MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 2.1

MATHEMATICS- study of the relationships among numbers, ➤ MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE

quantities, and shapes. It includes arithmetic, algebra, trigonometry, → the system used to communicate mathematical ideas
geometry, statistics, and calculus → precise, concise, powerful, clear, and objective
➤ VARIABLE- a quantity that may change within the context of a
A. PATTERNS AND NUMBERS IN NATURE AND THE WORLD mathematical problem or experiment.
➤ MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION- consists of terms separated by
➤ PATTERNS- regular, repeated, or recurring forms or designs either plus or minus signs.
→ NATURAL PATTERNS- spirals, symmetries, mosaics, stripes,
spots, etc. Literal Coefficient – variable
Numerical Coefficient – constant multiplied to the variable
B. THE FIBONACCI SEQUENCE
Monomial – consists of a single term
➤ SEQUENCE- an ordered list of numbers, called terms, that may Binomial – consists of two terms
have repeated values. The arrangement of these terms is set by a Trinomial – consists of three terms
definite rule.
1. GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE- obtained by multiplying a value ➤ MATHEMATICAL SENTENCE
2. QUADRATIC SEQUENCE- with the same 2nd difference. → combines two mathematical expressions using a comparison
3. FIBONACCI SEQUENCE- previous 2 terms are added to obtain operator
the next term. → uses numbers, variables, or both
→ is named after the Italian mathematician Leonardo of Pisa, who ➤ OPEN SENTENCE – mathematical sentence that is not known to
was better known by his nickname Fibonacci. be either true or false
➤ the ratios of successive Fibonacci numbers approach the ➤ CLOSE SENTENCE – a mathematical sentence that is known to
number Φ (Phi), also known as the Golden Ratio. This is be either true or false
approximately equal to 1.618
4. ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE- obtained by adding a value. MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSIONS AND SENTENCES
5. MIXED SEQUENCE- double, 2 operations
6. HARMONIC SEQUENCE- the reciprocal is arithmetic. ➤ UNIVERSAL STATEMENT- says that a certain property is true for
all elements in a set.
➤ Mathematics for Organization- helps organize patterns and ➤ CONDITIONAL STATEMENT– says that if one thing is true, then
regularities in the world. some other thing also has to be true
➤ Mathematics for Prediction- helps predict the behavior of nature ➤ EXISTENTIAL STATEMENT- says that given a property that may
and phenomena in the world. or may not be true, there is at least one thing for which the property is
➤ Mathematics for Control- helps humans exert control over true
occurrences in the world for the advancement of our civilization.
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
CHAPTER 2.2
LANGUAGE OF SETS
SET- well-defined collection of distinct objects
ELEMENTS– objects that make up a set. They are usually denoted by
lower case letters. The symbol ∈ denotes membership while the
symbol ∉ denotes non-membership.
2 WAYS OF DESCRIBING A SET
1.ROSTER/TABULAR METHOD– elements in the given set are listed
or enumerated, separated by a comma, inside a pair of braces.
→ B = { a, e, i, o, u }
2. RULE DESCRIPTIVE METHOD – the common characteristics of
the elements are defined. This method uses the set builder notation
where 𝑥 is used to represent any element of the given set
→ B= { x/x is a vowel }
KINDS OF SETS
1. EMPTY/NULL/VOID SET – has no element(s) and is denoted by ∅
or by a pair of braces with no element(s) inside, i.e., {}
2. FINITE SET – has countable number of elements
3. INFINITE SET – has uncountable number of elements
4. UNIVERSAL SET – totality of all the elements of the sets under
consideration, denoted by (U)
RELATIONSHIP OF SETS
1. EQUAL SETS– sets that have the same element(s)
2. EQUIVALENT SETS- sets that have the same number of element/s
3. JOINT SETS– sets that have at least one common element
4. DISJOINT SET– sets that have no common element
5. SUBSET- a set every element of which can be found on a second
set. The symbol ⊂ means “a subset of”
→ If the first set is equal to the second set, then it is an improper
subset. The symbol ⊆ is used to mean an improper subset.
→ A null set is always a subset of any given set and is considered
an improper subset of the given set. Other than the set itself and the
null set, all are considered proper subsets.
RELATIONSHIP OF SETS- The set containing all the subsets of a
given set with 𝑛 elements is called the power set with 2 𝑛 number of
elements.
OPERATIONS ON SETS
1. UNION OF SETS 𝑨 and 𝑩 (𝑨 ∪ 𝑩) – set whose elements are
found in 𝐴 or 𝐵 or in both
2. INTERSECTION OF SETS 𝑨 and 𝑩 (𝑨 ∩ 𝑩) – set whose elements
are common to both sets
3. DIFFERENCE OF SETS 𝑨 and 𝑩 (𝑨 − 𝑩) – set whose elements are
found in set 𝐴 but not in set 𝐵
4. COMPLEMENT OF SETS 𝑨 (𝑨 ′or 𝑨 𝑪 ) – set whose elements are
found in the universal set but not in A
VENN DIAGRAM (VENN-EULER DIAGRAM)
→ pictorial representation of relationship and operations of sets.
→ The universal set is usually represented by a rectangle while
circles within the rectangle usually represent its subsets. The shaded
region in the given diagrams illustrates the sets’ relation or operation
CARTESIAN PRODUCT
→ Cartesian Product Given sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, the Cartesian product of 𝐴
and 𝐵, denoted by 𝐴 × 𝐵 and read “𝐴 cross 𝐵” is the set of all ordered
pairs (𝑎, 𝑏) where 𝑎 is in 𝐴 and 𝑏 is in 𝐵.
→ Symbolically, 𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 𝑏)|𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵}
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
CHAPTER 2.3
FUNCTION (f)- from a set of elements 𝑋 to a set of elements 𝑌 is a
rule that assigns to each element 𝑥 in 𝑋 exactly one element 𝑦 in 𝑌.
→ A function can be thought of as a correspondence from a set 𝑋 of
real numbers 𝑥 to a set of 𝑌 of real numbers 𝑦, where 𝑦 is unique for a
specific value of 𝑥.
→ One is to one (Function) → Many to One (Function)
→ One is to many (Not function) → Many to many (Not function)
➤ FUNCTION NOTATION- If 𝑓 is the function having as its domain
variable 𝑥 and as its range variable 𝑦, the symbol 𝑓(𝑥) (read as “𝑓 of 𝑥 ”
or “𝑓 at 𝑥”) denotes the particular value of 𝑦 that corresponds to the
value of 𝑥
OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS
1. Their sum, denoted by 𝑓 + 𝑔, is the function defined
→ by (𝑓 + 𝑔) (𝑥) = 𝑓 (𝑥) + 𝑔 (𝑥)
2. Their difference, denoted by 𝑓 − 𝑔, is the function defined
→ by 𝑓 − 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑔(𝑥)
3. Their product, denoted by 𝑓 ∙ 𝑔, is the function defined
→ by 𝑓 ∙ 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 ∙ 𝑔 𝑥
4. Their quotient, denoted by 𝑓/𝑔, is the function defined
→ by 𝑓/𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 /𝑔(𝑥)
TYPES OF FUNCTIONS
1. CONSTANT FUNCTION– a function whose range consists of only
one number. Thus 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐.
2. IDENTITY FUNCTION– the particular function defined by 𝑓 𝑥 = x
3. A function 𝑓 defined
→ by 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2𝑥 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑥 + 𝑎0 - - -
where 𝑎0, 𝑎1, … , 𝑎𝑛 are real numbers ( 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0 ) and 𝑛 is a
nonnegative integer is called a polynomial function of degree n
4. LINEAR FUNCTION- is a polynomial function of degree 1. If the
degree of a polynomial function is 2, it is called a quadratic function,
and if the degree is 3, it is called a cubic function
5. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS– a function that can be expressed as a
quotient of two polynomial functions
6. ALGEBRAIC FUNCTION– function formed by a finite number of
algebraic operations on the identity function and the constant function.
These algebraic operations include addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, raising to powers, and extracting roots..
Polynomial and rational functions are particular kinds of algebraic
functions.
7. TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS – examples include the
exponential and the logarithmic functions
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
CHAPTER 3
INDUCTIVE REASONING
→ forms a conclusion based on the examination of specific examples
→ process of reaching a general conclusion by examining specific
examples
➤ CONJECTURE- conclusion formed by using inductive
reasoning, since it may or may not be correct.
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
→ is distinguished from inductive reasoning in that it is the process of
reaching a conclusion by applying general principles and procedures.
→ process of reaching a conclusion by applying general assumptions,
procedures, or principles.
POLYA’S PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGY
→ One of the foremost recent mathematicians to make a study of
problem solving was George Polya (1887-1985). He was born in
Hungary and moved to the United States in 1940. The basic
problem-solving strategy that Polya advocated consisted of the
following four steps:
1. Understand the problem
2. Devise a plan
3. Carry out the plan
4. Review the solution
➤ UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM
• Can you restate the problem in your own words?
• Can you determine what is known about these types of problems?
• Is there missing information that, if known, would allow you to solve
the problem?
• Is there extraneous information that is not needed to solve the
problem?
• What is the goal?
➤ DEVISE A PLAN
• Make a list of the known information. • Draw a diagram.
• Make a list of information that is needed. • Work backwards.
• Make an organized list that shows all the possibilities.
• Make a table or a chart. • Perform an experiment.
• Try to solve a similar but simpler problem. • Look for a pattern.
• Write an equation. If necessary, define what each variable
represents.
• Guess a solution and then check your result.
➤ CARRY OUT THE PLAN
• Work carefully.
• Keep an accurate and neat record of all your attempts.
• Realize that some of your initial plans will not work and that you may
have to devise another plan or modify your existing plan
➤ REVIEW THE SOLUTION
• Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of the problem.
• Interpret the solution in the context of the problem.
• Ask yourself whether there are generalizations of the solution that
could apply to other problems.
➤ SUDOKU- goal of sudoku is to fill a 9 × 9 grid with numbers so that
each row, column, and 3 × 3 section contain all of the digits between 1
and 9.
→ At the beginning of t→ game, the 9 × 9 grid will have some of the
squares filled in. Your job is to fill in the missing digits and complete
the grid. Don’t forget, a move is incorrect if:
• Any row contains more than one of the same number from 1 to 9
• Any column contains more than one of the same number from 1 to 9
• Any 3 × 3 grid contains more than one of the same number from 1 to
9
➤ KENKEN PUZZLE- an arithmetic-based logic puzzle that was
invented by the Japanese mathematics teacher Tetsuya Miyamoto in
2004. It is similar to Sudoku, but it requires you to perform arithmetic
to solve the puzzle.
RULES FOR SOLVING KENKEN PUZZLE
→ For a 3 × 3 puzzle, fill in each box (square) of the grid with one of
the numbers 1, 2, or 3.
→ For a 4 × 4 puzzle, fill in each square of the grid with one of the
numbers 1, 2, 3, or 4.
For an 𝑛 × 𝑛 puzzle, fill in each square of the grid with one of the
numbers 1, 2, 3, … , 𝑛. Grids range in size from a 3 × 3 up to a 9 × 9.
• Do not repeat the number in any row or column.
• The numbers in each heavily outlined set of squares, called cages,
must combine (in some order) to produce the target number in the top
left corner of the cage using the mathematical operation indicated.
• Cages with just one square should be filled in with the target
number.
• A number can be repeated within a cage as long as it is nit in the
same row or column
➤ LOGIC PUZZLE- can be solved by using deductive reasoning and
a chart that enables us to display the given information in a visual
manner