THE FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC BOUCHI

SCHOOL OF SCIENCE LABORATORY TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF SIENCE LABORATORY TECHNOLOGY

NDIIB

EXERCISE

COURSE CODE: STP

COURSE TITLE: THERMODYNAMIS AND ELECTROMAGNECTIC

NAME: GYANG GWOM CHOJI

REG NO: 21/143882

QUESTIONS

a. EXPLAIN THE PRINCIPLES OF THE CYCLOTRON AND MASS

SPECTROGRAPH
b. EXPLAIN THE PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRIC MOTORS, MOVING IRON
AMMETER, MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER, AND BALLISTIC
GALVANOMETER

FEBRUARY, 2024
 THE PRINCIPLES OF CYCLOTRON AND MASS SPECTROGAPH:

Cyclotron

 purpose: accelerates charged particles to high speeds.

 principle: charged particles moving perpendicular to a magnetic field experience a
force that makes them travel in a circular path. the cyclotron uses two d-shaped
electrodes with an alternating voltage applied between them. this creates a time-
varying electric field that accelerates the particles each time they pass through the
gap between the electrodes. the magnetic field keeps the particles orbiting, and as
they gain energy, their orbit radius increases. finally, an exit channel allows the high-
energy particles to leave the cyclotron.

mass Spectrograph

 purpose: measures the mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) of charged particles.

 principle: ions with different m/z ratios experience different forces in a magnetic
field. the mass spectrograph separates ions based on the deflection they experience
in a magnetic field or combined magnetic and electric fields. the deflection depends
on the ion's mass, charge, and velocity. by measuring the deflection and knowing the
other parameters, we can determine the m/z ratio.

A. the principles of electric motors, moving iron ammeter, moving coil

galvanometer, and ballistic galvanometer
Electric motor: tors work on the principle of electromagnetism, where the
interaction between a magnetic field and a current-carrying conductor
produces a force. here's the basic idea:

1. magnetic field: a permanent magnet or electromagnet creates a magnetic

field in the motor.
2. current-carrying conductor: a coil of wire carrying current is placed within
the magnetic field.
3. force: the interaction between the magnetic field and the current in the wire
creates a force on the coil.
4. torque: this force acts on the coil, producing a torque that rotates it.
5. commutator: to maintain continuous rotation, a commutator reverses the
direction of current in the coil at specific intervals.

different types of motors use variations of this principle, but the core
concept remains the same. by manipulating the strength and direction of
 the magnetic field and current, we can control the speed and direction of
the motor's rotation.

Moving iron Ammeter: a moving iron ammeter uses the attraction or

repulsion between a soft iron piece and an electromagnet to measure
current. here's the breakdown:

1. electromagnet: a coil of wire wrapped around an iron core forms an

electromagnet. when current flows through the coil, it magnetizes the iron
core.
2. soft iron vane: a soft iron vane, pivoted on an axis, is placed near the
electromagnet.
3. attraction/repulsion: when current flows, the electromagnet and soft iron
vane attract or repel each other depending on their polarity.
4. torque and deflection: the force of attraction/repulsion creates a torque that
deflects the vane.
5. scale: the deflection angle is proportional to the current flowing through the
electromagnet coil, indicated by a pointer and a scale.

moving iron ammeters are relatively simple and robust but less accurate
than moving coil instruments.

Moving coil galvanometer: a moving coil galvanometer uses the

deflection of a current-carrying coil in a magnetic field to detect or measure
small currents. here's the principle:

1. coil: a lightweight coil of wire, pivoted on an axis, is placed between the

poles of a permanent magnet.
2. current flow: when current flows through the coil, it interacts with the
magnetic field, creating a torque.
3. torque and deflection: the torque deflects the coil, indicated by a pointer
and a scale.
4. sensitivity: the coil and magnet system are designed for high
sensitivity, allowing detection of tiny currents.

moving coil galvanometers are highly sensitive but not suitable for
measuring large currents directly.
 Ballistic galvanometer: a ballistic galvanometer is a specialized type
of moving coil galvanometer designed to measure the total charge that
passes through it, even for brief pulses. here's the key difference:

1. high inertia: the coil has a high moment of inertia (resistance to change in
motion) compared to a regular galvanometer. this allows it to respond to
short current pulses without overshooting.
2. deflection proportional to charge: the overall deflection of the pointer, not
just the initial movement, is proportional to the total charge that passes
through the coil.
3. calibration: ballistic galvanometers require careful calibration to relate the
deflection to the total charge.

they are used in applications like measuring the charge stored in capacitors
or the magnetic properties of materials