all these
groups rotated 4.6° after Bulguksa emplacement.
Here, the value of 0.8° between Upper Hayang
Group and Bulguksa intrusive group is too small to
consider block rotation demonstrated, so that little
 EVOLUTION OF THE GYEONGSANG BASIN
or no block rotation between them is expected. The
declinations of the Gyeongsang Basin (PPG) in the
Sindong and Lower Hayang period are similar as
31.8° and 31.0°, respectively; hence clockwise rota-
tion of the entire basin is also not expected between
two groups. Since then they became to 25.5° and
14.0° in the Upper Hayang and Bulguksa intrusive
period, respectively, so that the entire basin or
Korean Peninsula evidently rotated clockwise
approximately 5.5° between the Lower and Upper
Hayang Group, 11.5° between Upper Hayang and
Bulguksa intrusive group, and 14.0° after emplace-
ment of the Bulguksa intrusive group.
These processes, the mechanism of conjugate
faults showing opposite strike-slip senses by con-
temporaneously block rotations in opposite direc-
tions, and the clockwise rotation of the entire basin
with respect to East Asia, are illustrated in Figure 4.
All figures are reconstructed on the basis of the
paleomagnetic data for each stratigraphic unit from
both blocks in the Gyeongsang Basin. The Sindong
Group deposited initially in the basin is inclined
31.8° with respect to present pole position (Fig. 4A).
After its deposition, both blocks underwent block
rotation of 3.5° in opposite directions, and the entire
basin rotated clockwise 0.8° before deposition of the
Lower Hayang Group (Fig. 4B). Continuously, both
blocks underwent block rotation of 2.9°, and subse-
quently clockwise rotation of 5.5° before deposition
of the Upper Hayang Group (Fig. 4C). After block
rotation of 0.8°, the whole basin rotated clockwise
11.5° before the Bulguksa intrusion (Fig. 4D). After
this rotation, the declination of the Gyeongsang
Basin was almost same as that of Eurasia, so that the
basin and the Korean Peninsula rotated relative to
Eurasia after 50 Ma.
Figure 4E shows the last block rotation of 4.6° in
opposite directions of each block and a clockwise
rotation of 1.1° for the entire basin. This clockwise
rotation of 1.1° is also too small an amount to con-
sider proven, so that the last clockwise rotation of
12.9° for the Korean Peninsula and Eurasia would
be experienced together. Subsequently, the Yangsan
fault, a major fault in the right block, underwent
secondary dextral strike-slip movement of about 20
km; the amount diminished the displacement by
block rotation from the whole apparent displace-
ment of 21.3 km (Hwang et al., 2004a, 2004b,
2007b, 2007c; Fig. 4F), and this secondary defor-
mation seems to be related to the East Sea opening.
The described geotectonic model is summarized
in Figure 5, suggesting that the three events of block
349
rotation in the Gyeongsang Basin (BR-1, BR-2, and
BR-4) and two events of clockwise rotation of the
whole basin or Korean Peninsula (CR-3 and CR-5)
reflect the relative motion between East Asia and
Korea. The earlier clockwise rotations are inferred
to have rotated with respected to Eurasia, and the
later rotated together with Eurasia. Now, we can
reconstruct the tectonic evolution of the Gyeongsang
Basin corresponding to the tectonic environment
around the Korean Peninsula from the Cretaceous to
the present.
Tectonic Evolution of the
Gyeongsang Basin
According to this model compiled from the struc-
tural, petrological, geochronologic, and paleomag-
netic data in the Gyeongsang Basin from Cretaceous
to Tertiary, we suggest six stages of major geotec-
tonic events: 140–120, 120–110, 110–99, 99–80,
80–50, and after 50 Ma. Events include the collision
of accretionary seamounts with proto-Japan, sub-
duction of the Izanagi–Pacific ridge, collision of the
India–Asia continents, northward approach of the
Philippine plate, and opening of the East Sea.
First stage, the Sindong Group (140–120 Ma)
This period is characterized by formation of the
Cretaceous sedimentary basin in southeast Korea
and deposition of sedimentary rocks belonging to
the Sindong Group in the Gyeongsang Basin (Fig.
2B). Dextral strike-slip along the ductile shear zone
in Korea and Japan from the Middle to Late Jurassic
time (Cluzel et al., 1991; Yanai et al., 1993; Otoh
and Yanai, 1996) changed to sinistral motion in the
Cretaceous (Tagaki, 1986). The Early Cretaceous
sinistral strike-slip movement is reflected by the
distribution of several pull-apart basins showing
sinistral shear along NE-trending faults juxtaposed
in the northern and southern part of the Okcheon
Belt in Korea (Lee and Paik, 1990; Won et al., 1990;
Cluzel, 1992; Lee et al., 1992; Kim et al., 1994;
Chough et al., 2000; Lee and Kim, 2003; Fig. 1C)
and by mylonites along the MTL and TTL in Japan
(Tagaki, 1986, 1992; Fig. 1A). Also in China, sev-
eral studies have indicated Mesozoic sinistral
strike-slip displacement (Klimetz, 1983; Xu et al.,
1989, 1993). This tectonic inversion has been
explained by a change in direction of the oceanic
Izanagi plate northward from NW-SE to N-S, and
simultaneously the subduction mode from orthogo-
nal to highly oblique (Otsuki, 1992; Kim, 1996;
350 HWANG ET AL.
 EVOLUTION OF THE GYEONGSANG BASIN 351

FIG. 4. (facing page) Geotectonic model of the Gyeongsang Basin based on geometric evidence and paleomagnetic
data. Initial configuration shows deposition of the SG (A); the SG after BR-1 of 3.5° and CR-1 of 0.8° and deposition of
the LHG (B); the SG and LHG after BR-2 of 2.9° and CR-2 of 5.5° and deposition of the UHG (C); the SG, LHG, and
UHG after BR-3 of 0.8° and CR-3 of 11.5°, and intrusion of the YG and BIG (D); all stratigraphic units after BR-4
of 4.6° and CR-4 of 1.1° (E); present configuration after CR-5 of 12.9° and dextral strike-slip movement of about 20 km
on the Yangsan fault (F). Actually, the degree of angle below 1° can be ignored, so the events of the CR-1, BR-3, and
CR-4 seem to be uncertain. Abbreviations: BR = block rotation in the basin; CR = clockwise rotation of the entire basin,
SG = Sindong Group; LHG = Lower Hayang group; UHG = Upper Hayang Group; BIG = Bulguksa intrusive group. All
numbers in the figures are angles, and the arrows indicate directions of declination.

Maruyama et al., 1997; Ree et al., 2001; Taira,
2001). Inasmuch as most ages of the sinistral pull-
apart basins in Korea correlate with the Hayang and
Yucheon period, the Gyeongsang Basin seems to
have begun earlier than these basins under same
tectonic regime. Moreover, the Gyeongsang Basin
contrasts with these pull-apart basins in scale and
shape.
Therefore, we suggest that the Gyeongsang Basin
that was initiated by N-S left-lateral regional simple
shear as a wrench tectonic system may be due
to highly oblique subduction of the Izanagi plate
(Fig. 6). According to this wrench tectonic model,
the N-S left-lateral shearing caused NW-SE com-
pression (Wilcox et al., 1973; Harding, 1974;
Sylvester and Smith, 1976). The stress regime of the
Gyeongsang Basin in Early Cretaceous time has
been supposed as E-W extension by sinistral move-
ment of a NE-trending strike-slip fault in central
South Korea (Chough et al., 2000; Park et al., 2005;
Ryu et al., 2006) and N-S compression caused by an
E-W direction fold and thrust (Lee and Hwang,
1997). However, this regime must consider the
clockwise rotation of the Korean Peninsula (Ma et
al., 1993; Doh and Piper, 1994; Uchimura et al.,
1996; Zhao et al., 1999; Uno, 2002; Ito et al., 2006;
Hwang et al., in review). Based on the paleomag-
netic data in our model (Figs. 3 and 4), the stress
ellipsoid after reconstruction represents NW-SE
compression due to the N-S sinistral wrench tec-
tonic system (Fig. 6C).
In this stage, the Sindong Group deposited in the
normal growth fault system such as listric fault
(Chang et al., 1997) and the NE-SW direction
thrust, Andong and Irweolsan thrust, formed north-
west of the basin. However, they did not seem to be
involved yet at that time in the large-scale NE-
trending sinistral faults in the northern and southern
Okcheon Belt in the central Korean Peninsula and
the MTL and TTL in Japan, as well as the conjugate
strike-slip faulting within the Gyeongsang Basin.
Second stage, the Lower Hayang Group
(120–110 Ma)
The second stage is characterized by the forma-
tion of conjugate fractures and block rotations in
opposite directions in the Sindong Group, and after
deposition of the Lower Hayang Group. In Figure
4B, each fault and domain between them rotated in
the opposite directions of 3.5° (BR-1; Fig. 5) by NE-
SW compression. Lee and Hwang (1997) suggested
E-W compression in order to explain the movement
of the WNW-trending Gaum fault system, but it is
attributed to NE-SW compressional stress, consid-
ering the paleomagnetic result indicating clockwise
rotation of about 31° (Figs. 3 and 4).
However, this NE-trending compression seems
to be unlikely under the sinistral shear regime sup-
ported as follows; the several pull-apart basins in
the northern and southern Okcheon Belt indicate
sinistral shear (Lee and Paik, 1990) and mylonites
along the MTL and TTL underwent sinistral ductile
shearing before being unconformably covered by the
Campanian–Maastrichtian Izumi Group (Otoh and
Yanai, 1996). According to Otoh and Yanai, sinistral
strike-slip movement in Japan continued until at
least 80 Ma.
According to Maruyama et al. (1997), the Mikabu
Plateau on the Izanagi plate moved northward and
collided with proto-Japan, a part of continental Asia
at about 120 Ma, and this collision caused the
change of motion and deceleration of the Izanagi
plate from N-S (30.0 cm/year) to NNW-SSE (20.7
cm/year; Figs. 6D and 7B). Thus we suppose that
eastward compressional stress was produced tempo-
rarily by collision of the Mikabu Plateau and proto-
Japan, and could have strongly deformed the
Gyeongsang Basin, causing the conjugate fractures
and their block rotations in opposite directions by
NE-SW compression (Fig. 7A). Moreover, this pro-
cess does not need to change the N-S sinistral shear
regime to N-S dextral shear, and it corresponds well
to the wrench tectonics model suggested by Wilcox
et al. (1973).
 352
HWANG ET AL.

FIG. 5. Summary chart of geotectonic processes of the Gyeongsang Basin correlated with major tectonic events around the Korean Peninsula from Early Cretaceous to the
present. Abbreviations: B and BR = block rotation; C and CR = clockwise rotation; D = deposition; E = eruption; I = intrusion. Others are the same as those in Figure 4.
 EVOLUTION OF THE GYEONGSANG BASIN 353

FIG. 6. Geotectonic figures explaining the origin of subsidiary structures under a left-lateral wrench stress before
block rotation of the Gyeongsang Basin. A. Photograph showing simulated formation of en echelon fold-and-basin with
a sheet of paper. Cartoon of Figure 6A showing the formation of the Gyeongsang Basin; abbreviations are same as those
in Figure 1C. C. Strain ellipse by N-S left-lateral wrench stress modified from Harding (1974). Abbreviations: WM =
wrenching movement; DC = derived compression from wrenching; DE = derived extension from wrenching. D. Paleo-
geographic map of Late Jurassic Korea and Japan at about 150 Ma modified from Maruyama et al. (1997), showing
approach of the Mikabu Plateau on the Izanagi plate to proto-Japan.

Two possible solutions explain the NE-SW com-
pression under the N-S sinistral shear regime. One
is derived by the E-W sinistral wrenching movement
due to eastward shortening by collision of the Mik-
abu Plateau and proto-Japan (Fig. 7C). In this case
the collision must have occurred northeast of the
Gyeongsang Basin, as southwest Japan. The other is
derived by involvement of the NE-trending sinistral
faults (Fig. 7D). Before the formation of these faults,
the tectonic regime in the Gyeongsang Basin was
controlled by sinistral shear under NW-SE compres-
sion (Fig. 6C), whereas after their involvement it
changed to dextral shear under NE-SW compression
(Fig. 7D). In this case, conjugate faulting within the
basin is understandable whereas wrench faulting is
not, because the latter would be an atypical geomet-
ric feature, e.g., formation of dextral fault between
the sinistral faults under a unique sinistral shear
regime. Thus the rigid crustal block between two
sinistral faults might have moved northeastward as a
whole without deformation or rotation, as suggested
by Beck (1976). Anyway, these two cases indicate
that the predominant direction of stress in this stage
was NE-trending compression, and we prefer the
former possibility.
During this stage, the motion change of the
Izanagi plate due to collision of the Mikabu Plateau
and proto-Japan may have instituted NE-SW com-
pressional stress in the Gyeongsang Basin, and this
stress could have initiated the block rotation of the
Sindong Group. Thereafter, the Lower Hayang
Group was deposited in the central basin after
clockwise rotation of the entire basin 0.8° in abso-
lute terms and 2.3° with respect to Eurasia (CR-1;
Figs. 3B, 4B, and 5). This absolute amount may not
be significant, but relative to Eurasia may imply that
354 HWANG ET AL.

FIG. 7. Geotectonic figures explaining the block rotation in the Gyeongsang Basin after deposition of the Sindong
Group. A. Strain ellipse showing the block rotation with conjugate faulting by NE-SW compression between two NE-
trending sinistral strike-slip faults. B. Paleogeographic map of Early Cretaceous Korea and Japan at about 120 Ma
modified from Maruyama et al. (1997), showing highly oblique subduction of the Izanagi plate to the East Asia. C. Strain
ellipse explaining the possibility of the NE-SW compression by collision of the Mikabu Plateau and proto-Japan.
D. Strain ellipse explaining another possibility of NE-SW compression by formation of the NE-trending sinistral faults.

the block rotation accompanied clockwise rotation
of the entire basin.
Third stage, the Upper Hayang Group
(110–99 Ma)
In the third stage, previously deposited strata
(Sindong and Lower Hayang groups) underwent
block rotation of 2.9° (BR-2; Fig. 5), and subse-
quently the Upper Hayang Group was deposited
after clockwise rotation of the entire Gyeongsang
Basin of 5.5° in absolute terms and 1.9° with respect
to Eurasia (CR-2; Figs. 3, 4C, and 5). Because of the
contrasting opinions for the age of each stratigraphic
unit in the Gyeongsang Basin and their correlation
among subbasins according to different researchers,
it is difficult to fix the time boundary between Lower
and Upper Hayang Group. The Kusandong tuff,
exposed between the Haman and Jindong forma-
tions in the Miryang subbasin and between the
Sagok and Chunsan formations in the Uiseong sub-
basin (Fig. 2B), is only a few meters thick, and
extends laterally for about 200 km, so it is regarded
as a key bed dividing the Lower and Upper Hayang
groups (Chang et al., 1998, 2003). In this study,
however, we regard the Sagok and Haman forma-
tions as belonging to the Upper Hayang Group,
because the declination of the Sagok Formation is
significantly different from the immediately under-
lying formations.
This tuff is one of several intermittent volcanic
activities that occurred in the Hayang Group before
the culminating volcanic Yucheon Group, but its
felsic composition and limited distribution between
the two formations have raised interest in its origin.
 EVOLUTION OF THE GYEONGSANG BASIN 355

FIG. 8. Geotectonic figures showing block rotation in the Gyeongsang Basin after deposition of the Lower Hayang
Group. A. Strain ellipse showing block rotation with strike-slip movement of two conjugate faults in opposite directions
by NE-SW compression. B. Paleogeographic map of Late Cretaceous Korea and Japan at about 90 Ma modified from
Maruyama et al. (1997), showing subduction of the Izanagi–Pacific ridge and change of the tectonic mode from oblique
to orthogonal.

Chang et al. (1998) reported a zircon U-Pb CHIME
age of 113.6 ± 10 Ma and suggested the probability
of a fissure eruption for its longitudinally uniform
lithology with the uniqueness of a single, very brief,
abrupt eruption. In contrast, Jwa et al. (2004) sub-
divided it into a northern (NKT) and a southern
(SKT) part based on its petrographic features, and
reported zircon LA-ICP-MS ages of 96 ± 2 Ma and
97 ± 3 Ma, respectively. The NKT seems to be later-
ally distributed, reflecting cauldron subsidence in
the Uiseong subbasin, whereas distribution of the
SKT seems to be controlled by a NE-trending
boundary fault (Fig. 2B). Hwang et al. (in review)
suggested that the counterclockwise rotation of the
boundary fault induced tension in the southern part
of the fault in the Miryang subbasin, and contempo-
raneously clockwise rotation of WNW-trending
faults in the Uiseong subbasin, producing fractures
between each rigid crustal domain between these
faults. We suppose that these tectonic tensions may
have produced intermittent volcanic activity and
subsequently cauldron subsidence in the Gyeong-
sang Basin during secondary block rotation (Fig. 5).
The stress regime during this stage might be
similar as that in the secondary stage, NE-SW
compression (Fig. 8A), and it seems to anticipate
collision of the Izanagi (Kula)–Pacific ridge against
East Asian continental margin (between Figs. 7B
and 8B). The collision began at about 90–85 Ma
(Uyeda and Miyashiro, 1974; Otsuki, 1992;
Maruyama et al., 1997), so NE-SW compression in
the Gyeongsang Basin might have occurred earlier
than the collision. According to Maruyama et al.
(1997), the motion of the Izanagi plate changed from
NNW-trending in the prior stage to more of a NW
trend before the collision (Fig. 7B and 8B); thus we
suppose that this rotation of stress seems to have
instigated block rotation in the Gyeongsang Basin
(BR-2) and clockwise rotation of the entire basin
(CR-2).
Fourth stage, the Yucheon Group (99–80 Ma)
This stage is represented by the culmination of
volcanic activity belonging to Yucheon Group.
These volcanic rocks occur not only in the Gyeong-
sang Basin but also abundantly in the southwest
Korean Peninsula and in small-scale pull-apart
basins inland. Moreover cauldron subsidence also
took place in the Uiseong and Miryang blocks (Yun
and Sang, 1994; Yun and Yang, 1999). In this
period, the Gyeongsang Basin or the Korean Penin-
sula underwent clockwise rotation of 11.5° abso-
lutely, and 8.1° with respect to Eurasia (CR-3; Figs.
4C, 4C, and 5). Because of a limited data base, the
timing of clockwise rotation may have started before
or after Yucheon Group deposition. At least, it began
well before emplacement of the Bulguksa intrusive
group at 80 to 50 Ma (Lee and Ueda, 1976; Jin et al.,
1991). The block rotation within the basin of 0.8°
(BR-3; Fig. 5) was insignificant, so the Upper
Hayang, Yucheon, and Bulguksa groups seem have
356 HWANG ET AL.
undergone block rotation by a single event, which
will be discussed below.
The tectonic regime in this stage seems to be
similar to that of the third stage. According to
Maruyama et al. (1997), the motion of the oceanic
plate changed from NW-SE and 23.8 cm/y to WNW-
ESE and 13.1 cm/y after collision of the Izanagi–
Pacific ridge with Asia (Fig. 8B). This transference
of the motion direction and reduction of velocity
may have caused a change in the tectonic stress
regime in the Korean Peninsula as well as proto-
Japan from sinistral to dextral. Sinistral ductile
shearing along the MTL ceased around 80 Ma (Otoh
and Yanai, 1996), and the subduction mode changed
from oblique to orthogonal around 85 Ma causing
the intrusion of huge amounts of granitic magma
(Otsuki, 1992; Maruyama et al., 1997; Sagong et al.,
2005).
Fifth stage, the Bulguksa intrusive group
(80–50 Ma)
This stage is characterized by voluminous plu-
tonism of the Bulguksa group, intruding strata of the
Sindong, Hayang, and Yucheon groups throughout
the Gyeongsang Basin. After intrusion and solidifi-
cation, the basin underwent block rotation of 4.6°
(BR-4; Figs. 3, 4E, and 5). The clockwise rotation of
1.1° (CR-4; Fig. 5) before intrusion is uncertain
because this amount is calculated only based on the
assumption that the Gyeongsang Basin rotated 12.9°
(CR-5; Fig. 5) clockwise together with the Eurasia
continent after the Bulguksa plutonic event (Fig.
3A).
These granitic rocks in the Gyeongsang Basin
were affected by melt mixing and mingling under
various differential conditions of felsic and mafic
magma due to ridge subduction and generation of a
slab-window (Hwang, 2004; Hwang et al., 2004a).
Uyeda and Miyashiro (1974) postulated ridge
descent in order to account for extended Cretaceous
magmatism, and Kinoshita (1995, 2002) suggested
that magma mixing and adakitic and/or high-magne-
sian andesitic activities were due to slab window
related to ridge subduction in southwest Japan.
Hwang (2004) suggested that the Late Creta-
ceous to Early Tertiary granitic rocks in the southern
Gyeongsang Basin can be divided into six rock types
in three groups. The first group contains three rock
types (granodiorite, enclave-rich, and enclave-poor
porphyritic granites) showing various effects of
magma mixing and mingling. The second group
contains two rock types (equigranular and micro-
graphic granites), indicating characteristic shallow-
depth emplacement. The third group comprises A-
type granite, implying generation under an exten-
sional tectonic setting different from the other
groups. According to unpublished SHRIMP-RG
zircon U-Pb age data from these granitic rocks
(Hwang et al., in prep.), the first group including
MME (mafic micro-granular enclave) in the Busan
and Yangsan area ranges in age from 68.8 to 75.0
Ma, the second group in Gyeongju from 53.3 to 54.8
Ma, and the third group in the Gigye and Gyeongju
areas from 53.6 to 53.9 Ma.
Sagong et al. (2005) noted that a lull between the
Jurassic and Cretaceous-to-Tertiary granites was
caused by early highly oblique subduction of
the oceanic plate under East Asia, and later from
orthogonal subduction (Fig. 9B). Thus we suppose
that during this period, the tectonic environment
around Korea changed from compression based on
the collision and subduction of the Izanagi–Pacific
ridge under the East Asian continental margin to
extension based on the occurrence of A-type
granites.
Because all these granitic rocks are cut by conju-
gate strike-slip faults due to block rotation (BR-4),
deformation would have taken place after the intru-
sion and solidification of the A-type granites, the
youngest granites under the NE-SW compression
regime (Fig. 9A). Considering the secondary defor-
mation of the Yangsan fault, which shows a distinc-
tive amount of dextral strike-slip displacement more
than any other NNE-trending faults (Hwang et al.,
2004b, 2007b, 2007c, in review), this direction of
stress may have been produced by the NNE-trend-
ing dextral wrenching fault system (Fig. 9A). There-
fore, the direction of stress that caused the coupled
block rotation (BR-4) in the Gyeongsang Basin is
inferred as due to NE-SW compression (Fig. 9C),
and this NNE-trending wrenching may have come
from the India-Eurasia collision or northward
approach of the Philippine plate (Maruyama et al.,
1997; Fig. 9D).
We infer that block rotation (BR-4) and second-
ary deformation of the Yangsan fault caused by
wrench faulting would have occurred after 50 Ma
when the youngest granite crystallized completely.
Significantly, the 12.9° (CR-5) clockwise rotation of
the entire Gyeongsang Basin or Korean Peninsula
together with Eurasia also occurred in the next
stage.
 EVOLUTION OF THE GYEONGSANG BASIN 357

FIG. 9. Geotectonic figures explaining the block rotation in the Gyeongsang Basin after intrusion of the Bulguksa
intrusive group and secondary dextral movement of the Yangsan fault. A. Strain ellipse showing last block rotation and
strike-slip movement of the conjugate fault. B. Paleogeographic map of Early Tertiary Korea and Japan at about 60 Ma
modified from Maruyama et al. (1997), showing orthogonal subduction of the Pacific plate to East Asia. C. Strain ellipse
showing the secondary movement of the Yangsan fault as a wrench fault. D. Paleogeographic map of Korea and Japan
in the Eocene, at about 40 Ma modified from Maruyama et al. (1997), showing birth and approach of Philippine plate
southward of Korea and Japan.

Sixth stage, the secondary displacement of the
Yangsan fault (50–0 Ma)
As mentioned above, this period was character-
ized by the clockwise rotation of 12.9° (CR-5) of the
entire Gyeongsang Basin or Korean Peninsula and
the Eurasian continent, and the secondary strike-
slip movement of the Yangsan fault. Although
whether this clockwise rotation of the Gyeongsang
Basin or Korean Peninsula rotated together with the
Eurasia or not, it seems likely because the Korean
Peninsula belonged to Eurasia after collision of the
North and South China blocks. Above all, the sec-
ondary dextral strike-slip movement of the Yangsan
fault of about 20 km seems to be clear in this stage
because the obvious displacement of the fault totals
21.3 km (Hwang, 2004; Hwang et al., 2004b,
2007b, 2007c) overlapping with 1.3 km of strike-
slip by block rotation (BR-4; Hwang et al., 2007a, in
review), and cataclastic deformation occurred in the
A-type granites cut by this fault (Hwang, 2004;
Hwang et al., 2004a). So, we infer that secondary
movement of the Yangsan fault has been related to
one or more of these major events during this period
(Fig. 5): the India–Eurasia collision (65–50 Ma;
Patzelt et al., 1996; Hall, 2002); the motion change
of the Pacific plate from NNW-SSE to WNW-ESE
(43 Ma; McDougall, 1979; Richards and Lithgow-
Bertelloni, 1996; Koppers et al., 2001); the north-
ward approach of the Philippine plate (40 Ma;
358 HWANG ET AL.
Maruyama et al., 1997); the rift of the Baikal, Bohai,
and Japan basins (40–25 Ma; Kim, 1992; Honza,
1995; Maruyama et al., 1997; Honza and Fujioka,
2004); and the East Sea opening (28–12 Ma; Otofuji
and Matsuda, 1983; Otofuji et al., 1985a, 1985b,
1991; Baba et al., 2007).
According to the APWP for Eurasia from 69 Ma
to 52 Ma (Besse and Courtillot, 1991; Enkin et al.,
1992; Hwang et al., in review), it rotated clockwise
and may have been caused by collision of India–
Eurasia. This collision seems to have inaugurated
regional tension along the East Asian continental
margin. This assumption is consistent with genera-
tion of the A-type granite of 53–50 Ma in the Gigye
and Gyeongju areas along the Yangsan fault (Hwang
et al., 2007c). Based on the study of dike swarms of
47–48 Ma in the Gyeongju area (Kim et al., 1997,
2005; Son et al., 2002), the direction of the dike
swarm in the east part from the Yeonil Tectonic Line
(YTL), located on the east side of a 5 km section of
the Ulsan fault (Fig. 1C), has been progressively
rotated clockwise from N6°E to N37°E. They sug-
gested this clockwise rotation was caused by propa-
gation of the NNW-trending dextral shear from the
east margin of the Korean Peninsula to inland,
which seems to be related to the East Sea (Japan
Sea) opening as a pull-apart basin and the E-W
tensional environment as a mechanism for dike
swarm intrusion. However, this progressive clock-
wise rotation of the dike swarm could not be directly
connected to the East Sea opening event, because
the latter occurred at 28–12 Ma on the basis of the
counterclockwise rotation of NE Japan and clock-
wise rotation of SW Japan. So we propose that the
northward approach of the Philippine plate with
India-Eurasia collision may have generated the
dextral wrenching of the Gyeongsang Basin (Figs.
9C and 9D). The block rotation (BR-4) and subse-
quent secondary movement of the Yangsan fault
have been affected by a right-lateral wrenching
tectonic system. This period may be consistent with
the opening of several Tertiary basins such as the
Baikal rift, Bohai, and Japan basins. Subsequently,
the East Sea opened and proto-Japan was bent with
clockwise rotation of southwest Japan and counter-
clockwise rotation of northeast Japan. Thus we
suggest that the rotation of Eurasia at 69–52 Ma due
to India-Eurasia collision and northward approach
of the Philippine plate at about 40 Ma may have
triggered the East Sea opening and secondary
strike-slip movement along the Yangsan fault.
Conclusion
The geotectonic model of strike-slip movement
with block rotation synthesized by structural, petro-
logical, geochronologic, and paleomagnetic data
from the Gyeongsang Basin in SE Korea during
Cretaceous to Tertiary time corresponds with the
tectonic evolution of East Asia. According to this
model, the Gyeongsang Basin evolved during six
major geotectonic stages, i.e., 140–120, 120–110,
110–99, 99–80, 80–50, and after 50 Ma, suggesting
three events involving block rotation within the
basin, and two events of clockwise rotation of the
entire basin or Korean Peninsula relative to Eurasia.
Since the beginning of the Gyeongsang Basin by
oblique subduction of the Izanagi plate northward
under Asia, the basin underwent the first block rota-
tion (BR-1) caused by collision of the huge Mikabu
Plateau on the Izanagi plate with proto-Japan at
about 120 Ma. During this period, regional sinistral
strike-slip faults such as the Tan-Lu fault were
active in the East Asian continental margin,
and several small-scale pull-apart basins in
the Gyeonggi Massif and the Okcheon Belt were
generated.
The secondary block rotation (BR-2) may have
been generated by collision of the Izanagi-Pacific
ridge against southwest Japan at about 110–99 Ma,
and subsequently subduction of this ridge under the
Asian continent might have started the clockwise
rotation (CR-3) of the whole basin or the Korean
Peninsula at about 90–85 Ma. This ridge subduction
also triggered the regional and culminating volcanic
activity, cauldron subsidence, and variously magma
mixing or mingling in plutons in the Gyeongsang
Basin.
After magmatism, the Gyeongsang Basin under-
went the third block rotation (BR-4), perhaps
caused by N-S right-lateral shearing due to the
India–Eurasia collision. During this period, the tec-
tonic regime around the Korean Peninsula changed
from compression to tension, reflected by the occur-
rence of A-type granites. East Asia and Korea
together experienced clockwise rotation (CR-5).
An encounter with clockwise-rotating Eurasia
and the northward approach of the Philippine plate
at about 50–40 Ma may have produced dextral
shearing in the Gyeongsang Basin so that the Yang-
san fault involved secondary dextral strike-slip
movement as a wrench fault. This may have trig-
gered the East Sea opening.
 EVOLUTION OF THE GYEONGSANG BASIN
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Prof. Michael O. McWilliams
for introducing the concept of the joint occurrence of
block rotation and conjugate strike-slip faulting.
The first author thanks Prof. In-Soo Kim for his crit-
ical comments and discussion. He also thanks Prof.
J. G. Liou and Dr. T. Tsujimori for tectonic informa-
tion about Japan. This work was supported by the
Korea Research Foundation Grant funded by the
Korean Government (MOEHRD, Basic Research
Promotion Fund; KRF-2006-311-C00167).
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