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Geometric Design
CTE 2311 Transportation Engineering
CHAPTER 3: GEOMETRIC DESIGN Geometric Design is concerned with relating the visible
physical elements of the road like:

alignment, gradients, sight distances, cross sectional

elements and intersection layouts

It does not include the structural design of the facility.

The design of the horizontal and vertical features is

influenced by the driver behaviour, vehicle
characteristics, and traffic speeds and volumes.

Geometric Design
1. Design Speed
Sound Geometric Design :
Highest continuous speed which can be maintained with
Reduce severe accidents safety when weather is favourable, traffic density low and
design features of the road is the governing conditions.
High traffic capacity with minimum delay Choice of Design Speed is influenced by
*Road type; Character of the terrain; Traffic characteristics
Longer use without needing to upgrade or new and Economic considerations
infrastructure.
Large traffic volume extra expenditure Design speed

The min length for design speed changes not < 8km. But
exception apply as per Mountain Passes < 3.5km and other.

Geometric Design Geometric Design

The following operating speeds are stipulated is S.A.: 2. Sight Distances

Freeways - 100-120km/h Length of carriageway visible to the driver.

2 Types of sight distances: Stopping and Passing

Rural roads - 100km/h (normal)
- 60km/h (min in difficult terrain) 2.1 Stopping sight distance:

• Distance required to stop the vehicle before striking an

unexpected object on the straight or on vertical curve
depends on when you see the obstacle.
Urban roads - 0-80km/h (Eye h=1.05 and Object h=0.15 on VC)
(depending on the type of road)
• Stopping sight distance = driver perception + break
reaction time = based on speed, area, driver reaction time
and skid resistance.

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Geometric Design Geometric Design

Basic procedure for calculating stopping sight distance:
MINIMUM VISIBILITY DISTANCE The total distance travelled has many components:
SHOULD NEVER BE LESS
THAN THE MINIMUM STOPPING DISTANCE! I. The distance covered during the driver’s perception-reaction period;
P-R time = number of seconds which elapses between the instant the
driver sees the object and the instant the brakes are applied.
Basic procedure for calculating stopping sight distance: Varies from one driver to another, but AASHTO recommends
t = 1.5 sec’s in urban areas
t = 2.5 sec’s in rural areas
I. Drivers perception and reaction period;
The distance travelled during this period is given by:
II. Distance required by vehicle
d1 = vt = 0,278 Vt
III. Decision sight distance Where v = design speed in m/sec
V = design speed in Km/h
d1 = perception-reaction distance in meters
t = perception-reaction time in seconds

Geometric Design Geometric Design

II. The distance required to decelerate to 0km/h _ STOP Deceleration rate > 4.9m/s² is when the passenger will slide from
their seat!

The braking distance (d2) depends on the initial speed, the

coefficient of Friction (skid resistance/ brake force coefficient) and Guidelines for Human Settlement Planning Design (Chapter 7 Roads – Table 7.4)
gradient. Brake force coefficients
It is given by:
Speed (km/h) Coefficients
20 0.47
where : 40 0.37
• d2 = total breaking distance (m) 60 0.32
• v = initial speed of vehicle (m/s) or V = speed (km/h) 80 0.30
• f = brake-force (coefficient of friction) 100 0.29
• G = road gradient in % (positive uphill and negative down-hill) 120 0.28
• g = acceleration due to gravity (gravitational speed) (9.81m/s²)

Then TOTAL stopping sight distance = reaction + vehicle:

Geometric Design L = d1 + d2

Stopping sight Distance measured:

where :
“seeing height” of vehicle 1.05m vs. object
height of 0.15m (15cm) L = total distance covered (m)
V = design speed (km/h)
t = time (s)
Commercial vehicles? f = brake-force coefficient
G = gradient (positive uphill and negative down-hill)

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Stopping sight distance

III DSD (Decision sight distance) Speed (km/h) SSD DSD (complex)
30 30

WHAT TO DO ? 40
50
50
65
130

60 80 190

• Complex interchanges & intersections 70 95

• Unexpected vehicle manoeuvres 80 115 240
• Change in X-section widths
90 135
• Not a 0.15m height but 0m height – from 1.05 seated
position 100 155 300
• Road elements – ie traffic signs 110 180
120 210 350

Guidelines for Human Settlement Planning Design

(Chapter 7 Roads – Table 7.6& Table 7.8)

2 Types of sight distances: Stopping and Geometric Design

Passing Passing sight distance: Basic procedure of calculation:
• There are 4 components of the minimum distance required for safe
2.2 Passing sight distance overtaking on two lane roads:

Distance required to overtake safely and

comfortably without interfering with the
speed of oncoming vehicles which travels d1 d2 d3 d4

at design speed. • Dimension d1 represents the time taken or distance travelled by a

vehicle while the driver decides whether or not it is safe to pass.
• Dimension d2 represents the distance travelled by the overtaking
vehicle in carrying out the actual passing manoeuvre.
• Dimension d3 may be referred to as the safety dimension and is the
distance between the overtaking vehicle and the on-coming vehicle
at the instant when the former has returned to its own lane.
• Dimension d4 is the distance travelled by the oncoming vehicle at
the design speed of the road while the actual overtaking occurs.

Geometric Design Geometric Design

Sight Distances - Tables were produced from which the min. stopping
and passing sight distances can be obtained for various design Vertical and Horizontal alignment is mutually
speeds. interrelated and should be in balance with the
See example from the Department of National Roads: (NRA) surrounding terrain to engage in a proper sight
Design speed Minimum sight Minimum sight
km/h distance (stop) distance (overtake)
distance design.
120 210 840

110 180 770

100 155 700

90 135 630

80 115 560

70 95 490

60 80 420

Frequency of overtaking sections - topography, volumes &

speeds of highway and economic considerations

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Geometric Design Vertical Alignment for visibility on crests/hogs:

Geometric Design
Vertical and Horizontal alignment is mutually
interrelated and should be in balance with the
surrounding terrain to engage in a proper sight
distance design.

• Vertical alignment for sags;

1. Headlights (visibility)
2. Driving comfort
3. Drainage control
4. Underpasses (safety)

• Horizontal alignment – visibility around bends

Vertical curve where sight distance is indeterminable

Geometric Design: Horizontal Curves Horizontal Curves

Horizontal Curves are influenced by:

• Radius
• Design speed
• Super elevation
TRH 17
Sight lines on • Side friction factor
Horizontal Curves:

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Superelevation Horizontal Curves

Is the most important feature which influences the

efficiency and safety of a road/highway

Design Factors to improve Horizontal Curves:

Increasing the curve radii
Add extra carriage way width
Add super elevation
Insertion of transition curves between straights
(tangents)

TYPES OF CURVES: Horizontal &Transition Curves

Definition:
1. Simple Transition curves are curves of constantly changing radius
2. Compound Curve that provide a smooth movement from the straight to the
circular curve.
3. Reverse Curve
4. Spiral (Transition)

Figure 1 Sequence of horizontal alignment components (PIARC 2003)

Transition Curves

High standard horizontal alignment

(horizontal curves)

Sharp horizontal curve unsuited to high speed

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Horizontal curve where sight distance is indeterminable Geometric Design: Horizontal

Alignment
• Combination of transitions and curved components,
where curves are commonly circular, but spiral
transitions are sometimes used depending on the
topography of the area
• The main considerations - continuity of the
alignment.

Continuity of Alignment
(Form and Scale)

1. Visually a continuous alignment should

Appear smooth, free flowing with no kinks or
breaks obvious to the eye.
Have elements that appear to be part of a whole
not individual pieces.

Geometric Design: Horizontal Alignment

• Combination of transitions and curved components,
where curves are commonly circular, but spiral
transitions are sometimes used depending on the
topography of the area
• The main considerations - continuity of the
alignment.
• 2. Continuity is desirable because it:
– Matches the path of the vehicle (to promote safety)
– Matches the natural landscape (sometime it
promotes economy and aesthetics)
Thus a road is governed by design standards and letting
the driver feel comfortably, safe and at ease. Geometric Design
Horizontal Alignment

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Geometric Design
Horizontal Curves & Lane Widening – Rural + highways
On horizontal curves of a relatively short radius, a carriageway is
usually widened to provide:

• Additional width is required due to the rear wheels of the vehicle

which follow a path of shorter radius than the front wheels,
especially in the case of commercial vehicles.

• There is a psychological demand for more clearance to direct a fast

moving vehicle safely around a bend.

The amount of widening will depend on the lane width and the
radius of the curve. - Speed can also become a factor

Run-off Length
• Start of transition is 2/3 run-off length before
BCC and full elevation is reach 1/3 run-off length
after BCC
• Calculated in the same manner as the Run-off
length for super elevation
Geometric Design
Horizontal Curve Widening
Information regarding the widening procedure:
• On a simple circular curves the total widening is applied to the inside
edge.
• Where transition curves are provided, widening may be placed on the
inside or divided equally between the inside and outside edges. In
either case the centre line marking should be placed in the middle of
the original lane.

• The extra width should be attained gradually over the whole length of
the transition;

• The edges of the road must form smooth and graceful curves.

Geometric Design Geometric Design

Setting out of Horizontal Curves
Summary of Transition Curve Purpose:
Widening with transition curves
1. Minimises encroachment on adjoining traffic lanes,
2. Uniformity of speed changing from straight to curve
3. Increase in safety and comfort.
• The essential requirement of any transition curve is that it’s
radius of curvature should decrease gradually from infinity at
the tangent to the radius of the circular curve
• Most commonly used curves:
• The spiral – range of bearing
• The cubic parabola – range of gradient
Results between them being insignificant in practice.
Horizontal Curves
HIGHWAY/FREEWAY DESIGN
• Dept of National Roads specify that transition curves should
be used on all horizontal curves where the
• R< 250m and the curves have a super-elevation e=6%
• Minimum transition length of 30m (100m is desirable)
• On modern highways high standards of design the need
for widening has lessened if width of lane >7.4m
• 0.6m widening is specified for carriageway width of 6.8m
and R<150m

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Geometric Design Geometric Design

Horizontal Curves Setting out of Simple Horizontal Curves

RESIDENTIAL / URBAN ROADWAYS:

R (m) = 1746.34
D (degrees)
- Lane width the same
- X-fall the same either side of Centre Line

Additional width only allowed at intersections, turning

circles and access points.

Horizontal design in residential streets must be done to

discourage operating speeds higher than 40-50km/h

See Guideline for Human settlement (red book) volume 2

Horizontal Curves
Geometric Design
Setting out of Horizontal Curves Calculation of Horizontal Curve
T.L. =

L =
Rc tan ∆/2
Alignment components
L.C. = 2R Sin ∆/2

Ec = R X [ 1/(cos ∆/2) -1]

1. Simple circular Curve:
M = R x (1-cos ∆/2) Answer:
R = 1746.34xa / D (D in degrees)

∞1 = (l/ 100) x (D/2) • T = 234.034m

Exercise 1:
∞1 = l/ 2Rc
• L = 399.245m
Given Δ=75⁰, R=305m, PI
T.L. = Tangent length of circular arc / curve chainage=873.28m • Stake value
Lc = Length of circular arc / curve
Determine tangent length T, BC=639.246
L.C. = Long chord subtending the circular arc
Ec = External distance the curve length L, stake • Stake value
M = Middle ordinate value of tangent point BC EC=1038.492
R = Radius of circular arc / curve and EC.
∞1 = Deflection angle from tangent to chord
D = Degree of curvature - central angle which subtends a 100m arc of the curve

Geometric Design
Design of Horizontal Alignment

The Minimum Radius is derived by considering the

forces acting on the occupants of a vehicle negotiating a
curve and the resulting comfort level of the occupants.

Therefore, the minimum radius is a function of the

velocity, the allowable side friction and the degree of
super elevation

Refer TRH 17 Table 3.2.1 for minimum Radii of

Horizontal curvature. TRH 17 Table 3.2.1

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Geometric Design
Superelevation
Superelevation on Rail

Super-elevation: When a carriageway is sloped in horizontal

curves to counteract the outward-acting forces (centrifugal
forces) on the vehicle moving through curves.

Geometric Design
Geometric Design
If carriage way is flat, the forces are in equilibrium, thus Lateral
Lateral Friction Force resisting Centrifugal force :
Friction Force P /(F) resisting Centrifugal force (µ(Mu)) can be
represented by, • P= Wv² where g=9.81m/s, W=weight (W=mg), v=speed (m/s) &
gR R=curve radius
P= Wv² where g=9.81m/s, W=weight (W=mg), v=speed & R=curve radii
gR A lateral coefficient of friction developed, known as the Centrifugal Ratio

P acts horizontally (counter balanced) at the centre of gravity of the vehicle • µ = v²

and its load. gR

• µ = V²
127R

Note that the threat of overturning can occur if the vehicles

centre of gravity is very high!

Superelevation Geometric Design – Super elevation

Considering the
equilibrium of a vehicle of The forces acting on the vehicle around a bend are:
mass (M), moving at a a) the centrifugal force acting radially outwards,
speed of v m/s around at
the bend of radius R. b) the weight of the vehicle acting vertically
downwards,
c) the reaction of the road on the vehicle = friction of
Why SUPER elevation? tire on road.
The entire centrifugal force would have to be counteracted by the friction
between the wheels and road surface if the road surface is flat. THUS
common practice is to incline the road.
Every combination of R of curve and highway design speed has a rate
of Superelevation (e) to counteract the centrifugal force. If not
sufficient, it is necessary for some friction to develop on the tyres and road
when travelling at design speed to keep vehicle on the road!

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Geometric Design
Superelevation
By adopting a realistic value for the friction factor, (µ). the required
superelevation rate, e, can be calculated for various speeds and curve
radii.
emax + µ max = V²
127R where V= design speed in km/h and R = radius in m
r
y
∞
x µmax = 0.19 – V where µ represents the max sideways force coefficient for design and

Where P = µMgcos∞ + µMg²sin∞ 1600 also includes a safety factor of approx. 3

R
There is a limit to the maximum rate of superelevation used in practice.
This limit is necessary to prevent slow moving (or stationary) vehicles from
sliding inwards during slippery (wet) conditions. The minimum value for e
is 0.04 (4%) and the maximum value is normally in the order of 0,12 (12%)
on highways - 10% generally used in RSA - rural roads.
For practical design purposes, curves or tables are drawn up from which
the required superelevation rate is selected for a given design speed and
curve radius (TRH 17 fig 5.3.2)

Super Elevation Rates - Radii Superelevation

R min= v²
g(emax+µmax) and
µmax = 0.19 – V
1600
Where v=m/s, R=m, e=m/m and g=m/s and µ

By using the max super elevation = emax and maximum friction

= µmax, the min Radius of curvature can be determined in order
to keep a vehicle from sliding down.

BUT its better to design a road such that the µ = 0 (free

steering condition) and e preferably less than 10%. Most
cases a combination of the worst and the best is often a
reasonable compromise.

IMPORTANT NOTES FOR Example

SUPER ELEVATION
For a small deflection angle – curve must be long • Determine the superelevation required for a left hand
enough to avoid a kink – min 300m, but if space limited horizontal curve of R=420m on a road with a design
150m, however if deflection angel < 5deg, increase min speed of 90km/h
R by 30m for every 1deg decrease in refl. Angle. • Assume µ = 0 and determine e (emax+µmax) = v²
gR
• Calculate e=15.193%
For Max length of curve should not exceed 1000m – • But emax=10%, determine µactual and µmax = 0.19 – _V
visibility for overtaking on a left hand curve is problematic 1600
• µactual = 0.052
on a long curve on a 2 lane road.
• Check with µmax
• µmax = 0.132, therefore 0.052 is OK and e=10% will work

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Transitional Curves
Components of Horizontal Curves Shift p =
• Point of Intersection (PI): the point at which the two tangents to the curve intersect T.L. = (Rc+p)tan ∆/2 +Ls/2 (same)
• Delta Angle (II): the angle between the tangents is also equal to the angle at the LT = R∆ + LS (∆ in radians)
center of the curve ( also indicated as )
• Back Tangent (T.L): for a survey progressing to the right, it is the straight line that ∂= l2/ (6Rc x Ls) (on transition)
connects the PC to the PI : T=R tan(I/2)
Lc = LT - 2Ls
• Forward Tangent (T.L.): for a survey progressing to the right, it is the straight line
Ø= 3 x ∂T
that connects the PI to the PT
Es = (Rc + p) sec ∆/2 -Rc
• Beginning of Circular Curve (BCC): the beginning point of the curve
also called Point of Curvature (PC): the beginning point of the curve Shift p = shift in centre line of arc
• End of Circular Curve (ECC): the end point of the curve T.L. = Tangent Length
also called Point of Tangency (PT): the end point of the curve LT = Total curve / arc length
• Tangent Distance (T.L.): the distance from the BCC to PI or from the PI to ECC ∂= Deflection angle of tangent chord
• External Distance (E): the distance from the PI to the middle point of the curve Lc = Length of circular arc
(crown distance CD Ø= spiral angle
• Middle Ordinate (M): the distance from the middle point of the curve to the middle Es = External distance of spiral
of the chord joining the BCC and ECC (Radius R)
• Length of Chord (L.C.): the distance along the line joining the BCC and the ECC
• Length of Curve (l): the difference in stationing along the curve between the BCC
and the ECC – in survey it is the arc length L or l or A = R.I radians

Geometric Design Geometric Design

Setting out of Horizontal Curves Setting out of Horizontal Curves

Class Exercise 1: - Two straights, having an intersection angle of

38⁰6’00’’ are joined by a circular curve of 230m radius. This curve is to Class Exercise 3:
be shifted away from the tangents to admit transition spirals 60m long Calculate the full setting out data for the following curve:
at each end. If the stake value of the intersection point along the first i) Curve to the left
tangent is 524,112 and the curve deflects to the right, find the stake ii) Radius = 450m
values of points BTC, BCC, ECC and ETC. Find also the deflation angle to iii) Deflection angle 25°10’20’’
be set from BTC for the setting out point at SV460 and from BCC for the iv) Transition length = 80m
setting out point at SV560. v) P.I. chainage = 5,194.000m

Class Exercise 2: - Calculate the setting out data for a transition

curve of length 80m. The radius of the circular curve is 500m and
the deviation angle is 27°. P.I. stake value is 1,500m. Use 10m
intervals on the transitions and 25m intervals on the curve.

2 Geometric Design
Setting out of Horizontal Curves

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