CTE 231 Transport Engineering Full Notes

2016
TRANSPORTATION
ENGINEERING II
CTE 231
LECTURER: BELINDA VAN DER WAT

NATIONAL DIPLOMA: CIVIL ENGINEERING
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED - COPYRIGHT | NMMU

Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1 ............................................................................................................................................................. 5
TRANSPORTATION PLANNING ........................................................................................................................... 5
1. HIGHWAY TRANSPORTATION.................................................................................................................. 1
2. RAILROAD TRANSPORTATION ................................................................................................................. 3
3. AIR TRANSPORTATION ............................................................................................................................ 7
4. WATER TRANSPORTATION ...................................................................................................................... 9
5. PIPELINE TRANSPORTATION.................................................................................................................. 11
TRANSPORTATION DEMAND DETERMINATION ............................................................................................ 13
1. LAND USE FORECASTING ............................................................................................................................. 13
2. TRIP GENERATION MODELS ......................................................................................................................... 14
3. TRIP DISTRIBUTION .................................................................................................................................... 14
4. MODAL SPLIT ........................................................................................................................................... 14
5. TRAFFIC ASSIGNMENT ................................................................................................................................ 14
CHAPTER 2 ......................................................................................................................................................... 16
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING ................................................................................................................................ 16
2.1. DEFINITION ........................................................................................................................................... 16
2.2. TRAFFIC SURVEYS ................................................................................................................................ 16
2.3. VOLUME SURVEYS................................................................................................................................... 16
(b) Traffic Composition.............................................................................................................................. 17
(c) Volume Counts ..................................................................................................................................... 17
(d) Origin and Destination surveys (O - D surveys).................................................................................. 18
2.4. DESIGN VOLUME ................................................................................................................................... 19
(a) Average Daily Traffic (A.D.T.)................................................................................................................. 19
(b) Peak Hour ............................................................................................................................................... 19
2.5. CAPACITY OF THE ROAD ........................................................................................................................ 20
2.6. ROAD CONDITIONS................................................................................................................................. 21
2.7. TRAFFIC CONDITIONS ............................................................................................................................. 21
TRAFFIC FLOW THEORY AND CONTROL .................................................................................................... 24
A) FLOW VARIABLES................................................................................................................................... 24
B) SPEED VARIABLES.................................................................................................................................. 24
C) DENSITY VARIABLES............................................................................................................................... 24
SPEED STUDIES ............................................................................................................................................... 26
1) MEAN JOURNEY SPEED .......................................................................................................................... 26
2) MEAN RUNNING SPEED........................................................................................................................... 26
3) INSTANTANEOUS OR SPOT SPEED ........................................................................................................... 26
DELAY STUDIES ................................................................................................................................................. 27
PARKING LAYOUT AND DESIGN .................................................................................................................... 28
ON-STREET PARKING ........................................................................................................................................... 28
OFF-STREET PARKING ......................................................................................................................................... 28
i) Surface Parking ....................................................................................................................................... 28
ii) Parking garages ...................................................................................................................................... 29
TRAFFIC SAFETY ............................................................................................................................................... 30
CHAPTER 3 ........................................................................................................................................................... 33
GEOMETRIC DESIGN .......................................................................................................................................... 33
3.2. DESIGN SPEED...................................................................................................................................... 33
3.3. SIGHT DISTANCES ................................................................................................................................. 34
3.4. HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT........................................................................................................................... 38
3.4.1 Properties of a circular curve ....................................................................................................... 38
3.4.2 Transition Curves .......................................................................................................................... 41
3.4.3 Superelevation ............................................................................................................................... 46
3.5 SETTING OUT DATA - VERTICAL CURVES .......................................................................................... 52
3.6.1 MEDIAN (CENTRAL RESERVATION) ........................................................................................................ 53
3.6.2 SHOULDERS ......................................................................................................................................... 53
3.6.3 CAMBER AND CROSS-SLOPE ................................................................................................................ 53
3.6.4 TRAFFIC LANES .................................................................................................................................... 55
3.6.5 SIDE SLOPES........................................................................................................................................ 55
3.6.6 SIDEWALKS........................................................................................................................................... 56
3.7 INTERSECTIONS ...................................................................................................................................... 58
3.8 GRADE SEPARATED INTERSECTIONS (INTERCHANGES)............................................................... 63
CHAPTER 4 ........................................................................................................................................................... 67
ROUTE LOCATION OBJECTIVES ...................................................................................................................... 67
4.1 PRINCIPLES OF ROAD LOCATION ........................................................................................................ 68
4.2 LOCATION SURVEYS IN RURAL AREAS .............................................................................................. 69
4.3 LOCATION SURVEYS IN URBAN AREAS .............................................................................................. 71
4.4 USES OF AERIAL SURVEYS ................................................................................................................... 72
CHAPTER 1
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING OBJECTIVES
1. Define the term Transportation Planning.

2. Describe six (6) steps in the execution of Transportation Planning.
3. Briefly discuss the factors that influence Highway Transportation development.
4. List five (5) vehicle operating characteristics and state the effect of each.
5. Name the factors that will influence one's choice of mode for personal travel or
freight transportation.
6. Discuss six (6) factors governing route location in the Transportation Planning
process for rail.
7. Distinguish between the criteria that influence air transportation of passengers

and goods.
8. Discuss pollution characteristics of Air Transportation.

9. Discuss the two (2) flight conditions of air traffic control.
10. Name the physical requirements that have to be met such that an airport can
be constructed.
11. Name the important aspects in the planning of access and link roads around
an airport.
12. Distinguish between general cargo ships and bulk carriers by listing examples
of each and discussing the operational function of each type.
13. Describe the function of each of the three main components of a petroleum
pipeline.
14. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of Pipeline Transportation.
15. List the steps required in the design of a slurry pipeline and give, in each case,
the importance of each.
16. Discuss the effect that the abrasive nature of slurries has on pipes.
17. Name the factors on which the demand for transport is based.
18. Discuss the five (5) basic steps in the forecasting process of urban travel.
CHAPTER 1
TRANSPORTATION PLANNING
Definition
Transportation planning is the creation of an infrastructure for the movement of
people and goods such that the fundamental goals of opportunity, accessibility and
efficiency is realised.
Factors that will influence Transportation Planning
i) Level of public investment

ii) Locations for highway, bus and rail systems; terminal locations for air, rail and
truck
iii) Type of facility within each mode (e.g. type of highway or type of airport)
iv) Level of service to be provided
v) Timing of construction or other implementing action
vi) Costs ( Maintenance and operation)
vii) Regulation
viii) Safety
ix) Interaction between transportation and land use, the economy, the environment
and energy
The Transportation Planning Process
Planning is done by executing the following steps:
i) Goal specification and objectives - to measure the performance of a

transportation system
ii) Data collection / inventories - especially quantitative data, to give accurate and
objective information to serve as a base
iii) Forecasts and Model development - to describe future conditions which
transportation facilities are intended to serve
iv) Prepare alternative plans - to compare the performance of alternatives
v) Testing and plan selection - to evaluate the performance of alternatives
vi) Implementation - to provide the chosen alternative
The process by which decisions are made is called policy planning, and consists
firstly of the allocation of resources (human, materials, energy). Secondly, it is
arranged as to who does what (amalgamation, deregulation). Lastly, because of the
strong mutual interaction between systems and operations, the influence that a
decision has on another sector must be recognised. (The economy, land use,
population, natural resources, etc).
TRANSPORT PLANNING PROCESS
SOCIO-ECONOMICAL REGION
PROBLEM DEFINITION
DEVELOPEMENT OF SOLUTIONS
ROUTE LOCATION
BASIC PLANNING
DETAIL PLANNING
SOLUTION ANALYSIS
OPTIONS EVALUATION
RECOMMENDATIONS
IMPLEMENTATION
Figure 1: Transportation Planning Process

Modes
Modes of transportation are classified as belonging to either Highway (Roads),

Railway, Air, Water or Pipeline. The following figure illustrates the type of
transportation service rendered by the facility.
The following illustrates the type of transportation service rendered by the facility
Figure 1.1: Modes classified by fixed-facility type, vehicle type, and by type of service rendered
Mode as Mode as Primarily

Fixed Facility Vehicle Type Serving
Automobiles
Passengers
Highway Buses
Trucks Freight
Freight cars Freight
Rail lines
Passenger cars Passengers
Commercial air
passenger planes
Passengers
Airports
General airplanes
Cargo planes Freight
Freight
Water Ships and barges
Passengers
Pipelines Freight
.
These will be looked at individually to point out the characteristics (physical &
operational) that are needed in the planning, designing and developing of facilities and
procedures for the transportation of people and goods.
1. HIGHWAY TRANSPORTATION
The growth, spatial distribution and standard of living of a population are

contributing factors of demand for transportation and for the modes and facilities that
must be provided to fulfil that demand. Changes in population distribution and density
are significant in this regard. The lower the density, the more likely the populace
will rely on the private motor vehicle for transportation. Conversely, the greater
the density, the more able public transport is to fulfil demand. Statistics also show
that there is a direct relationship between the economic situation of a country and
vehicular travel in that country.
Vehicle operating characteristics (V.O.C)

a) Resistance to motion
The forces that must be overcome by motor vehicles are rolling, air,
grade, curve and inertial.
i) Rolling resistance results from the frictional slip between the tyres and the
road surface, as well as internal friction of mechanical moving parts. For
example, a modern car travelling at 100 Km/h on a freeway has a rolling
resistance of 14 kg/ton.
ii) Air resistance is composed of the direct effect of air in the pathway of the
vehicle. This force is calculated from
R = 0.011AV2
iii) Grade resistance equals the component of the vehicle's selfweight force
acting down the grade.
iv) Curve resistance is the force needed to deflect a vehicle along a curvilinear
path, and is a function of speed.
v) Inertial resistance is the force that must be overcome to change speed and
is a function of vehicle mass, calculated from the following:
Resistance (R) = 280ma (mass x acceleration)

b) Power requirements
Vehicle performance characteristics are reflected in terms like:
Kilowatt - which is the output available for propulsion at a given engine speed.
Power/Mass ratio - which indicates, relatively, how fast a vehicle will be. This is
especially useful in defining the hill climbing ability of a vehicle.
CTE 231 Transportation Eng II Page 1 of 81

c) Performance
Acceleration and deceleration capabilities are needed to establish the criteria for
geometric design (viz. sight distances), and traffic engineering principles (signal
cycle lengths, travel times, etc.).
d) Operating costs
In order for engineers to plan and design transportation facilities that are
compatible with economical vehicle operation the effect of road geometry and
traffic flow must be carefully analysed. The following vehicle operational costs are
identified:
i) Fuel and oil costs
ii) Wear and tear and maintenance costs
e) Vehicle dimensions
This has an influence on geometric design (turning circles, parking layouts, etc)

2. RAILROAD TRANSPORTATION
Railroads are absolutely essential to the commerce and economy of industrialized

nations. The concept of steel wheel rolling on steel rail, with multiple vehicles in
tow, is virtually unmatched for efficiency and economy (for high volume, long haul).
The rail network in South Africa is the most advanced in Africa and stretches from
Beit bridge in the north to Cape Town in the south. The varying topography in South
Africa makes the planning of a rail network a challenging one. The first railway line
in S.A. opened in June 1860 (Durban). Electrified lines opened in 1925 and diesel
in 1958. In 1976 the 860 km Sishen-Saldanha saw the introduction of high axle
load lines. The rail structure is the most important fixed asset of the rail
transportation system. The correct design, construction and maintenance is
essential to ensure the proper functioning of the network.
The main competition that rail transportation faces w.r.t. other modes is the
following:
i) Tariff rates and provisions
ii) Service (reliability, transit time)
iii) Historical loss and damage experience
iv) Freight loading and unloading costs
v) Dispatching / receiving facilities
2.1 Physical characteristics

Terminals
Terminals form the heart of railroad operation, since all trains originate and
terminate at these.
i) Main terminals
A main terminal is a complex of main lines, secondary lines, a yard where trains are
put together or broken up, a receiving yard and a departure yard. Typically, these
terminals will be found in most cities.
ii) Intermediate terminals

These are usually smaller yards between major terminals. They provide for crew
changes on through trains as well as bases for local trains.
iii) Industrial (or satellite) terminals

These are to receive and deliver carriages to main terminals. These smaller facilities
serve local industrial areas.

RAILWAY
2.2 The track structure
The track structure is the most important fixed asset of a rail transport system. The
correct design, construction and maintenance thereof is of utmost importance to
ensure the operating availability of the network.
Track structure components are special Civil Engineering elements as the

components are subjected to complex dynamic loads and a single element is
manufactured and used in large numbers.
The student must familiarize him/herself with the following track structure-
terminology: Rail, fastening, sleeper, ballast, formation, gauge.
2.2.1 Function and operation of the track structure:
The function and operation of the track structure is to provide a permanent guide
track for rolling stock (railway vehicles)
A Typical track structure supporting a single axle has different forces that act upon
the track structure. These forces can be divided into:
- Supporting forces (vertical forces)
- Guiding forces (lateral forces)
- Temperature forces ( longitudinal forces)
The supporting force consists mainly of two components:
a) The static load (weight of the railway vehicle)
b) They dynamic contribution (additional impact forces as a result of the movement

of the vehicle across and uneven surface)
A track structure is differentially supported by sleepers at a fixed spacing. The most

important advantage of this structure in comparison with a continuous supporting rail
is a saving in material as well as the ability to get in between the sleepers to repair
the geometry of the running surface of the rail.
2.2.2 Track structure components:
RAIL: The interaction between the wheel and the rail is important for an even
movement of the rolling stock. Correct wheel and rail contact has an influence on
the self-driving principle of a fixed axle.

The thread of the wheel gets finished conically to the inside with a 1:20 gradient and
the rails are secured on the sleepers with an inclination angle of 1:20. Since the two
wheels are secured to a solid axle, they must always turn in at the same speed.
When the wheel set then moves laterally, the tread diameter of the one wheel
enlarges while the tread diameter of the other wheel becomes smaller. The wheel
with the smaller thread diameter will rotate faster while the wheel with the larger
thread diameter will rotate slower. The difference in the rotating speed of the
wheels will ensure that the wheel set returns to the centre of the track.
The function of the rails are:
- Firstly it must provide a continuous and smooth guiding surface on which the
rolling stock can be guided.
- Secondly it must resist the necessary lateral forces of the wheel flanges to
provide the necessary “guidance” to the wheels
- Thirdly it must transfer the concentrated loads that are applied onto the rail by
the vehicles to the rail bearing surfaces of the sleepers.
- The fourth function of the rails is to serves as electric conductors for signalling
circuits. Each rail is a separate circuit that is coupled as soon as an axle moves
across it. This coupling ensures that no other trains are allowed in that section.
Refer chapter 8 of Construction Methods for Civil Engineers by Errol

van Amsterdam for Railways.
Other important aspects of railroad operation are communication, signaling,

locomotives, management and control, revenues and services, etc. However, this
detail will be spelt out in future courses.
2.3 Transportation Planning and route location
The placing of a railway line between major terminals or towns is based on the most
economical, feasible route that will:
i) Satisfy the needs of the user
ii) Satisfy the need of freight
Transnet will construct a line between A & B if:

i) more than 20000 persons/day will use it
ii) the line is economical
iii) the line is uneconomical, but the loss is carried by other instances
iv) the line has strategic importance
Factors governing route location

Future demand
i) If a line is mainly freight orientated, the axle loads and length of trains govern
route location and positioning of stations. If a line is mainly passenger
orientated, governing factors are travelling times and competition with other
modes.
ii) The change in demand as time goes by must be considered.
iii) The hierarchy of the system must be borne in mind (e.g. main line, urban line or
private siding) such that orderly development of the network can take place.
Design standards
i) Design standards with regard to slopes, curves, etc must be determined for
each line.
ii) Spacing of stations must be done depending on population density.
Physical Limitations (topography and geology)
i) Slopes: Steep slopes result in long travelling times or excessive earthworks

must be carried out to counter this.
ii) Excavation and fills: Stability of fills must be checked out and the possibility of
using excavated material in construction must be investigated. The position of
borrow pits must be determined.
iii) Bridges: The positional stability of the course of rivers (possible floods) must be
considered.
iv) Material problems: Clayey areas and swamps must be avoided.
v) Stations: Areas for stations must be available for short and long term
extensions.
vi) Tunnels: Tunnelling must not take place in relatively soft material. Also bear in
mind that grade compensation must be provided at entrances and exits of
tunnels.
vii) Cadastral limitations: Locate along the edges of properties and avoid mining
and military property.
Government policy
Coordination between all transport modes as well as local provincial and national
bodies is essential.
Economical aspects
i) Purchase cost of ground
ii) Construction costs
iii) Maintenance costs
iv) User's costs
v) Operational costs
Aesthetical Aspects
i) Alignment
ii) Balance of nature must be maintained and pollution (air and noise must be
minimized
3. AIR TRANSPORTATION
General physical and performance characteristics
The basic objective is the safe, convenient and economical transportation of people
and goods and the key elements of this system are airports, aircraft and the air
traffic control system. Air cargo is a selective service, generally used where an
emergency, the perishability of goods, or a high value / weight ratio dictates fast
movement.
Aircraft sizes and weights are crucial determinants in the design and construction of
runways, taxiways, aprons and terminal loading arrangements. In the early days of
flight aircraft size was often simply expressed in terms of wingspan. Although
wingspan remains important in the design of airport facilities, It is now equally
necessary to consider other characteristics such as nose-to-tail length, height,
wheelbase and gross mass. (e.g., a fully laden 747 has a mass of 250 tonnes which
equates to more than 18 tonnes per tyre).
In addition to the characteristics of larger, long haul aircraft airport designers must also
reckon increasingly with the characteristics of smaller, turbojet, turboprop, and
piston-powered short haul aircraft which may be used to serve somewhat smaller
communities and interests.
Pollution (air and noise) remains a constant cause for concern at major airports, even
with the vast improvement that latter day aircraft have over their predecessors in
this regard. Pollution actually stems from several sources in addition to aircraft
engine emissions: aircraft fueling operations, ground service equipment, heating
plants, highway traffic, etc. Of greatest concern are Hydrocarbons and Carbon
monoxide, which are highest at idling, and oxides of nitrogen which are greatest at high
power. Programs are continuing to reduce these emissions and design more
efficient jet engines. However, the aircraft noise problem has yet to be solved.
Despite this disadvantage, aircraft remain a highly efficient and safe means of
passenger transport.
Air traffic control
In most of the world, there are two basic flight conditions: Visual Flight Rules (VFR)
and Instrument Flight Rules (IFR). VFR only need a flight plan if travel is between or
over control zones whereas all IFR flights must have an approved flight plan as to
route and altitude and these flights are then constantly monitored by radio and
radar. The continuous ground contact provided by flying IFR is an added safety
measure. Because of its nature, air traffic control is exceedingly complex and highly
skilled personnel with highly sophisticated equipment are used. As more aviation
users compete with less air space, technology (especially w.r.t. the use of
computers) have managed to improve on the safety margins that is required of the
system.

Airports
Airports can be classified by either type, ownership, activity or by facilities available.

Present activity at the world's busiest airports is truly intense, and careful
consideration must be given to ground transportation in and around these airports.
The first and most difficult step in airport design is locating a suitable site. The
essential considerations are : sufficient, reasonably level space ; firm ground that
drains easily ; potential runway approaches free from tall obstructions ; freedom from
perpetual smoke or fog ; freedom from adjoining incompatible land uses and, of
course, a reasonable proximity to the demand to be served. More and more, such
sites can only be found at the distant periphery of large metropolitan areas.
The actual design and construction of the airport involves three (3) distinct elements:
i) The runways, taxi's and aprons
ii) The terminal with control tower
iii) The service roads and parking
Runway layout is often governed by active prevailing winds and some major
runways are then even duplicated (running parallel) Taxiways and holding aprons
must combine with the runway and terminals in such a way that operation is smooth
and efficient. Conveyance of passengers to and from aircraft also needs specialist
attention.
Airport user traffic characteristics
People using an airport consist of travellers, visitors and employees, the latter two
sometimes more than the first. Traffic also shows a variation with time - not only
on a daily basis, but also on a seasonal basis. When planning an airport's public use
roads, the following is important:
i) Roads must be able to handle peak volumes
ii) The link between the external road and airport service road must be practical
and functional
iii) Roads next to the terminal building should accommodate stopped vehicles
iv) Access to runways and taxiways must be controlled
v) Privileged traffic must have private access
Refer chapter 9 (9.1 Introduction - 9.4 Airport structure) of Construction

Methods for Civil Engineers by Errol van Amsterdam for more notes on
Airports.

4. WATER TRANSPORTATION
Waterborne transportation is one of the oldest forms of transportation in existence. It

was largely responsible for the discovery and colonization of new continents. The role
it plays presently in the transportation of people is somewhat lessened, yet it
remains the dominant form of transportation in international trade (some 70 % of
goods). Although very slow, it is the most energy efficient and hence lowest cost form
of transportation (220 times cheaper than air, 70 times cheaper than road, 10 times
cheaper than rail). As such, it is ideally suited to low value, bulk commodities like ore,
grain or liquids.
Vessel types and technology
The two main parts of a ship are the hull and the machinery. The hull is divided into
holds, where the cargo is stored, sealed by hatch covers, and separated by decks.
The machinery is contained in the engine room and includes generators,
refrigeration and electrical equipment. Situated near the machinery will be the
bridge for navigation and accommodation for the crew.
a) General cargo ships
i) Break - bulk
These ships have derricks for loading and unloading cargo above the deck. Cargo
consists of individual units or packages.
ii) Container
Container ships are designed in a manner that optimizes space. These ships
have holds in the form of a series of specially designed cells where the containers
are placed. There will also be provision for the storage of containers on deck.
Above a certain size, container ships do not carry their own loading gear, so
loading and unloading can only be done at ports with the necessary cranes.
Informally known as "box boats," they carry the majority of the world's dry cargo,
meaning manufactured goods.
Container ships now carry up to 15,000 TEU, Twenty-foot Equivalent Units, on a

voyage. The world's largest container ships have a capacity of 15,200
containers.
iii) Roll on/roll off
This vehicle is designed such that any form of vehicle can be driven on or off
the ship.
b) Bulk carriers
Cargoes like metal ores, coal or wheat are carried in bulk carriers.

i) Oil tanker
The ships are designed to carry liquid in bulk. It’s hull is divided into numerous
tanks, each with a watertight hatch and ventilator. Pumping machinery and
pipes for each tank are designed for quick loading and unloading. Some crude
carriers have a size of more than 500 000 DWT, and because this necessarily
results in a deep draft, they cannot always pass through canals and must
therefore take longer routes. The risk of oil spills is severe.
ii) Dry Cargo

These ships have a size that may exceed 100 000 DWT with a capacity of up to
250 000 tonnes. They carry ore or grain and cargo handling is generally by
shore side gear in the form of conveyor belts or grabs.
Refer chapter 7 (7.1 Introduction - 7.4 Types of Harbours) of

Construction Methods for Civil Engineers by Errol van Amsterdam for
more notes on Harbours.

5. PIPELINE TRANSPORTATION
Pipelines are continuous flow systems of relatively high capacities that transport
gasses, liquids and slurries. A modern pipeline system consist of storage tanks,
pump stations, pipes and fittings, communications facilities and control centres.
a) Domestic pipelines
Water and sanitation supply and disposal is the most common use for pipeline
transportation. Both gravitational and pump systems are used in this mode of
transport and either rigid or flexible drainpipes are used according to the
material used in their manufacture and the final purpose of use. Most common
materials used in the domestic pipeline systems are:
i) Vitrified clay pipes (No longer used for new installations, but still used in
existing systems and replaced when need arises.
ii) Cast Iron pipes
iii) Pitch fibre (FC Fibre cement)
iv) uPVC
v) Concrete Pipes
b) Petroleum pipelines
This term reflect all pipes carrying crude oil and products such as petrol,
paraffin, liquefied gas, etc. There are three components of such a system,
namely:
i) Gathering systems
ii) Trunk line systems
iii) Refined product systems
Gathering systems collect and move crude oil from oil fields to storage tanks,
usually through 150cm dia. pipes. Trunk lines (mostly underground) deliver oil
from storage tanks or terminals (offshore or ports) to refining centres, or from
the production field to the export terminal. They are between 200mm and
1200mm dia. Refined product systems transport finished petroleum products
from refineries and seaports to market terminals, from where they are normally
moved to their final destination by trucks. The structure of a pipeline industry is
influenced by three economic factors:
i) Pipelines are capital intensive
ii) Pipelines are high risk investments
iii) Pipelines benefit from economy of scale.
Profile of a pipeline
Successful pipelines depend on maximum volume over a long term. Hence
knowledge of the chemical and physical composition of the crude is of great
importance, as well as the design, construction and maintenance of the pipeline
itself. Marine pipeline costs vary with size, depth and geology; they are
normally twice as expensive as onshore lines.

Advantages
Most pipelines lie buried beneath the surface; hence they are invisible, silent,
have no harmful emissions and are environmentally friendly. They provide
continuous 24 hr service and are immune to weather conditions. There are no
hassles like packaging or returning of empties involved. They are a direct link
between production and consumption and thus eliminate product handling,
losses or damage en route. They are safe and have very low energy
consumption.
Disadvantages
They are capital intensive, inflexible and have minimum salvage value.
c) Slurry Pipelines Design and processing

Slurry pipeline systems originated in the mining industry, especially coal and are
an efficient and reliable mode of transportation. Some basic design calculation
steps are required:
i) Classify the slurry and establish its concentration
ii) Select a pipe size, depending on required throughput
iii) Calculate the critical velocity
iv) Calculate friction losses
v) Calculate pressure and pump requirements
Thus the physical and chemical processing necessary to give the slurry the
necessary characteristics for hydraulic transportation must be determined.
Preparation normally involves both size reduction (crushing and grinding) and
liquid addition. At the delivery end (prior to utilization) there will be a need for
storage and recovering facilities.
In all systems, a balance has to be made between pump ability and dewatering
characteristics. If sizing is too fine, it will be easy to pump, but dewatering costs
may be high. If the size is too coarse, pumping costs will go up. Pipe choice will
depend on pressure, corrosiveness or how abrasive the slurry is. Dewatering is
mostly carried out by processes of screening (filtering) and/or centrifuge.
Mechanical considerations
Slurries are abrasive by their very nature. They sandblast when impacting at high
velocity; they are a grinding compound between moving mechanical parts; they
are a cutting tool when forced through a restriction; and they are sandpaper when
dragging along the bottom of a pipe. When laying out the system, the designer
must consider the following:
i) Flushing or draining the system on normal or emergency shutdown.

ii) Replacement of wear points: near pump discharge, sharp bends,
downstream of restrictions, etc
iii) Rotation of straight horizontal sections
iv) Access for unplugging

Although materials suitable for long distance slurry pipeline transport are fewer
than for short distance in plant applications, the list is still quite large. They
include limestone, iron ore, coal, salt, phosphate, kaolin, copper, sewage,
uranium, sugar, wood pulp, potash, zinc, sulphur, nickel ore, pyrite, etc.
Provided velocities are kept in check and due consideration is given to wear and
maintenance, slurry pipelines remain a viable alternative form of transportation.
TRANSPORTATION DEMAND DETERMINATION
It is essential that transportation engineers and planners understand the principles

and techniques for estimating the demand for transportation. It is basically a
reflection of the requirements for transport by users of the system, whether they
are travellers or movers of freight. Without this understanding, efforts will be
misdirected and result in a system that is mismatched to the demand for
transportation and be a waste of resources.
The derived demand for transport
Basically it is derived from:
i) The need for persons to travel to another location in order to partake in an activity
(e.g. shop, work).
ii) The need to transport goods to make them available where they can be used or
consumed.
Many variables must be taken into account when determining or forecasting the
number of trips that will be generated by these two needs, like cost, transport
available, comfort, travelling time, socio-economic characteristics, etc.
Demand is foremost determined by price - as the price drops, so the demand

increases and vice versa.
Various mathematical models have been developed to try and determine

demand. These are very complex, since they must try to accommodate all the
variables that exist in transportation, yet they are useful when comparing
different modes of transport in terms of trip generation.
Urban travel forecasting
Since urbanization is the modern trend in developing countries it is essential that
proper forecasting be made to ensure an efficient development in the provision
of urban transportation. There are basically five steps in the forecasting process.
1. Land Use Forecasting
Transportation planners need to know how human activities will vary in the years
over which forecasting is done, since these activities will directly affect land use.
City planners provide some information, but the task remains a difficult one. It is
a known fact that land development decreases in intensity with increasing
distance from the CBD and this, together with an examination of existing land

use plans, are used to estimate the capacity of each zone for accepting
residences and other types of activities. Projected growth in population and
commercial and industrial development are key factors in the forecasting
process.
The state or local authority would consider the following aspects during land use
planning:
a) Preservation of prime agricultural lands
b) Preservation of scenic areas
c) Coastal zone preservation
d) Preservation of historical buildings and sites
e) Making urban areas attractive, functional and economic
f) Eliminating urban decay
g) Preserving adequate park and open areas
2. Trip Generation Models
Trip generation models are used to estimate the total number of trips that originate
and terminate in each zone, by trip purpose. Trip purpose is the main influencing
factor of the number of trips as well as the choice of mode. Consideration is given
to size of household, income, car ownership, level of service, etc. Trip generation
estimates are especially useful to determine the adequacy of transport (like roads)
when a new facility is built (airport, shopping centre) or an existing one upgraded.
3. Trip Distribution
This step is an extension of the previous one. The aim is to establish the exact
origin and destination of trips between zones. These may be influenced by factors
like economy, distance, user's needs or preference.
4. Modal Split
The user's choice in the use of a particular mode is dependant upon such factors
as travel time, cost, comfort, distance, lack of alternative, etc. Important to note
when making forecasts, is that user's preference change with the passage of time
when greater levels of comfort and convenience are desirable. Traffic
characteristics also have a bearing on the choice of mode.
5. Traffic Assignment
This is the procedure for estimating the number of traffic units (persons, trips,
vehicles) that will use each individual portion of a transportation system network. It
therefore highlights the preferred route of each user. If more than one route
connects two zones, it is important to know which is the preferred one and why.
Mostly, users will make use of a particular road or facility based on cost and
travelling time, although other factors like availability, safety, comfort, etc will also
have an influence. The results of these studies are used in the expansion and
upgrading of existing networks as well as in the planning of new facilities which
relates to the particular vehicle that the user prefers.

CHAPTER 2
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING OBJECTIVES
1. Define:
i) Traffic engineering
ii) Level of service
2. Describe the effect that the nature and intensity of traffic has on operation.
3. Distinguish between manual and automatic methods of vehicle counting and list
the advantages and disadvantages of each.
4. Discuss the purpose of 0-D surveys and describe the methods of conducting O-
D surveys.
5. Distinguish between the quantities ADT, AADT and DHV stating clearly what
each is derived from and the function each serve.
6. List the applications of traffic volume studies.
7. Distinguish between basic capacity, possible capacity and design capacity.
8. Discuss the two basic elements that affect capacity.
9. Show graphically the relationship between flow, speed and density.
10. Distinguish between mean journey speed, mean running speed and spot speed
and give the main use of each.
11. Discuss two types of delays in traffic studies.
12. Distinguish between short and long term parking.
13. Distinguish between on - street and off-street parking.
14. Discuss the characteristics of surface parking and parking garages that are
important design considerations.
15. Discuss the parking regulations that affect public parking.
16. Discuss the factors that affect traffic safety.
17. Name the uses of data collected from traffic accident studies.
18. Discuss solution studies of traffic safety.
19. Distinguish between three functional classes of traffic signs.
20. Describe the aims of signal control.

CHAPTER 2
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
2.1. Definition
Traffic engineering is that phase of engineering which deals with the planning and
geometric design of streets, highways and abutting lands, and traffic operation
thereon, as their use is related to the safe, convenient and economic transportation
of persons and goods.
2.2. Traffic Volume Surveys/Studies
Before any road scheme is contemplated a traffic survey of some kind or other
should be carried out to gather information regarding the nature and intensity of
the traffic expected.
This survey provides the data on which the proposed road lay-out can be based,
and failure to obtain this information may result in the inability of the road to
handle the volume of traffic.
2.2.1. Nature and Extent of Traffic Surveys
In many instances it is sufficient if the survey is confined to a study of traffic
volumes. On other occasions however these volume studies have to be
supplemented by information concerning such topics as vehicle speeds,
journey times, delay studies at intersections, parking studies, pedestrian
movements and various aspects of vehicle performance.
2.3. Volume Surveys
(a) Type of volume surveys
The type of volume survey required depends on the extent of the new
construction or improvement proposed and its location with respect to similar roads
in the area.
In rural areas, for example in the case of a small scheme such as the
reconstruction of a short length of the existing alignment, the anticipated volume of
traffic along the new section could be determined safely by counting the traffic
using the existing road and allowing for the normal growth of traffic over the design
period.
On the other hand, if the scheme involves an entirely new road, then it is likely
that traffic would be drawn from other roads in the area and the traffic survey
must then embrace all these alternative routes. Even for some improvement
works of existing roads in urban areas the result can be a considerable
redistribution of the traffic pattern and in these circumstances, the survey would
normally take the form of an origin-and-destination survey (O - D).

(b) Traffic Composition
Vehicles of different sizes have different operating characteristics. Besides being

heavier, thus exerting greater loads on the road pavement, trucks and buses are
slower and consequently impose a greater traffic effect on the road than
passenger cars. The overall effect of one truck on certain aspects of traffic
operation is thus equivalent to several passenger car units.
It is thus practice to select a unit, called the equivalent vehicular unit (e.v.u.), and
to express all traffic in terms of this unit by the use of appropriate multiplying
factors. For the structural design of national roads in S.A., for example, the unit
employed in TRH4 is a single axle of 80KN.(E80’s)
(c) Volume Counts
The volume of traffic using a section of road can be measured by counting the
vehicles passing a fixed point. Counting may be carried out manually or by
automatic means.
In the manual method the passing of a vehicle is recorded on a specially prepared
form, the vehicles being simultaneously classified into a number of pre-determined
groups. On account of the labour involved the period of counting is generally
limited to a few days, preferably over 7 consecutive days. Since traffic flows vary
from one month to another, the count should be taken at the busiest time of the
year or else the figure should be adjusted to take account of this seasonal
fluctuation.
The moat commonly used automatic method is a pneumatic detector which

consists of thick-walled rubber tubing fixed to the road surface. The passage of a
vehicle over the tube transmits a pressure pulse through the tube which operates
an electrical contact on a diaphragm switch. The simplest types of automatic
recording equipment merely add the input signals and have to be read at
predetermined intervals while others incorporate a clock mechanism and print out
hourly or daily totals automatically.
Advantages of automatic methods
Advantages of automatic methods are that little labour is required and
measurements be made for long periods.
Disadvantages of automatic methods
(i) Counters do not classify the vehicles in different groups and therefore the
results are generally supplemented by a sample manual count.
(ii) Errors can be incurred with multi-axle vehicles.
(iii) Light vehicle may fail to register.
(iv) Difficulties may occur in finding suitable sites for the equipment to prevent
willful and deliberate damage.

(d) Origin and Destination surveys (O - D surveys)
The O-D survey obtains information concerning the place of origin and
destination of each journey and the location of any intended intermediate stops
within the survey area. The origin of the journey is in this instance the last fixed
point of call before entering the area covered by the survey, and the destination is
the next point of call after leaving the area.
Survey stations must be established on all the main roads entering and leaving
the area concerned. There are a number of basic methods by which the required
information may be obtained:
(i) Roadside interview - vehicles are stopped and drivers are questioned as to
the O and D of the journey and the location of proposed intermediate stops.
This is entered on a card, also noting the time of day, the direction of travel,
the type of vehicle and the number of passengers. When the traffic flow is
heavy some kind of sampling procedure is used to avoid long delays.
(ii) Prepaid Postcards - to reduce the delay in the previous method each driver is
handed a prepaid postcard suitably numbered to indicate the survey station
and the approximate time of day, as he enters the survey area. On this the
driver is requested to answer questions similar to those asked by the
interviewer and to return the card by post. In practice this method often
results in a poor response.
(iii) Coloured tags on Vehicles - At the incoming survey station a tag of distinctive
colour is stuck on the windscreen of the vehicle, a different colour and shape
being used at each point. Observers at the outgoing survey stations note the
colour designation for each vehicle leaving the area.
Alternatively registration numbers of vehicles could have been noted, the

main disadvantage being the amount of correlation and analysis of data
involved.
(iv) Selective interview - where a random sample of population is interviewed either

at home or at their place of employment, to obtain information concerning
details of all journeys made.

2.4. Design Volume
(a) Average Daily Traffic (A.D.T.)
This is the unit in which traffic volume is generally expressed. It represents

the total volume of traffic passing a point in a given period of days, divided by
the number of days. When the period over which the survey is performed is
one year it is referred to as the annual average daily traffic (A.A.D.T.).
The A.D.T. is not suitable for direct use in the geometric design of the road
because it does not indicate how the volume of traffic is distributed over the
24-hour period. The A.D.T. is important for purposes such as determining
the total annual usage of the road as justification for the proposed
expenditure, and for the design of the structural elements.
(b) Peak Hour / Flow Rate

For purposes of geometric design it is necessary to express the traffic
volume in terms of a shorter period than a day, and in nearly all cases the
time period of one hour is used, yielding the term "design hourly volume"
(D.H.V.)
Because of the fact that traffic patterns show great variation in hourly
volumes throughout the day and also throughout the year, it must be
determined which of these should be used in design. In the U.K., for
example, it is usually the maximum hours flow during a seven day August
traffic census.
In South Africa………./

In South Africa on rural highways the D.H.V. is assumed to be the 30th highest
hourly volume of the future year chosen for design, i.e. the hourly volume exceeded
only during 29 hours of that year. This figure is obtained by plotting the following
graph:
24
20
(% of A.A.D.T.)
Hourly volume
16
12
0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Number of hours in year with traffic volume greater than that shown
Figure 2.1
Experience has shown that the D.H.V. is usually between 12 and 18% of the
A.A.D.T. and a figure of 15% is normally adopted unless shown to be different by
actual counting.
2.5. Capacity of the Road
Capacity is the ability of the road to carry traffic under given circumstances.
It is defined as the maximum number of vehicles which have a reasonable
expectation of passing a given point per hour. A publication called
"Highway Capacity Manual"(which is based on data collected throughout the
U.S.A.), distinguishes between the following:
(a) Basic capacity - maximum number of P.C.U.'s that can pass a given point
per hour under the most ideal roadway and traffic conditions. This can only
be achieved in the following ideal conditions:
i) two lanes in each direction
ii) all vehicles move at the same speed
iii) there are practically no commercial vehicles
iv) there are no geometric restrictions like inadequate sight distances.
A freeway having 4 lanes or more will meet the above criteria and a suggested value
of 2000 P.C.U.'s per lane per hour can be achieved on this type of facility.

Possible capacity
When roadway and traffic conditions are ideal, the possible capacity is the same
as the basic capacity. However, conditions are rarely ideal; the possible capacity
is defined as the maximum number of P.C.U.’s that can pass a given point
during one hour under prevailing roadway and traffic conditions.
(b) Practical capacity (Design capacity)
This is the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a given point during one
hour under specified conditions without increasing the traffic density (the number
of number vehicles per kilometer at any instant) to such an extent that undue
accumulation, delay, danger and other limitations are created.
The following values recommended by “Highway Capacity Manual” can be used

as a guide:
Practical capacity for 2 lane two-way road – 900 p/h.
Practical capacity for 3 lane two-way road – 1500 p/h.

(based on operating speeds of 70-80km/h)
The factors affecting capacity can be considered under two headings namely:
(a) The prevailing road conditions
(b) The prevailing traffic conditions
HOW DO THESE PREVAILING ROAD AND TRAFFIC CONDITIONS AFFECT THE ROAD
CAPACITY:
2.6. Road conditions

i. Lane width – lane widths of 3.65m are accepted as being the minimum necessary
for heavy traffic volumes.
ii. Shoulders – inadequate shoulder widths decrease the effective width of the road and
also mean that emergency stops must be made on the carriageway, thus reducing
capacity.
iii. Side obstructions – vertical obstructions such as poles, retaining walls and bridge
abutments within 1.75m from the road edge reduce the effective width.
iv. Geometric features – long, steep gradients result in inadequate sight distance and
hence reduced capacity.
v. Intersections – the capacity of certain rural and suburban roads, and the majority of
urban streets are influenced by the traffic restriction imposed by closely spaced at-
grade intersections.
2.7. Traffic conditions
Unlike the physical features of the road which are fixed and have definite measurable
effects on traffic flows, the prevailing traffic conditions vary from one hour to another.
Hence the flows at any given time depend on the speeds of vehicles, the composition
of the traffic and the manner in which the vehicles interact in addition to the road
conditions mentioned above.

Figure 2.2: Traffic Conditions
A D
B E
C F

As the concentration of vehicles on a given road tends towards zero the flow must tend
towards zero. On the other hand, when the concentration is very high, vehicles
travelling in a given direction are in a saturated condition representing an almost
impossible operating condition so that the flow again tends towards zero. At some
concentration value between the two extremes, the flow is a maximum value which can
be described as the ultimate capacity of the road.
The following figure 2.3 shows the relationship between speed and volume. (Volume is
defined as the number of vehicles per hour).
Traffic Movement Features:
From this figure the following very basic features relating to traffic movement are
identified:
(i) The portion ABCD called the zone of normal conditions represents the situation
where free driving occurs. If a single vehicle for example, travels along a traffic
lane, the driver is free to travel at the design speed and he is subjected only to
speed limit restrictions. This situation is represented at the upper left end of the
figure at approximately 110 Km/h.
As the number of vehicles in the lane increases, the driver's freedom to select
speed is restricted by the other vehicles, resulting in a progressive reduction in
speed.
The higher the standard of geometric design, the more free are the driving
conditions and the flatter the curve ABCD.
(ii) The portion F is called the zone of conditions within which the average speeds are
much lower and the vehicles move under conditions of forced driving. A decrease

in speed under these conditions is associated with a decrease in traffic flow, and
the shape of the curve depends on the interaction between vehicles. Because the
concentration is very high so that vehicles are affected by those in front, the curve F
is relatively independent on the standard of geometrical design.
(iii) The Portion E called the zone of unstable conditions. In this zone flows are very
high but the driving conditions are very unstable i.e. it is possible for vehicles to be
moving freely and then, under the influence of some restricting factor, the flow
volume will decrease substantially and may even stop. Within this zone traffic
conditions seldom remain sufficiently stable to obtain reliable survey figures during
measurement of traffic flows which is why the ultimate capacity (E) is not chosen for
design, but rather some point about C.
TRAFFIC FLOW THEORY AND CONTROL

To be able to plan and exercise proper control over traffic, it is necessary to have a
basic understanding of traffic flow theory. Traffic flow theory is concerned with the
application of the laws of mathematics, probability theory and physics to the
description of traffic behaviour. The analysis of traffic stream flow gives the designer
more understanding of the capacity limitations of roadways. The fundamental
characteristics of traffic stream flow are flow, speed and density.
a) Flow variables
i) Flow - is the rate at which vehicles pass a point on a roadway and is

expressed in vehicles per unit time.
ii) Time headway - is the time between successive vehicles passing a

point and is expressed in seconds.
iii) Average time headway - is the average of all headway times

b) Speed variables
i) Time mean speed - is the speed on a roadway based on the

average of the individual speeds of all the vehicles in the sample.
ii) Travel time - is the length of time it takes an individual to traverse a

given length of roadway.
c) Density variables
iii) Density - is the concentration of vehicles on a roadway. (veh/km)
iv) Space headway - is the distance between front bumpers of successive

vehicles at a given instant in time.
Traffic stream flow is defined in terms of its three (3) variables and this
relationship is expressed as follows:
flow = density x speed

Graphically, the relationship can be expressed as follows:
2
3
Figure 2.4: Flow, speed and density
1. Parabolic Model ; 2. Greenberg Model and 3. Logarithmic Modal

SPEED STUDIES
There are three distinct types of speeds that will describe the rate of movement of
traffic on roads.
1) Mean journey speed
2) Mean running speed
3) Instantaneous or spot speed
1) Mean journey speed

This is the distance travelled divided by the total time taken to complete the distance.
The total time includes both running time and the time when the vehicle is at rest i.e.
traffic signals, etc. This is mainly used to measure traffic congestion and the
adequacy or inadequacy of roads.
This type of speed can be measured by noting the time of passing of vehicles at
two or more points on the route either by recording registration numbers or putting
stickers on the windscreens.
2) Mean running speed

This is defined as the average speed maintained over a given route while the
vehicle is in motion. The times when the vehicle is at rest are not taken into
account. This is mainly used for capacity determinations. It is measured in the
same way as the mean journey speed except that all periods of time when the
vehicle is stationary are deducted from the total journey time.
3) Instantaneous or spot speed

This is the speed of a vehicle at one particular instant of time. They can be used
to determine the effect of traffic flow constrictions at intersections and bridges.
Spot speed checks at ideal sections of roads are indicative of the speeds desired
by motorists and can be used for geometric design purposes on improved or new
facilities.
Various methods are used to determine spot speed checks. Direct-timing using
two reference points on the road and timing the vehicle passing the one to the
other by means of stopwatches. Other means are: pressure-contact strips, radar
speedmeter, time lanse camera, etc.

DELAY STUDIES
Delay studies are carried out in conjunction with studies determining running and
journey speeds. They are of considerable value to the planner as it enables him
to pinpoint locations where conditions are unsatisfactory as well as determining
the reasons for and extent of the delays. The information can be used to indicate
the urgency or need for improvement and the extent to which the improvement
should, be carried out.
Types of Delays
(i) Fixed Delays

This occurs mainly at roadway intersections and is a result of a fixed traffic
condition. Fixed delays will result whether the road is crowded or not. Typical
examples are traffic signals, railway crossings, roundabouts, etc.
(ii) Operational Delay

This is a reflection of the interacting effects of traffic on the roads. It is
commonly caused by parking and unparking of vehicles, by pedestrians,
vehicles crossing unmanned intersections and also by stalling in a stream of
traffic. Internal friction within traffic streams when vehicle volumes are in
excess of capacity results in congestion which is operational delay.
Methods of Measurement
The moving observer method is used in determining the cause and extent of delay.
Before starting the experiment a survey of the route is made and a journey log is
prepared. A test vehicle moves along the route and all locations, stopping times,
starting times, are noted. By analysing the log it is easy to pinpoint the locations and
extent of delays. This method however does not always provide sufficient information
by itself on which remedial action can be based.

PARKING LAYOUT AND DESIGN
General
The provision of adequate parking is an essential element of the transportation system

in the world's cities. The provision of parking can take many formats, and is governed
by results from studies to determine the areas of demand. Sometimes, parking
facilities are provided as an integral part of a new construction or development, or it
can be provided on the outskirts of the CBD and then connected by a public transit
feeder system (Park and Ride, etc). Some of the many factors that influence the
location of parking are inherent shortfalls, origin and destination of parkers, walking
distances, access, economic factors, etc.
There is also a distinction between short and long term parking. Short term parking is
generated by shops, banks, recreation centres, etc whilst long term parking is mostly
generated by places of employment.
Capacity on streets surrounding the parking facility should be adequate to handle the
additional generated traffic.
On-Street Parking
This term applies to the situation where part of the roadway is utilized for the purposes
of parking. Vehicles are accommodated next to the kerb line either in a parallel or
angled fashion. For angled parking, the effect that parked vehicles have on through
traffic must be considered, especially if roadway dimensions are limited.
Off-Street Parking
This term applies to the accommodation of vehicles in at-grade parking lots or parking
garages. The accessibility, circulating, parking, unparking and exiting are important
factors in both the location and design of these facilities.
i) Surface Parking
The following characteristics are important design considerations:
a) Site characteristics - the topography and profile will especially influence entry
and exit points.
b) Traffic circulation - access to and from parking bays must be consistent with the
orderly movement of traffic in and around the facility.
c) Lighting - considerations are positioning and intensity.
d) Parking dimensions and layout - governed by type of vehicle and available
space.
e) Handicapped parking - must be properly positioned and user only.
f) Drainage - stormwater considerations.

ii) Parking garages
Although very expensive, they do provide for a viable alternative where space is
limited. Governing factors are:
a) Site characteristics - The topography could allow entry on more than one
level which will affect interfloor travel.
b) Access points - these are more critical than for surface street parking,
because of the availability of more parking spaces.
c) Major use of the facility - whether it be long or short term or for special
events. These will especially influence exit design.
d) Interfloor travel system - many designs are used, depending on available
space and finance.
Straight one-way ramps Helical one-way ramps

Split level design at each end
e) Lighting - must aid safety of movement.

f) Traffic and revenue control systems – must be efficient with minimum
delay to user.
g) Safety - user and vehicle must be protected against crime and vandalism.
h) Fire protection - adequate provisions must be made in layout and design.
Conclusion
There are many more aspects of parking provision that need specialist
attention:
a) Special purpose and special event parking, like sport stadiums,
convention centres, museums, etc.
b) Change of mode facilities like airports, rail stations, bus stations, etc.
c) Shopping centres
d) Industrial sites
e) Universities and Technikons
f) Hospitals
Consideration must also be given to parking regulations where public parking is
concerned. These include matters like time allocation, cost, zoning, policing,
etc.

TRAFFIC SAFETY
In general, traffic accidents are caused by failure of one of the elements of the system:
the driver, the vehicle or the roadway conditions. Of these, the driver is mostly at fault.
Solutions to traffic safety are based on the following actions:
Legislation - where laws governing the movement of traffic are laid down.
Regulation - where movement of traffic is controlled and traffic laws enforced.
Education - where the driver is made aware of the responsibilities of being a road
user.
Engineering - where safety is incorporated into the design and construction of
vehicles and roadways.
A new facility must be designed using all the existing data available together with
sound geometrical principles to ensure safe operation. Traffic engineers use data
from traffic accident studies in the following ways:
i) To identify high accident locations;

ii) To compare before and after data;
iii) To justify actions;
iv) To evaluate performance of devices and designs;
v) To develop changes in regulations and surveillance.
Since most accidents involve collisions, the problem areas which give rise to this
problem must be identified and the risk minimized. This involves study on aspects like
pedestrian - vehicle conflicts, vehicle - vehicle conflicts, shortfalls in geometry,
inadequate communications and roadside safety hazards.

Solutions
As far as pedestrian - vehicle conflict is concerned, the solution is not easy. Traffic
engineers generally design a facility with the efficient movement of traffic foremost in
their minds. Suitably placed pedestrian crossings with adequate signal timing must be
provided, or consideration given to overpasses or underpasses for the accommodation
of pedestrians.
Many vehicle-vehicle conflicts can be removed with the construction of highway
interchanges, but this is a costly and often impractical solution. Intersections require
that they be well designed and controlled, but the voluntary obedience of the driver is a
major factor towards safety.
Sound geometrical - layouts is essential for the safe functioning of traffic, and
designers must adhere to design standards and specifications. Conflict points like at-
grade rail and road crossings must be avoided, and sight distances should be
adequate at all times.
Communication problems can be minimized through proper provision of signals, road
markings and controlling devices.
Roadside hazards must be recognized and timeously attended to. Filling potholes,
repairing guardrails, replacing illegible road signs are all basic activities in the interest
of safety.
Traffic signs
There are three functional classes:
1) Regulatory signs - used to impose legal restrictions like “NO LEFT TURN”.
2) Warning signs - used to call attention to hazardous conditions like “SHARP
BEND AHEAD”.
3) Guide or informational signs - used to provide directions “CITY LEFT LANE”,
route designations “CAPE TOWN 290 km” or points of interest, recreational
or cultural sites.
Signal control
When justified and properly designed, a traffic signal installation will achieve the
following:
1) Reduce accidents;
2) Effect orderly traffic movement;
3) Provide for continuous flow;
4) Allow other vehicles and pedestrians to cross main traffic streams,
5) Control traffic more economically.
Traffic signals are introduced when certain criteria demands it. These criteria are
called warrants. Some examples of warrants are: vehicular volume, interruptions of
continuous traffic, pedestrian volume, school crossings, progressive movement and
accident data.

CHAPTER 3
GEOMETRIC DESIGN OBJECTIVES

1. Define Geometric Design
2. Define the term design speed; name the factors influencing design speed and
give typical values for design speeds in S.A.
3. Define the following terms:
a) sight distance b) super elevation
c) transition curve d) median
e) shoulder f) camber
g) intersection h) interchange
i) channellization j) weaving length
k) traffic lane l) outer separation
m) auxiliary lane n) climbing lane
o) road reserve p) ramp
q) road bed r) verge
s) carriageway t) freeway
4. Distinguish between stopping and passing sight distance and give the basis for
the determination of each.
5. State two reasons for widening certain carriageways on horizontal curves.
6. Describe five (5) factors controlling the length of vertical curves .
7. Give reasons why it is desirable to have side slopes as flat as possible.
8. State the constructional requirements for a typical concrete pavement.
9. Indicate the cross sectional elements of a dual carriageway on a sketch.
10. Describe and illustrate six (6) purposes of channelization.
11. List the factors that will affect junction layouts.
12. Distinguish between:
a) rotary and channelized intersections.
b) cloverleaf and directional interchanges.
General
Students must be familiar with the processes and techniques involved in:
a) the determination and application of super elevation.
b) the calculation of full setting out data for horizontal curves, with or without
transitions.
c) the setting out data for parabolic vertical curves .
d) the designing of the alignment of a road.

CHAPTER 3
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
3.1. Definition
Geometric design is concerned with relating the visible physical elements of the
road, like alignment, gradients, sight distances, cross sectional elements and
intersection layouts, to the requirements of the driver and vehicle. As such it does
not include the structural design of the facility.
Features which have to be considered in geometric design are in other words

mainly the horizontal and vertical curvature. The design of those features is, in
turn, influenced by driver behaviour, vehicle characteristics, and traffic speeds and
volumes.
A sound geometric design will reduce the number and severity of accidents, while
ensuring a high traffic capacity with the minimum of delay to vehicles. Attention
must also be given to environmental and aesthetic aspects of the road. When
geometric design is improperly carried out it may result in early obsolescence of
the new road, with consequent economic loss.
3.2. Design Speed
This is the highest continuous speed that can be economically maintained with
safety when weather conditions are favourable, traffic density low and the design
features of the road are the governing conditions. It is a measure of the quality of
the road and has a direct effect on the design of vertical and horizontal curvature,
super-elevations, sight distances and gradients.
The choice of design speed is influenced mainly by the type of road, the
character of the terrain, traffic characteristics and economic considerations. On a
road carrying a large traffic volume for example a higher design speed is justified
compared to a less important road where the saving in traffic costs would not be
sufficient to offset the extra expenditures of high geometric design standards.
Except for mountain passes, the minimum length of a particular design speed
section shall not be less than 3.5 Km, preferably not less than 8Km. The change
in design speed should not be affected suddenly but over sufficient distance to
permit gradual change.

The following values are stipulated in S.A.:
(l) Freeways/Highways - 120 Km/h

(ii) Rural roads - 100 Km/h (normal)
- 60 Km/h (minimum in difficult terrain)
(iii) Urban roads - 0 - 80 Km/h (depending on type of road)
3.3. Sight Distances

3.3.1. Definition
It is the length of carriageway which is visible to the driver. There are two
different types, namely:
(i) Stopping sight distance - which is the distance required to stop the vehicle
before striking an unexpected object on the carriage way (using an eye
height of 1.05m and an object height of 0,15m in the case of vertical
curves);
(ii) Passing sight distance - which is the distance required to overtake safely
and comfortably without interfering with the speed of the oncoming
vehicle which travels at design speed, (using an eye height of 1,05m
and an object height of 1,3m in the case of vertical curves)
3.3.2. Basic Procedure to calculate stopping sight distance
It is based on the drivers perception and reaction time plus the distance required
by the vehicle to stop after application of the brakes. The perception and reaction
time is the number of seconds which elapses between the instant that the driver
sees the object and the instant that the brakes are applied. It obviously shows
considerable variation from one driver to another, but the following values are
recommended by AASTHO.
t = 1,5 secs in urban areas
t = 2,5 secs in rural areas
The distance travelled during this period is given by:

d1 = vt = 0,278 Vt
where v = design speed in m/sec
V = design speed in Km/h
d1 = meters
t = seconds

The braking distance (d2) depends on the initial speed, the coefficient of friction
and gradient. It is given by:
d
2
Where f = coefficient of friction

G = gradient (positive uphill and negative down-hill)
Then, total stopping sight distance:
L = d1 + d2
3.3.3. Basic procedure to calculate passing sight distance.
There are 4 components of the minimum distance required for safe

overtaking on two lane roads:
d1 d2 d3 d4
Dimension d1 represents the time taken or distance travelled by a vehicle

while the driver decides whether or not it is safe to pass.
Dimension d2 represents the distance travelled by the overtaking vehicle in

carrying out the actual passing manoeuvre.
Dimension d3 may be referred to as the safety dimension and is the

distance between the overtaking vehicle and the on-coming vehicle at the
instant when the former has returned to its own lane.
Dimension d4 is the distance travelled by the oncoming vehicle at the design

speed of the road while the actual overtaking occurs.

In practice however, tables are produced from which the minimum stopping
and passing sight distances can be obtained for various design speeds.
The following table shows values used by the Department of National
Roads (C.P.A. values in brackets)
Table 3.1:
Design
Minimum sight distance (m)
Speed
km/h Stopping Passing
120 210 840 (800)
110 180 770 (740)
100 155 700 (680)
90 135 630 (620)
80 115 560 (560)
70 95 490 (490)
60 80 420 (420)
Sight Distance on vertical curves
Sight distance is the major control for safe operation on a crest. The sight
distance should be as long as possible and above the minimum laid down
for the design speed, where-ever possible.
(a) Crests
See graph on next page
(b) Sags
The following criteria may determine the minimum curve length in the case
of sag curves:
i) Headlight sight distance The headlights are usually assumed to be

0,6m above road level and the light beam has an upward angle of
1
ii) Driving Comfort The comfort effect of change in vertical direction is
more pronounced in sag than on crest curves because gravitational
and centrifugal forces are supplementing each other in the former.
iii) Drainage Control may dictate in the case of a sag passing through,
cuttings.
iv) Sight distance and underpasses

Figure 3.1: Stopping sight distance on crest vertical curves
L = Curve lenth - meters DESIGN SPEED SIGHT DISTANCE

A = Algebraic grade difference - % km/h meters
S = sight distance - meters hjgd 50 50
V = design speed - km/h for "S" chf 60 80
When S>L WHEN S<L 70 95
80 115
90 135
100 155
120 210

3.4. Horizontal Alignment
3.4.1 Properties of a circular curve
Figure 3.2
Tangent length: T =
Chord length: GK =
Arc length: GHK =
Middle ordinate: M =
External distance: E =
Degree of curvature D =
The decree of curvature (D) is the central angle which subtends
a 100m arc of the curve.

Figure 3.3: Setting out of circular curves
Chord deflection angle: _______________1
If the chords do not exceed in length, then the length of the chord may be approximated to the
length of the corresponding arc.
Since arc length = RD (D in radians)

Hence
___________2
Hence 1 and 2:
To convert the chord deflection angle to deg ( , min(‘) and sec (“), multiply by .

Widening of Carriageway on Horizontal curves
On horizontal curves of a relatively short radius, a carriageway is usually

widened for 2 main reasons:
(i) Additional width is required on sharp curves because the rear wheels of
the vehicle follow a path of shorter radius than the front wheels,
especially in the case of commercial vehicles. Thus, in order to provide
the same clearance between opposing vehicles on curve sections as on
the straight sections, there must be an extra width of carriageway
available.
(ii) There is a psychological demand for more clearance to direct a fast

moving vehicle safely around a bend.
The amount of widening will depend on the lane width and the radius of the
curve. On modern highways with their high standards of design the need
for widening has lessened. For example, National Roads specify no
widening on a carriageway having a width of 7,4m or more. A standard
additional width of 0,6m is specified for 6,8m wide carriageway on curves
with radii less than 150m (C. P. A.).
The following points are of concern regarding the widening procedure:
(i) On simple circular curves the total widening is applied to the inside
edge.
(ii) Where transition curves are provided, widening may be placed on the
inside or divided equally between the inside and outside edges. If
either case the centre line marking should be placed in the middle.
(iii) The extra width should be attained gradually. Where transition curves
are used widening is attained over the whole length of the transition,
and where there is no transition curve, widening is commenced at the
beginning of the application of superelevation and increased uniformly
to maximum value at full attainment of superelevation.
(iv) The edges of the road must form smooth and graceful curves.
3.4.2 Transition Curves

The function of a transition curve is to enable fast moving. vehicles to
change from a straight section to the curved section safely and comfortably.
If the transition curve is introduced properly the centrifugal force on the
vehicle will increase gradually as it enters the curve.
The essential requirement of any transition curve is that its radius of

curvature should decrease gradually from infinity at the tangent to the
radius of the circular curve.
Various forms of curves are used for this purpose, each having its own
special advantages. The most common of these are:
(a) the spiral

(b) the cubic parabola.
In practice there is little difference between the results obtained from them.
Transition curves should be used on all major roads whore there is a

significant change in horizontal curvature. Obviously there is less need for
transitions as curves become flatter, because at some point the difference
between curves with and without transition lengths is so small that the
transition curve has little significance.
National Roads for example specify that transition curves be used on all
horizontal curves where R < 250m and all curves where e = >6%. They
further specify a minimum transition length of 30m (100m desirable).

Deflection Angle
Circular
Curve
Transition
Curve
1.
2.
3. Total Curve Length (
4. Deflection angle
5. Length of circular arc =
6. Spiral angle total

(Where is the deflection angle from the tangent at the BTC to the
ETC/BCC)
7.

Example:
Calculate the setting our data for a transition curve of length 80m. The radius of the
circular curve is 500m and the deviation angle is 27°. P.I. chainage is 1,500m. Use
10m intervals on the transitions and 25m intervals on the curve.
Solution
1. = = 0.533
2. Tangent Length: = (500 + 0.533)tan
= 160.167m
3. Total Curve Length:
= (500 x 27 x ) + 80
= 315.619m
4.
= 315.619-2(80)
= 155.619
Chainages:
PI 1,500.000 * Check
T.L. -160.167 BTC 1339.833
BTC 1,339.833 LT +315.619
LS -80.000 1655.452
BCC 1,419.833
LC /2 +77.810 OK
CP 1,497.643
LC /2 +77.810
ECC 1,575.453
LS +80.000
ETC 1,655.453 *

SETTING OUT DATA (THEODOLITE @ BTC – CH 1,339.833)
PEG CHORD LENGTH TOTAL DEFLECTION
PI - - 00.00.00
1340 0.167 0.167 00.00.00
1350 10.000 10.167 00.01.29
1360 10.000 20.167 00.05.50
1370 10.000 30.167 00.13.02
1380 10.000 40.167 00.23.07
1390 10.000 50.167 00.36.03
1400 10.000 60.167 00.51.51
1410 10.000 70.167 01.10.31
BCC 1419.833 9.833 80.000 01.31.40
Theodolite at BCC – CH 1,419.833
PEG CHORD LENGTH CHORD DEFL. TOTAL DEFLECTION
BCC TANGENT 00.00.00

1425 5,167 00.17.46 00.17.46
1450 25,000 01.25.57 01.43.43
1475 25,000 01.25.57 03.09.40

CP 1497,643 22,643 01.17.50 04.27.30
1500 2,357 00.08.06 04.35.36
1525 25,000 01.25.57 06.01.33
1550 25,000 01.25.57 07.27.30
1575 25,000 01.25.57 08.53.27
ECC 1575,453 0,453 00.01.33 08.55.00 *
CHECK: = 3 (01.31.40)
= 04.35.00
Total deflection must be =
= 08.55.00 * OK

To complete the setting out data, the theodolite will now be moved to the ETC
and the deflections calculated anti-clockwise. i.e., from 360' on the instrument.
Theodolite @ ETC - CH 1655,453
PEG CHORD LENGTH Total cord length
PI - - 360.00.00
1650 5,453 5,453 359.59.34

1640 10,000 15,453 359.56.35
1630 10,000 25,453 359.50.43
1620 10,000 35,453 359.41.59
1610 10,000 45,453 359.30.24

1600 10,000 55,453 359.15.57
1590 10,000 65,453 358.58.31

1580 10,000 75,453 358.38.24
1575,453 4,547 80,000 358.28.20
Exercise
Calculate the full setting out data for the following curve:
i) Curve to the left

ii) Radius = 450m
iii) Deflection angle 25° 10’ 20”
iv) Transition length = 80m
v) P.I. chainage = 5,194.000m
Use 20m intervals throughout

3.4.3 Superelevation
When a vehicle travels around a curve of constant radius at constant speed, it exerts
radially an outward force known as “Centrifugal force”. This Centrifugal force (ρ) can be
represented by, ρ = Wv2/gR. It acts horizontally at the centre of gravity of the vehicle
and its load. The forces acting on the vehicle are
a) the centrifugal force acting radially outwards,
b) the weight of the vehicle acting vertically downwards,
c) the upward reaction of the road on the vehicle.
If the road surface if flat, the entire centrifugal force must be counteracted by the
friction between the wheels and road surface. For this reason it is common practice
to incline the road, i.e .the road is said to be superelevated. For practical reasons
the superelevation (e) provided is not sufficient to counteract the entire centrifugal
force, so that there is still some friction on the tyres when travelling at design speed.
Considering the equilibrium of a vehicle of mass (M), moving at a speed of m/s

around at the bend of radius R.

By adopting a realistic value for the friction factor, µ. the required
superelevation rate, e, can be calculated for various speeds and curve radii.
There is a limit to the maximum rate of superelevation used in practice. This
limit is necessary to prevent slow moving (or stationary) vehicles from sliding
inwards during slippery (wet) conditions. The minimum value for e is 0.04 (4%)
and the maximum value is normally in the order of 0,12 (12%).
For practical design purposes, curves or tables are drawn up from which the
required superelevation rate is selected for a given design speed and curve
radius.

Figure 3.3: Superelevation rates for horizontal curves
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
SUPERELEVATION RATE %
Design Speed (km/h) 40 60 80 100 120

Run-off factor, D
Class 1 5.2 6.3 7.4 8.5 9.6
Class 2 4.8 5.8 6.8 7.8 8.8
Classes 3 and 4 4.4 5.3 6.2 7.1 8.0
PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF SUPERELEVATION
Right-hand circular curve of radius 500m is introduced on a road of width 7,4m and
design speed 100 km/h. Use 30m intervals and take e= 9. Determine the levels of
the L.S and R.S. relative to the centre line when:
a) the normal cross fall of the road is 2% to the left,
b) the road is cambered at 2%.
c) the normal cross fall of the road is 2% to the right.
L.S
2%
B.C.C
7.4 m
CL
R.S
PLAN VIEW L.S
e%
R.S
CL
RUNOFF LENGTH L
L.S
2% 2%
B.C.C
7.4 m
L
C
R.S
PLAN VIEW L.S
e%
R.S
L
C
L
C
RUNOFF LENGTH L TUTORIAL –

L.S
2%
B.C.C
7.4 m
CL
R.S
PLAN VIEW L.S
e%
R.S
CL
RUNOFF LENGTH L
SUPERELEVATION EXERCISES
1. From the given data, calculate the levels of the centre line, left and right hand sides of the road at
20m intervals. (Include all other points of importance).
Given:
Curve radius = 460m (Curve to the left )
Design speed = 120 km/h
Road width = 7,6m
Road class = II
Reduced level of BCC = 50,35m on Centre line
Longitudinal gradient = -4,2%
Chainage of BCC = 1250m
Initial road X-fall = 2.5% L – R
2. A right handed circular curve of radius 600m is introduced on a class I road of width 7.4m and a
design speed of 110 km/h. Provide the necessary superelevation and hence determine the levels of
the centre line, left and right hand sides of the road if the road is initially cambered at 2,25%. The
BCC chainage is at 400m and the reduced centre line level there is 155.45m. The road has a
longitudinal grade of +1.95 %. Produce levels at 20m intervals up to the chainage where full
superelevation is developed, including all other points of importance.
3. Use a superelevation of 8,45% and a runoff = 90m to provide levels to the Right , Centre and Left of
a 7,5m wide road with the following data:
- curve to the left

- initial x-fall R to L = 3.33%
- road width = 7,5m
- BVC stake value= 710m, BVC level = 86,130m
- EVC stake value = 770m, EVC level = 87,759m
- PIVC stake value = 740, PIVC level = 89,340m
- BCC stake value = 755m
Tabulate your results and produce levels at 15m intervals up to the point where full superelevation is
developed.

Tutorial
A vertical curve is superimposed on a horizontal curve, for which superelevation must be provided.
Use the information given below to prove that G2 = 2.43% and hence determine the full
superelevation setting out data for the road.
Given:
curve to the left
run-off length = 225m
e = 7,75%
initial cross fall = 2,3% L > R
road width = 7,35m
PIVC is at chainage 200m with G1 = -3,38%
PIVC level = 66,39m
Vertical curve length = 200m
BCC chainage = 240m
BCC level = 65,602
interval = 25m
[27]

3.5 SETTING OUT DATA - VERTICAL CURVES
A simple parabolic curve is usually employed:
Figure 3.4: Setting out data of vertical curves
where A is the algebraic grade difference, (G 1-G2)
Notes:
i) The curve length is measured horizontally i.e. as it would be viewed in plan,

ii) The PIVC always falls on a chainage interval (or a half-chainage interval) and is furthermore placed
symmetrically in the curve. (non-symmetrical placings will be dealt with in future courses).
Example:
An upgrade of 2,54% meets a downgrade of 1,83% at chainage 400m, with the PIVC level = 1,586.32.
Calculate the setting out data at 20m intervals, for a curve length of 120m..
Solution:
BVC chainage = 400 - 60 = 340m
BVC elevation = 1586.32 - .0254 x 60 = 1584.796m
EVC chainage = 400 + 60 = 460m
EVC elevation = 1586.32 - .0183 x 60 = 1585.222m
Tangent elevation Final road elevation

Chainage
340 1584.796 1584.796
360 1585.304 1585.231
380 1585.812 1585.521
400 1586.320 1585.665
420 1586.828 1585.663
440 1587.336 1585.515
460 1587.844 1585.222

3.6.1 Median (central reservation)
The function of the median is:
1) Safety
2) To decrease the effect of headlight glare. If vegetation is used on the
median for this purpose, it is necessary to keep horizontal sight distance
requirements in mind.
3) To provide space for safe turning operations at intersections.
4) Provide shelter in case of emergencies.
It has been proved that the wider the median the greater the reduction in
serious head-on collisions, and the more effective the reduction in headlight
glare.
It need not be of constant width and can be varied in order to obtain a safe,
pleasing and economical design to fit the topography.
3.6.2 Shoulders
This is the portion, of roadway alongside the carriageway for:
1) Accommodation of stopped vehicles
2) Emergency use
3) For lateral support of the pavement layers and surface area
4) For increasing effective width of the road
5) For providing improved sight distance.
Shoulders must be capable of supporting vehicles under all weather conditions. On

certain rural highways they are surfaced in which case they must be clearly marked
to prevent them from being used as a regular traffic Iane for which they are riot
designed.]
Shoulder widths on class l (C.P.A.) roads are to be 2,4m wide. An additional width
of 0,6m is then specified for rounding off and guard rails.
3.6.3 Camber and Cross-slope

The term camber is used in road engineering to describe the convexity of the
carriageway's cross-section. The object is to drain water and to avoid ponding on
the road surface. Average cross slopes vary between 2% and 2,5%.
C.P.A. specifies: "A straight line cross fall from the crown shall be used as follows:
gravel surfaces 3%, bitumen surfaces 2%; concrete surfaces 1,25%

TYPICAL ROAD SECTION
VERGE ROAD PRISM VERGE
USABLE SHOULDER SHOULDER LAYER SHOULDER BREAK POINT
FORMATION WIDTH
SHOULDER ROUNDING
SHOULDER TRAVELLED WAY SHOULDER FORMATION LEVEL
LIMIT OF STABILITY
SURFACING
BASE
PAVEMENT
SUBBASE
SELECTED LAYER
TOP SOIL
FILL
SUBGRADE
ROADBED
CUT
Figure 3.5: A TYPICAL ROAD SECTION

3.6.4 Traffic Lanes
The number of traffic lanes to be used depends on the volume and type of traffic
expected. C.P.A. for example states that: "A dual carriageway is warranted for
average present day counts in excess of 2000 e.v.u's per day."
The following widths are specified by C.P.A.(Cape Town Provincial Administration)
Useable Shoulder
Road Class evu's per day Carriageway width width
I 500 - 2000 7,4m 2,4m
II 150 - 500 6,8m 1,8m
3.6.5 Side Slopes

The factors which will affect side slopes are:
1. The type of material involved.
2. The efficiency of drainage control.
3. The type of surface treatment to be applied.
The following general values are specified by C.P.A.
(a) Fill - sand 1:2
Others 1 : l½
(b) Cut - sand 1:2
Others 1 : 1½
Rock 1:¼
These are general guide-lines only and where uncertainty occurs the max. slope
must be calculated by soil mechanics procedures. Slopes in cuttings are often
governed by the dip of geological layers and possibility of land-slides.
The protection of slopes against erosion must receive attention. The policy on rural
roads in this respect is to establish, as far as possible, indigenous growth. Long
slopes are broken by introducing terraces (berms) to reduce water speed.

In recent years slopes have, in general, been flattened for the following reasons:
(i ) To provide for safer operation
Steep slopes on fills create a serious accident hazard. Experience has

shown that, on slopes of 4 :1 a vehicle can often be directed hack onto the
road or prevented from overturning. Steep slopes on gutter ditches create
similar hazards so that AASHO standards now demand flat in-slopes on
the roadway side of such ditches and at the top of fill slopes.
Flat fill slopes have the added advantage that they are visible from the
vehicle for their full extent so that the road takes on a safer appearance
and hence the effective width is increased.
(ii) To Facilitate Plant Growth and to Reduce erosion
Even though some soils will be self-supporting on very steep slopes, they
will erode badly, thus creating serious environmental problems. It is also
difficult to grow vegetation on them.
(iii) To decrease maintenance Costs
The saving in original excavation and embankment costs may be more

than offset by the increase in maintenance over the design life of the road.
3.6.6 Sidewalks
The foundation soil under a concrete sidewalk must be properly specified and
prepared. The following is a typical specification (used by NMBM)
a) Minimum thickness : 70mm

b) Width : 2m
c) Method : alternative panels 2m long
d) Foundation : 93% mod AASHO
e) Expansion joints : every 8m, 12mm thick, bitumen impregnated
“Flexcell”
Definitions (C. P. A. )
(a) Traffic Lane - it's the portion of the surfaced width, for the movement of a
single line of vehicles.
(b) Outer separation - portion of an arterial highway between the outer

carriageway edge and inner edge of service street.

(c) Auxiliary lane - Portion of the roadway adjacent to the through-carriageway for
parking, speed change or other purpose supplementary to the through traffic
movement.
(d) Road Reserve - that area of land reserved for construction and maintenance of
the road, including areas for interchanges.
(e) Climbing Lane - an extra lane provided in the upgrade direction to

accommodate heavy, slow moving vehicles.
(f) Road-bed - the area extending from kerb line to kerb line or shoulder break-
point to shoulder break-point. Dual carriageway roads are considered to have
one road bed only.
(g) Verge - the area between the road reserve boundary and the road prism.
(h) Carriageway - the portion of the roadway for the movement of vehicles
exclusive of shoulders.
(i) Freeway - It is a road of high geometric design features, with two or more lanes
in each direction, for the accommodation of fast flowing traffic, without any at
grade intersections at right angles to it, and with velocity change lanes provided
so that traffic can enter or leave without interfering with the through-traffic.

3.7 Intersections
3.7.1 Definitions
Interchange - a system of interconnecting roadways in conjunction with grade

separations providing for the interchange of traffic between two or more intersecting
roadways.
Intersection - general area where two or more roads join or cross at-grade.
Channelization - the separation or regulation of conflicting traffic movements into

definite travel paths by the use of road markings, raised islands, or other suitable
means to facilitate the safe and orderly movements of both vehicles and
pedestrians.
Ramp - a connecting roadway between two intersecting highways at an

interchange.
Speed change lane - an auxiliary lane, including tapered areas, primarily for the
acceleration or deceleration of vehicles entering or leaving the main traffic lanes.
3.7.2. Junction layout
Junction layout is a very important aspect of geometric design since the overall
capacity of any road network is limited by the capacity of its various intersections.
The aim of any junction layout is to provide for the safe movement of traffic without
undue delay. Various alternative layouts can be adopted and the ultimate choice will
be governed by:
i) Nature and volume of traffic

ii) Availability of land
iii) Relative importance of traffic volumes form different directions
iv) Effect of pedestrians
v) Safety of traffic
vi) Overall cost
vii) Possible need of future extensions

3.7.3 At-grade intersections
Intersections can occur in a multiple of shapes. The following diagrams
schematically portray typical intersections at-grade, ranging from simple to
complex.
UNCHANELIZED T FLARED T T WITH TURNING ROADWAYS
UNCHANELIZED Y Y WITH TURNING ROADWAYS
3 -LEG INTERSECTIONS
FLARED CHANNELIZED
4-LEG INTERSECTIONS

Multi-leg intersection
Rotary intersection
The unchannelized intersections are normally cheapest and least elaborate.

"Flared" designs involve widening of entering and exit lanes to provide for
deceleration and acceleration. Channelized designs are intended to direct
approaching drivers to the correct lanes. (The purposes of channelization are
listed later.)
A careful traffic count and estimate for the future, including data regarding each
turning movement, must precede the design of any important intersection. In
laying out intersections, characteristics of driver and vehicle and the possibility of
accidents must be kept in mind. Drivers should not be confronted with more than
one decision at a time.
Sufficient visibility in both directions is essential to allow adequate time to make

the turning movement and accelerate to the design speed with safety.

3.7.4 Channelization
Channelization is the separation of traffic streams into definite travel paths to
control vehicle movements at intersections. This results in increased capacity,
improved traffic-flow conditions and decreased vehicular accidents.
Channelization may be achieved by means of colour differences, surface textures,

kerbings, raised islands or guard rails.
Among the more important purposes of channelization are the following:
(a) (b) (c)
One way
(d) (e) (f)
1. By channelization vehicles can be confined to definite paths. When drivers, or

pedestrians, have free choice of routes through large all-paved intersections,
their actions cannot be predicted by others, thus creating confusion and
congestion.
2. The angle between intersecting streams of traffic can be made more

favourable, thereby reducing the number and severity of accidents, (fig. a).
3. Drivers can be forced to merge into moving traffic at flat angles and proper
speeds, thus causing less disruption to traffic or decrease in capacity on the
main throughfare (See fig. b).
4. Speed control can be established over vehicles entering an intersection, either

by bending the traffic stream (fig c), or by funneling the vehicles into a
narrowing opening (fig d).
5. To restrict undesired turning movements (fig e).
6. Refuge may be provided for turning or crossing vehicles, (fig f).
7. By channelization, points of conflict may be separated in such a way that the

driver faces only one decision at a time.

3.7.5. Rotary intersections (traffic circles)
This is a special form of channelization. In this case vehicles are all forced in one
direction and the efficiency and capacity of the circle is a function of the individual
weaving lengths.
They offer distinct advantages like:
(i) Little delay to traffic because there is no stopping,
(ii) Fewer serious accidents because vehicles are forced to move in the same
direction, and
(iii) they are specially suitable where 5 or more roads merge.
Disadvantages :
They do, however, require greater land area, and there is also an upper limit to the
traffic volume which a given circle can handle. This volume depends on the
weaving lengths, and as soon as this capacity is exceeded, the circle tends to
create chaos. The American "Policy on Design of Urban Highways" states that a
properly designed channelized intersection will usually operate better while costing
less.

3.8 Grade separated intersections (INTERCHANGES)
3 8.1. Introduction
Compared with at-grade intersections, they usually require large initial capital
layouts. The following are however examples of situations where this extra
expenditure is normally justified.
(i) on freeways - where undisturbed flow of traffic at high speed is required.
(ii) to eliminate existing bottlenecks - where an at-grade intersection is no longer

capable of carrying the increased traffic volume.
(iii) safety considerations - some at-grade intersections are accident prone due
to, for example, it’s location regardless of the traffic volume.
(iv) Railway crossings.
(v) Economic considerations - overcrowded at-grade intersections may incur

considerable economic losses in the form of fuel costs, tyres, accident
repairs, as well as road user costs.
3.8.2. Layouts
Geometric design of interchanges involves selecting the layout best suited to the
particular situation, considering factors such as:
i) topography
ii) nature and intensity of traffic
iii) land area available
iv) economic viability
v) design speeds to be maintained on ramps
vi) impact on environment.

The functions of interchanges are
(i) to provide grade separation between two or more traffic arteries, and
(ii) to enable the easy transfer of vehicles from one artery to the other, or
between local streets and the freeway.
The simplest, and generally least costly form of interchange is the diamond. It is
particularly useful to situations where a freeway crosses a non-freeway.
Probably the most common interchange where freeways intersect arterials is the
cloverleaf. There are, however, several serious objections to this kind of
interchange, among them the following:
(i) They require large areas of land where high design speeds are used.
(ii) Vehicles deserving to make a right turn must execute a 270 left turn, thus
travelling a substantially greater distance.
(iii) A weaving-merging maneuvre is required between vehicles leaving one off-

ramp and others approaching the next on-ramp. Where traffic volumes are
large, the weaving sections must be long.
The latter disadvantage can be overcome by introducing collector-distributor roads

to one or both through roadways if the costs of added land, paving and structures
can be justified. With this design weaving and merging movements are separated.
Diamond
Cloverleaf

The partial cloverleaf is employed when the number of vehicles desiring to perform
a specific turning movement is too low to justify a ramp for that turn. It can be
developed in many forms with the loops in different quadrants to suit traffic
patterns.
Where one major freeway intersects another, it is normally justified to employ some
form of directional interchange. The basic concept here is that right-turning move-
ments are accommodated by a 90° turn to the right, as opposed to 270° to the left.
This also eliminates the weaving through opposing traffic encountered in a
cloverleaf type interchange.
The overall effectiveness of all interchanges are largely determined by the flow
characteristics of, and driver behaviour on, the on- and off-ramps. The deceleration
and acceleration lanes may be designed either as a taper or as an auxiliary lane
parallel to the main stream. In either case sufficient length must be provided to
permit the vehicle to accelerate and merge into the main stream without disrupting
it.

CHAPTER 4
ROUTE LOCATION OBJECTIVES
1. State, and briefly explain, the effect of four principles to be borne in mind
when locating a new route for a road.
2. Discuss the importance, execution and conclusion of each of the following:
a) Reconnaissance survey
b) Preliminary survey
c) Final location survey
3. Compare the relative merits of aerial and ground surveys.
4. State 4 uses for the information gathered during a subsurface exploration.
5. Name six methods of performing subsurface explorations.
6. Discuss the controlling factors that influence urban route location.
NMMU CTE 2311 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Page 67

CHAPTER 4
ROUTE LOCATION
4.1 Principles of Road Location
Some of the elements tend to contradict one another - in practice the location is
selected which represents the best compromised solution.
(a) The road should be as direct as possible - the following are examples of
elements which will influence this principle:
(i) favourable sites for river crossings;

(ii) possibility of landslides in hilly area;
(iii) avoid deep cuttings and extensive tunnel construction;
(iv) locate along the edges of properties as far as possible;
(v) avoid unnecessary destruction of forests and culture;
(vi) avoid cemetries, churches, hospitals, schools and playgrounds in
cases of highways;
(vii) best position for interchanges;
(viii) availability of insitu pavement materials;
(ix) avoid marshes and other low-lying areas subject to flooding;
(x) once the needs of all other factors have been satisfied, the best
location is the one which results in minimum total amount of
earthworks.
(b) Safety
This calls for a sound geometric design, for example:
(i) avoid sudden changes in sight distance;

(ii) keep gradients and curvature to a minimum;
(iii) do not have two roads intersecting near a bend or on top of a hill;
(iv) avoid at grade intersections with railways;
(v) adhere to geometric standards laid down governing width,
super elevations, sight distances and shoulders.
(c ) Economy
The design should allow traffic to move at maximum speed (design speed)
and minimum cost e.g. long steep gradients having no additional climbing
lanes for slow moving heavy vehicles reduce capacity of the road and
although initial capital lay-out is lower it will lead to high traffic costs making
it uneconomic compared to road having higher capital layout.
(d) Planning
Planning should be performed with the framework of the total

organisation of motor transport i.e. co-ordinate between authorities
(local) and provinces - strategic requirements.

4.2 Location surveys in rural areas
In general, the approach to selecting the route for a long road in a rural
area may follow the following procedure:
REGION A
B
D
END
END
TERMINAL G TERMINAL
C
F
(i) fix end-terminals

(ii) define region A (width 40 – 60% length of road) – which will include the
terminals and all conceivably feasible routes between them;
(iii) this region is searched and a number of broad bands (B & C) are selected
within which further search will be concentrated leading to…
(iv) selection of corridors D, E and F;
(v) comparison of corridors shows that E is best so route G is generated (1 –
1,5km wide)
(vi) search this area and locate within it one or more different alignments
containing minor geometric differences;
(vii) these alignments are compared and a final selection suitable for design
purposes is made.
To aid in the decision making process, the following typical approach was
developed to gather information about the area being evaluated.
(a) Reconnaissance survey;
(b) Preliminary survey;
(c) Final location survey.
A stereoscope - is an instrument which enables the observer to see a relief

model of the terrain covered, if two photographs of the same area, taken from
different stations, are properly oriented and viewed simultaneously.
(a) Reconnaissance survey – purpose is to evaluate the feasibility of one or

more possible routes. Good reconnaissance can be the greatest single
money saving phase of a construction of a new road.
Existing maps and aerial photos are the primary tools. Good progress has
been made in the field of photogrammetric and techniques have been
developed whereby earth quantities can be calculated from photos with the
aid of computers.

Reconnaissance begins with a "paper study" of an area of width 40 – 60%
length of the road. Terminals of the road and intermediate points through which
it must pass form the primary control points.
Marshy areas and favourable sites for bridges and fly-overs are potential fixed
points in the location while utility relocation problems may be anticipated.
Although above information can be obtained from maps and photos it is usually
necessary to go on a field trip to gain information regarding unusual topographic
features and sub-surface conditions.
Cost analyses are made of the alternative route and best general route
selected. The results of these studies are presented in a site report.
(b) Preliminary survey

Purpose is to collect all physical information which may affect the alignment.
Thus, within the established route area, the shape of the ground, limits of catch-
ment areas, positions and invert levels of streams and ditches and the position
of trees, bridges, existing roads, power lines, pipe lines and buildings are deter-
mined. These are then translated into maps and profiles which assist to
determine a preliminary alignment and to prepare an approximate cost estimate.
It can also be either an aerial or ground survey. Because the cost of an aerial
survey does not increase in direct relationship to the area covered, it is likely to
be more suitable and economical than a ground survey in cases of long roads.
It has the further advantage that it can be carried out without the landowners
knowledge, so avoiding controversy at a stage at which the precise route is
uncertain.
The first step is to carry out a base line traverse. This may simply be a series of
connecting straight lines. Curves are only measured in for large intersection
angles where the curve deviates greatly from the tangents. Angles between
connecting lines are measured and intersection points carefully referenced.
Levels are taken at each station and unusual ground conditions and B.M.'s are
established at suitable intervals.
From this information the preliminary map (strip map) is prepared showing the
base line and all planimetric details.
The selection of the final horizontal and vertical alignment depends mainly upon
the geometric design standards adopted and earthwork quantities.
(c) Final location survey

This survey serves the dual purpose of definitely fixing the Centre-line, while at
the same time outstanding physical data necessary for the preparation of
working drawings are collected. The following are the general features of this
survey. (some of these requirements may have already been satisfied during
previous surveys and need not be repeated):

(i) Pegging the centre-line - this is done with reference to the
preliminary traverse. Pegs are usually placed every ± 30m and at all
intersections and tangent pts, and carried forward continuously
through curves.
(ii) Centre-line levelling - profile levels are taken along the centre at each
station and at all intermediate points where there is any significant
change in slope. There should also be B.M.’s within 50m of each
structure along the road.
iii) Cross-sections - at each station.

(iii) Property lines - accurate position of property corners, fences and
buildings. Names of property owners affected.
(iv) Intersecting roads - directions, profiles and cross-sections of existing

roads which will be intersected should be taken for some distance on
both sides of centre line.
(v) Ditches and streams - stream bed profiles are taken for some
distance on both sides.
(vi) Special site surveys - include special surveys for bridges and
intersections.
4.3 Location surveys in urban areas

There are usually two phases
1) combination of reconnaissance and preliminary survey, and
2) final location survey.
The latter (final location survey) is similar to that described for a highway
location survey in a rural area, except it is usually more difficult to carry out due
to obstructions, sighting problems and traffic on roads.
The former is primarily an office base study with the aid of existing maps and
plans. It involves:
1) Determination of expected traffic load.
2) Selection of type of road and number of lanes.
3) Analysis and comparison of alternative location by making cost
estimates.
There are certain important controlling factors which influence the final location
of an urban roadway:
(i) Town planning considerations - town planning is concerned with the
present and future needs of the business, industrial, residential and
recreational elements. The road designer is actively participating in town
planning when locating a new facility and must sometimes be prepared to
bow to "non-engineering" needs where necessary.

(ii) Parking - parking problems and traffic congestion may be alleviated if a
new major route can be located as close as possible to existing or potential
parking areas.
(iii) Existing transportation systems - new facilities must be integrated with the
existing road system to obtain optimum usage. Equally important are other
transportation media like railways and harbours which may benefit from the
new route.
(iv) Existing public utilities - sufficient information regarding existing stormwater
pipes, sewer pipes, water, gas and electricity utilities are required.
4.4 Uses of Aerial Surveys
Photogrammetry - is the science of obtaining measurements by means of

photography. In this instance it implies the use of air photos to produce maps.
Planimetric Map - is one showing the plan or horizontal position of ground
features. A topographic map shows, in addition, relief or elevations indicated by
contour lines.
A photographic mosaic - is an assembly, of aerial photos to form a continuous
photographic representation of a given area.
A stereoscope - is an instrument which enables the observer to see a relief
model of the terrain covered, if two photographs of the same area, taken from
different stations, are properly oriented and viewed simultaneously.
Aerial photos can be used in all the phases of route location. At the
reconnaissance phase, new aerial photos provide the most up to date
information and also the most complete picture of the area considered. From
these, important control points can be selected so that possible band routes can
be determined. During the reconnaissance phase a small scale mosaic will
usually provide sufficient detail to enable the elimination of all but a few possible
bands.
During the preliminary and final location phases an enlarged mosaic is
necessary and from these it may be possible to complete the final location
survey as well as plans and specifications without actually going on site. When
this occurs, the final location centre-line need not be pegged until the contractor
is about to begin construction, in which case the final location survey becomes a
combined location-and-construction-survey.

Advantages
(i) On a large scheme the time required to locate the facility and prepare
plans is reduced.
(ii) Skilled technical personnel are released from routine survey work and can
be used more profitably.
(iii) Topographic maps prepared from air-photos can be more reliable than
those produced from ground surveys.
(iv) The ability to see a complete picture of the whole area ensures that the
most suitable location is not accidentally overlooked.
(v) Preliminary surveys and measurements can be performed without
physically entering private property.
(vi) A most complete inventory of all surface features is obtained.
Disadvantages
(i) Good photography requires clear atmospheric conditions and thus cannot
be guaranteed to be ready at any particular time.
(ii) A topographic map cannot be accurately obtained of areas covered by
forests, snow etc.
(iii) For small projects the costs may be relatively high if photos are not already
available.
4.5 Subsurface Explorations
Is made for the purpose of obtaining the necessary information regarding the
types, location and extent of soil and rock which will be encountered. This
information is necessary for:
(i) Location of road, both vertically and horizontally,
(ii) Location of borrow materials for fills and pavement construction,
(iii) Drainage design
(iv) Need for sub-grade treatment and type of treatment required.
The sequence of operations can be divided into 3 main parts:
(i) Preliminary Work
All available information is gathered; geological maps can be consulted;
maintenance records of existing roads may provide information concerning
areas which have given trouble because of seepage water or excessive
settlement.
(ii) Site reconnaissance
Attention is given to geological formations which may lead to land-slides or
rock—falls. Special note should be made of sloping clay formations or any
irregularities in the ground that may be due to lack of stability.
(iii) Soil Profile
This requires examination of the sub-surface by means of auger borings, test
pits or geophysical surveying methods. Test holes should be at close enough
intervals to determine the boundaries of each significant soil type to a depth of
about 2m below formation level. Samples are taken from each stratum for
laboratory investigation - usually for identification and classification purposes.


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2016

LECTURER: BELINDA VAN DER WAT

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED - COPYRIGHT | NMMU

TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING OBJECTIVES

1. Define the term Transportation Planning.

7. Distinguish between the criteria that influence air transportation of passengers

8. Discuss pollution characteristics of Air Transportation.

14. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of Pipeline Transportation.

Factors that will influence Transportation Planning

i) Level of public investment

The Transportation Planning Process

Planning is done by executing the following steps:

i) Goal specification and objectives - to measure the performance of a

Figure 1: Transportation Planning Process

Modes of transportation are classified as belonging to either Highway (Roads),

Mode as Mode as Primarily

Freight cars Freight

Passenger cars Passengers

Cargo planes Freight

Water Ships and barges

The growth, spatial distribution and standard of living of a population are

Vehicle operating characteristics (V.O.C)

Resistance (R) = 280ma (mass x acceleration)

CTE 231 Transportation Eng II Page 1 of 81

CTE 231 Transportation Eng II Page 2 of 81

Railroads are absolutely essential to the commerce and economy of industrialized

2.1 Physical characteristics

ii) Intermediate terminals

iii) Industrial (or satellite) terminals

CTE 231 Transportation Eng II Page 3 of 81

2.2 The track structure

Track structure components are special Civil Engineering elements as the

2.2.1 Function and operation of the track structure:

- Supporting forces (vertical forces)

- Guiding forces (lateral forces)

- Temperature forces ( longitudinal forces)

The supporting force consists mainly of two components:

a) The static load (weight of the railway vehicle)

b) They dynamic contribution (additional impact forces as a result of the movement

A track structure is differentially supported by sleepers at a fixed spacing. The most

2.2.2 Track structure components:

CTE 231 Transportation Eng II Page 4 of 81

The function of the rails are:

Refer chapter 8 of Construction Methods for Civil Engineers by Errol

Other important aspects of railroad operation are communication, signaling,

2.3 Transportation Planning and route location

Transnet will construct a line between A & B if:

Factors governing route location

CTE 231 Transportation Eng II Page 5 of 81

Physical Limitations (topography and geology)

i) Slopes: Steep slopes result in long travelling times or excessive earthworks

Air traffic control

CTE 231 Transportation Eng II Page 7 of 81

Airports can be classified by either type, ownership, activity or by facilities available.

Airport user traffic characteristics

Refer chapter 9 (9.1 Introduction - 9.4 Airport structure) of Construction

CTE 231 Transportation Eng II Page 8 of 81

Waterborne transportation is one of the oldest forms of transportation in existence. It

Container ships now carry up to 15,000 TEU, Twenty-foot Equivalent Units, on a

CTE 231 Transportation Eng II Page 9 of 81

ii) Dry Cargo

Refer chapter 7 (7.1 Introduction - 7.4 Types of Harbours) of

CTE 231 Transportation Eng II Page 10 of 81

CTE 231 Transportation Eng II Page 11 of 81