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NÆUAEA EG KYA[[

Rrahg4
FMO. @argmza Nlmtf``l
Ilkjf``gr4
Eflml Igmîtgz K.F. 9?.?:;.9?8

Nlturîm, Gmgra 9292

 FMEFKG

RLO.

Fmtraeukkfûm………………………………………………………………….2;
Fmtraeukkfûm tgûrfkl eg` nætaea ftgrltfva eg Krass……………....25

Gmhaqug eg` nætaea lp`fklea a naeg`as eg rgsartgs……..………25

Gmhaqug iìsfka eg` nætaea kam hugrzls lp`fklels gm `as mueas.27

Nætaea eg pgmefgmtg-egh`gxfûm…………………………………………28

Nætaea eg `l efstrfiukfûm eg nangmtas……………………………...28

Nætaea eg rfofegz efrgkta………………………………………………...28

Kaghfkfgmtg eg rfofegz……………………………………………………...2?

Hlktar eg efstrfiukfûm……………………………………………………..2?

Hlktar eg trlmspartg……………………………………………………….2?

Krftgrfa eg sg`gkkfûm eg Krass……………………………………………2:

Kamk`usfùm…………………………………………………………………….<2
 FMUYAEWKKFÙM

Gstg gs um nætaea eg rg`ldlkfamgs y hug feglea par Jlrey Krass gm <6;9.

Ulnifæm sg ``lnl "Nætaea eg efstrfiukfûm eg nangmtas". Ma gs um nætaea
eg `as ``lnleas lpraxfnleas, sfma um prakgsa eg lpraxfnlkfamgs sukgsfvls
qug mas pgrnftg egtgrnfmlr `ls fmkûomftls jfpgrgstìtfkls kam `l prgkfsfûm
egsglel. Gm gstrukturls fnpgefels l` egsp`lzlnfgmta `ltgrl` g` nætaea eg

Krass gvftl g` tgmgr qug ghgktulr `l sa`ukfûm eg um sfstgnl eg gkulkfamgs.

[f `l gstrukturl pugeg egsp`lzlrsg, g` nætaea eg Krass tlnifæm kameukg l

um sfstgnl eg gkulkfamgs, pgra g` môngra eg efkjls gkulkfamgs gs nuy

fmhgrfar l` qug sg aitgmerîl utf`fzlmea par gdgnp`a, g` nætaea eg `ls
h`gxfif`felegs a g` nætaea ogmgrl` eg `ls rfofegkgs. G` nætaea eg Krass
pugeg lp`fklrsg gm gstrukturls kam g`gngmtas eg sgkkfûm kamstlmtg a
vlrfli`g, lsî kana l gstrukturls kam g`gngmtas eg gdg rgkta a kurva. Rlrl
kanprgmegr gstg nætaea gs mgkgslrfa kanprgmegr pgrhgktlngmtg kfgrtas
tærnfmas iìsfkas, `as kul`gs sg gstueflrìm gmsgoufel.
Fmtraeukkfûm tgûrfkl eg` nætaea ftgrltfva eg Krass

G` Nætaea eg efstrfiukfûm eg nangmtas a nætaea eg Krass gs um

nætaea eg lmì`fsfs gstrukturl` plrl vfols gstìtfklngmtg fmegtgrnfmlels y
nlrkas, egslrra``lea par Jlrey Krass. G` nætaea sû`a kl`ku`l g` ghgkta eg
`as nangmtas h`gktargs g fomarl `as ghgktas lxfl`gs y kartlmtgs, `a kul` gs
suhfkfgmtg plrl hfmgs prìktfkas gm ilrrls gsig`tls. Egseg <6;2 jlstl qug `ls
kanputlearls
kanputlearls kangmzlram l sgr lnp`flngmtg uslels gm g` efsgüa y lmì`fsfs
eg gstrukturls, g` nætaea eg rgefstrfiukfûm eg nangmtas hug g` nìs
lnp`flngmtg uslea gm `l prìktfkl.

Gm g` nætaea eg rgefstrfiukfûm eg nangmtas, klel lrtfku`lkfûm eg `l

gstrukturl l sgr lml`fzlel, gs hfdlel l hfm eg egslrra``lr `as Nangmtas gm
`as Gxtrgnas Hfdas. Egspuæs klel lrtfku`lkfûm hfdl gs sgkugmkfl`ngmtg
`figrlel y g` nangmta gm g` gxtrgna hfda (g` kul` l` nangmta eg sgr `figrlea
ma gstì gm gquf`firfa) sam efstrfiufeas l nfgniras leylkgmtgs jlstl qug g`
Gquf`firfa gs l`klmzlea. G` nætaea eg efstrfiukfûm eg nangmtas gm tærnfmas
nltgnìtfkas pugeg sgr egnastrlea kana g` prakgsa eg rgsa`vgr
rgsa `vgr uml sgrfg
eg sfstgnls eg gkulkfamgs par ngefa eg ftgrlkfûm.

Gmhaqug eg` nætaea lp`fklea a naeg`as eg rgsartgs

Elea um rgsartg kam hugrzls lp`fklels gm `l efrgkkfûm `amoftuefml` eg`

nfsna4

G` sfstgnl sg kanpamg eg4

• Eas Maeas4 f, d

• Kamstlmtg G`ìstfkl eg` Ygsartg4 c

G` nfsna gstl sangtfea4

• Hugrzls gm `as Maeas4 hf, hd

G` g`gngmta tfgmg eas orleas eg `figrtle, gm g` sgmtfea `amoftuefml` eg`
g`gngmta, kul`qufgr

Egsp`lzlnfgmta
Egsp`lzlnfgmta eg `as maeas gm g` sgmtfea marnl` l` g`gngmta ma ogmgrlrl
gshugrzas fmtgrmas4

• Eas egsp`lzlnfgmtas4 uf, ud

@l rg`lkfûm gmtrg `l hugrzl H y g` egsp`lzlnfgmta Ε gm ræofngm `fmgl` sgrì4

H> C.Ε eameg Ε>ud-uf

Ε>ud-uf

Eameg C gs `l rfofegz eg` g`gngmta a `l kamstlmtg g`ìstfkl eg` rgsartg.

Jlkfgmea gquf`firfa eg hugrzls fmtgrmls gm `as Maeas4

Maea f4

Maea d4

Gxprgslea nltrfkfl`ngmtg4

A ifgm, c.u >h

Eameg4

• c4 gs `l nltrfz rfofegz

• u4 gs `l vgktar egsp`lzlnfgmt
egsp`lzlnfgmta a
• h4 gs `l vgktar eg hugrzls fmtgrmls.
fmtgrmls.

Gmhaqug iìsfka eg` nætaea kam hugrzls lp`fklels gm `as mueas

¿ Hlsg F

[g kamsfegrlm taels `ls pfgzls gnpatrlels gm sus gxtrgnas. [g kl`ku`lm `as

nangmtas gm `as gxtrgnas ngeflmtg Ygsfstgmkfl eg Nltgrfl`gs.

¿ Hlsg FF
[g kanfgmzl par kamsfegrlr um muea kul`qufgrl kam klplkfele eg ofrlr. L`
sa`tlr g` gnpatrlnfgmta, taeas
taeas `as nangmtas qug kamkurrgm gm g` muea sg
sunlm l`ogirlfklngmtg y `l rgsu`tlmtg sg rgplrtg. Aitgmfea g` gquf`firfa, sg

trlmsnftgm `as nangmtas l `as mueas leylkgmtgs. [g rgpftg `l apgrlkfûm gm

kul`qufgrl eg g``as, par `a qug g` muea, lmtgs gquf`firlea, sg egsgquf`firl l`
egva`vgr`g g` muea sfoufgmtg uml plrtg eg` nangmta qug `g jlkg ofrlr.

G` prakgsa sg rgpftg uml y atrl vgz plrl taeas y klel uma eg `as mueas,
gquf`firlmea klel vgz. Kana `as hlktargs eg rgplrta y eg trlmsnfsfûm sam
ngmargs qug `l umfele, g` prakgsa gs kamvgrogmtg, ma sfgmea ogmgrl`ngmtg
mgkgslrfa rgl`fzlr nìs eg trgs ftgrlkfamgs l `l gstrukturl.

G` nætaea eg Krass tfgmg `l prapfgele eg kanpgmslr `as grrargs .

Nætaea eg pgmefgmtg-egh`gxfûm

K`lsfhfklea egmtra eg `as nætaeas k`ìsfkas, sg humelngmtl gm um lmì`fsfs eg

egsp`lzlnfgmtas y ratlkfamgs, eameg gstls vlrfli`gs sam egrfvlels gm
humkfûm eg `ls klrols uslmea rg`lkfamgs gmtrg klrols y egsp`lzlnfgmtas,
pastgrfarngmtg
pastgrfarngmtg gstls gkulkfamgs sam sa`ukfamlels plrl aitgmgr `as vl`args
eg egsp`lzlnfgmta y ratlkfamgs, hfml`ngmtg `as vl`args eg `ls hugrzls
fmtgrmls sam egtgrnfmleas.
egtgrnfmleas.

Nætaea eg `l efstrfiukfûm eg nangmtas

Gstg nætaea egslrra``lea par Jlrey Krass gm <6;9, plrtg eg uml
gstrukturl fegl` kuyas maeas gstìm pgrhgktlngmtg rîofeas, `a qug ai`fol qug
plrl ``golr l `l gstrukturl rgl`. Iìsfklngmtg gs um nætaea eg lmì`fsfs
munærfka eg lpraxfnlkfamgs sukgsfvls qug gvftl tgmgr qug rgsa`vgr
gkulkfamgs sfnu`tìmgls gm um môngra g`gvlea.

Nætaea eg rfofegz efrgkta

Gs `l fnp`gngmtlkfûm nìs kanôm eg` nætaea eg `as g`gngmtas hfmftas (gs

um nætaea munærfka ogmgrl` plrl `l lpraxfnlkfûm eg sa`ukfamgs eg
gkulkfamgs efhgrgmkfl`gs plrkfl`gs nuy kanp`gdls). @ls prapfgelegs eg
rfofegz eg` nltgrfl` sam kanpf`lels gm uml ômfkl gkulkfûm nltrfkfl` qug
oaifgrml g` kanpartlnfgmta fmtgrma eg `l gstrukturl fegl`fzlel. @as eltas

qug sg egskamakgm eg `l gstrukturl sam `ls hugrzls y `as egsp`lzlnfgmtas

qug pugegm sgr egtgrnfmleas
egtgrnfmleas rgsa`vfgmea gstl gkulkfûm.

G` nætaea kamsfstg gm lsfomlr l `l gstrukturl eg ilrrls um aidgta

nltgnìtfka, ``lnlea nltrfz eg rfofegz, qug rg`lkfaml `as egsp`lzlnfgmtas
eg um kamdumta eg pumtas eg `l gstrukturl, ``lnleas maeas, kam `ls hugrzls
gxtgrfargs qug gs mgkgslrfa lp`fklr plrl `aorlr gsas egsp`lzlnfgmtas (`as
kanpamgmtgs eg gstl nltrfz sam hugrzl ogmgrl`fzlels lsakflels l
egsp`lzlnfgmtas
egsp`lzlnfgmtas ogmgrl`fzleas) sairg `as maeas eg `l gstrukturl.

Kaghfkfgmtg eg rfofegz
Gs uml ngefel kul`ftltfvl eg `l rgsfstgmkfl l `ls egharnlkfamgs g`ìstfkls
praeukfels par um nltgrfl`, qug kamtgnp`l `l klplkfele eg um g`gngmta
gstrukturl` plrl sapartlr gshugrzas sfm lequfrfr orlmegs egharnlkfamgs.

@as kaghfkfgmtgs eg rfofegz sam nlomftuegs hîsfkls qug kulmtfhfklm `l rfofegz

eg um g`gngmta rgsfstgmtg ilda efvgrsls kamhfourlkfamgs eg klrol.
Marnl`ngmtg `ls rfofegkgs sg kl`ku`lm kana `l rlzûm gmtrg uml hugrzl
lp`fklel y g` egsp`lzlnfgmta aitgmfea par `l lp`fklkfûm eg gsl hugrzl. Rlrl
ilrrls a vfols sg jli`l lsî eg rfofegz lxfl`, rfofegz h`gxfaml`,
h`gx faml`, rfofegz tarsfaml`
a rfofegz hrgmtg gshugrzas kartlmtgs

Hlktar eg efstrfiukfûm

Gs foul` l `l rfofegz sfnp`fhfklel gmtrg `l sunl eg `ls rfofegkgs sfnp`fhfklels

eg taeas `as g`gngmtas eg kamkurrgm l` maea.

Hlktar eg trlmspartg

Gs `l rg`lkfûm gmtrg g` nangmta egslrra``lea gm g` gxtrgna eg um nfgnira

kulmea sg lp`fkl um nangmta gm g` atra gxtrgna. Eg nlmgrl ogmgrl`
kulmea sg lp`fkl gm um gxtrgna L um nangmta Nli y gm g` gxtrgna I
egslrra``l kana kamsgkugmkfl um nangmta Nil, g` hlktar eg trlmspartg eg`
nfgnira LI gs `l rg`lkfûm gmtrg `as nangmtas Nil/Nli. Eg nlmgrl

ogmgrl` `as hlktargs eg trlmspartg

 Gxtrgna lrtfku`lea y atra gnpatrlea HU> ¾

 Eas gxtrgnas lrtfku`leas HU>2

Krftgrfa eg sg`gkkfûm eg Krass

G` nætaea eg Krass gs um nætaea ftgrltfva

ftgrltfva,, tfgmg `l vgmtldl eg gstlr
p`lmtglea kana uml sukgsfûm eg orupas eg hlsgs eg kì`ku`a, sf l plrtfr eg
um kfgrta pumta sg sfougm rgpftfgmea l`ouml eg `ls hlsgs eg kì`ku`a
("trlmsnfsfûm"" y "rgplrta" eg nangmtas) `l sa`ukfûm vl kamvgrofgmea jlkfl
("trlmsnfsfûm
`l sa`ukfûm gxlktl. Gsta grl nuy fnpartlmtg gm `ls prfngrls eæklels eg usa
eg` nætaea, kulmea ma gxfstîlm aregmleargs efspamfi`gs plrl g` kì`ku`a
gstrukturl`. @l ``golel eg aregmleargs y `l gxfstgmkfl eg l`oarftnas
ghfkfgmtgs plrl rgsa`ukfûm eg sfstgnls kam um g`gvlea môngra eg
gkulkfamgs, jfkfgram lplrgkgr l`tgrmltfvls l` nætaea eg Krass qug l` ngmas
jlstl `as lüas <682, hug g` prfmkfpl` nætaea eg kì`ku`a. Gm `l lktul`fele `l
nlyar plrtg eg` sahtwlrg gstrukturl` usl g` nætaea nltrfkfl` eg `l rfofegz,
qug gs nìs sgmkf``a eg praorlnlr.

Jlrey Krass ma egslrra``û uml vgrsfûm trfefngmsfaml` eg su nætaea, par `a

qug gm orlm plrtg g` nætaea sg gnp`gû plrl gstrukturls p`lmls. Lumqug
lülefgmea `l makfûm eg rfofegz tarsfaml` gs ogmgrl`fzli`g l trgs efngmsfamgs.
G` nætaea eg Krass pugeg efvfefrsg gm uml sgrfg hlsgs a gtlpls eg kì`ku`a
(sfgmea `ls ô`tfnls eg g``ls rgftgrli`gs, jlstl aitgmgr `l prgkfsfûm egsglel).
@ls gtlpls sam4

 Gtlpl prgvfl eg kì`ku`a eg `as nangmtas eg gnpatrlnfgmta hfdas,

lsî kana kì`ku`a eg `as kaghfkfgmtgs eg trlmsnfsfûm y efstrfiukfûm.
Gstl gtlpl sg rgl`fzl sû`a uml vgz.
  Gtlpl eg efstrfiukfûm eg nangmtas, egmtra eg klel muea sg
sunlm taeas `as nangmtas lp`fkleas, kulmea `l sunl ma gs kgra

g` muea gstlrì egsgquf`firlea y sgrì mgkgslrfa praeukfr um ofra

qug egharnlrì `as g`gngmtas gstrukturl`gs kamvgrogmtgs l efkja
muea. Urls `l lplrfkfûm eg ofras y egharnlkfamgs lplrgkgrìm
nangmtas g`ìstfkas qug egigm kl`ku`lrsg. Gstas sg kl`ku`lm
"rgplrtfgmea" a efstrfiuygmea g` nangmta eg egsgquf`firfa gmtrg
`ls ilrrls eg lkugrea l `as kaghfkfgmtgs eg rgplrta
r gplrta qug egpgmegm
eg `ls rfofegkgs rg`ltfvls. G` g`gngmta nìs rîofea gs qug g` qug
lsunfrì `l nlyar plrtg eg` nangmta eg egsgquf`firfa. L gstl hlsg
`g sfoug sfgnprg `l hlsg eg trlmsnfsfûm eg nangmtas.

 Gtlpl eg trlmsnfsfûm eg nangmtas, uml vgz p`lmtglea g` gquf`firfa

plrkfl` eg `as mueas ngeflmtg `l lplrfkfûm eg hugrzls g`ìstfkls qug
sg apamgm l `as ofras, egig tgmgrsg gm kugmtl qug gm klel ilrrl
ma sg pugeg egharnlr um muea gxtrgna sfm qug g` atra suhrl uml
vlrflkfûm eg gshugrzas. G` kì`ku`a eg gsls vlrflkfamgs gs `l ``lnlel
trlmsnfsfûm eg gshugrzas, l plrtfr eg `a nangmta rgplrtfeas gm `l
hlsg lmtgrfar gs mgkgslrfa vgr qug nangmtas fmeukgm gm `as mueas
kamgktleas par vfols a pf`lrgs. Gstas mugvas nangmtas sg
egmanfmlm nangmtas trlmsnftfeas.

@l mugvl trlmsnfsfûm eg nangmtas jlkg qug lplrgzklm mugvas

egsgquf`firfas gm `as mueas qug egigm rgplrtfrsg eg mugva y va`vgr l `l
gtlpl 9. Wml vfrtue eg` nætaea gs qug l` fr rgpftfgmea `ls hlsgs 9 y ;, gm
klel ftgrlkfûm `as nangmtas sam sustlmkfl`ngmtg ngmargs (l` sgr `as
kaghfkfgmtgs eg rgplrta y trlmsnfsfûm ngmargs qug `l umfele) y sg `aorl
kamvgrogmkfl gm tærnfmas prìktfkas egspuæs eg um môngra rg`ltfvlngmtg
ilda eg ftgrlkfamgs.
 KAMK@W[FÙM

G` aidgtfva prfmkfpl` eg gstl pui`fklkfûm gs prgsgmtlr uml mugvl vgrsfûm eg`

nætaea k`ìsfka eg efstrfiukfûm eg nangmtas plrl g` lmì`fsfs eg prfngr y eg
sgoumea aregm (fmk`uygmea gstlif`fele) eg gstrukturls l partfklels jgkjls
eg vfols y ka`unmls eg sgkkfûm trlmsvgrsl` sfnætrfkl fmk`uygmea `as ghgktas
eg4

<) `l egharnlkfûm par kartlmtg y par h`gxfûm3

9) `l kanpamgmtg eg `l kartlmtg gm `l hugrzl lxfl` lp`fklel (naeg`a eg

Jlrfmox)

;) kamgxfamgs sgnfrrîofels gm `as gxtrgnas eg klel g`gngmta.