RESEARCH PAPER

- This will be used as a basis and information for our brief explanation of our
Hazard Map and guide on what are the different hazards we can classify in
creating the map. Upon creation of Hazard Map, we should consist the
following:
Based on the rubrics sir gave to us

External Earth's Processes (SCIENTIFIC TERMS):

Photo by: ClearIAS

- AKA Exogenic Processes where it tackles mostly the process around rock
cycle and how geological structures are affected by weathering, erosion, mass
wasting, sedimentation, deposition,. This also discusses the degradation
 (landforms lowering down) and aggradation processes (landforms rising) and
the potential hazards driven by it.
- In contrast with Endogenic Earth’s Processes where it tackles the internal
processes of earth where it explains the earth’s internal heat, magnetism, and
metamorphism.

I. What is Weathering?
It’s under degradation because it’s the process of breaking down rocks into
pieces. Usually happens when a rock is fragile or decaying.
- It has two types, mechanical and chemical weathering.
A. Mechanical Weathering
- It’s the process of breaking down rock due to physical force where it
does not affect its chemical composition.
- According to research

FACTORS OF MECHANICAL WEATHERING:

01.Frost Wedging (Not possible in the Philippines)
- It’s when a water that enters a rock reaches below freezing point, it
turns into ice. It undergoes anomalous expansion where ice is known
to expand, resulting in breakage of rocks.
- Occurrence of Frost wedging is unlikely because water needs to be in
solid state (due to temp) in order to work. Since there’s little chance
water turns to ice in the Philippines, it’s not possible.

02.Salt Wedging (Applicable for Tacloban since it’s near to ocean)

- This occurs when salt water in sands evaporates leaving the salt
crystals behind. Eventually, this salt crystals expands contributing to
breakage of the rock. Furthermore, there are holes made during this
process called Tafoni.
- This is possible in Tacloban since it’s close to the oceans.
Source: 8.1 Mechanical Weathering – Physical Geology, First University of
Saskatchewan Edition

03.Exfoliation
- It’s when a rock peels off due to rapid changes in temperature resulting
in rocks to expand (hot) and contract (cold) this term is called “Thermal
Shocks.” A rock expands through the process of Pressure Release
where the outer layer of rock can be separated and when it breaks
down, it’s called “Exfoliation” where rock peels its layers.
- Granitic Rock is more prone to exfoliation because it’s a homogenous
rock where it is made up of different kinds of minerals but united in one
same colour.
- This occurrence is possible in the Philippines since our temperature
changes rapidly depending on the weather.

04.Rock Abrasion
 - It’s a type of weathering where rocks are broken or abraded or scraped
by solid particles like sand that is carried by wind and water.

05. Biological Weathering (Actions from living things )(From the pic on the first
page, it stated that biological weathering has its own category, but we just
combined it with chemical and mechanical depending on its usage.)
- Plant roots push through rocks to get nutrients they need resulting in
possible breakage of the rocks.
- Animals burrowing through the rocks which create spaces or holes
between it, resulting in weathering too. E.g: Rabbit burrows into a crack
resulting in a bigger crack similar to frost wedging when ice expands,
but here, it’s done by a living thing.
- Human actions such as creation of roads, dams, power etc can result
in weathering too. An example of this is walking on the same rock all
over again and due to force, it’ll eventually break.

B. Chemical Weathering
- It’s the process of breaking down rock due to physical force where it
does not affect its chemical composition. It’s mostly present in warm
climates where water is present.

TYPES AND FACTORS OF CHEMICAL WEATHERING:

01.Hydrolysis - It’s the creation of new minerals and new solutions upon
exposure to water. When fused with other gases it can be formed into an acid
resulting in dissolving of rocks. Also, if a water is combined with other
minerals it can form different minerals. E.g: Feldspar into clay
02.Oxidation - It’s a chemical weathering process where oxygen oxidises
materials. In oxidation, it happens when an electron is lost making it more
vulnerable to changes. Oxygen is the main ingredient of this process where it
 can change the chemical composition of different kinds of minerals. For
example, iron breaks due to formation of rust within it.
03.Hydration - It’s similar to hydrolysis but here it only changes the chemical
bonds of the rock for example when anhydride reacts with water it forms into
gypsum through changes of chemical bonds.
04.Carbonation - Carbon Dioxide when fused with rain water can result in
carbonic acids (weak acid) that dissolves some parts of fragile rocks.
According to National Geographic and Geosciences Libretexts, through
carbonic acids it dissolves limestones from time to time and can eventually
cause Karst a landscape where sinkholes, caves and other structures that
may cause hazard takes place.
05. Biological Weathering (Chemical process) - Feces from other animals can act
as an acid resulting in weathering to that rock. Furthermore part of biological
weathering are man-made actions that can increase weathering, just like the
type below.
06.Acidification - It’s formed in acid rains mostly from sulfur oxides after burning
fossil fuels. When sulfur oxide was fused with rain water it can be a
dangerous acid that can weather rocks.

According to Cambridge University, Weathering is usually small compared to other

hazards mentioned below like mass wasting but it is still considered a hazard
because it can contribute to rockslides and landslides. Plus chemical weathering can
release toxins that are toxic for humans.

II. What is Erosion? (INCREASE RISK OF FLOODING)

- If weathering is the process of breaking down rocks, erosion is the process of
transporting rocks with the help of erosion agents such as wind, ice, and
running water.
Types of Erosion:
01.Water Erosion - According to the Article of National Geographic, Water is the
top agent of erosion because bodies of waters like river, lakes, flood, and
ocean carry out bits of rocks and sends that serve as tools for transported
soil and sediments.
Aside from this rainwater aka running water also produces different types of erosion:
- Splash Erosion - The tiny splash of rain drops has a bit of force since it’s
coming from the sky and when it hits the ground it has an impact on the soil,
aggregating them and scattering tiny pieces of soil around.
- Sheet Erosion - Erosion from runoff or surface water moving to rivers and
streams.
- Rill Erosion - Runoff develops to discrete streams.
 - Gully Erosion - Carries water during rainfall but are small valley / crevasses
during dry season.
02.Wind Erosion - According to studies, wind is the most active erosion in
beaches, deserts and open fields, because when the wind is strong it can
carry solid particles. The faster the wind, the more particles it can carry. An
example of this is Dunes where it consists of loose sands and Loes are sands
that are deposited. Loes are good for growing plants.

03.Ice erosion (Not possible in the Philippines) -This is a type of erosion where it
carries solid particles through ice in the form of glaciers. The accumulation of
dirt and rocks from glacier surface is called moraine. Under Ice erosion is a
drumlin , meltwater deposits, iceberg deposits, and glacial lake.
04. Tunnel Erosion​- When water penetrates through a soil crack or a hole where a
root has decayed, the soil disperses and is carried away with the flow to leave
a small tunnel.​
05. Stream Bank - Major caused of this is destruction of vegetation on river banks
(generally by clearing, overgrazing, cultivation, vehicle traffic up and down
banks or fire) and the removal of sand and gravel from the stream bed.​

III. What is Mass Wasting?

- It’s also the process of transporting weathered material but through gravity
only.

FAST MASS MOVEMENTS

01.Earth Flow - Earth Flow is a type of mass wasting where an earth material
falls beneath the ground due to storms where the soil can't hold on the
mountain, cliff, or hill. It can happen fast or it may take months before it falls.
02.Mudflow - Unlike in Earthflow, mudflow falls down in literally liquid form, like a
mud, because of heavy rainfall and lack of healthy vegetation to hold the
ground.

03.Debris Avalanche - Due to trapped air it eventually results in flow of rock

debris, soil, water, dusts, and air that races down the slope.
 04.Creep- It’s the slow type of mass wasting mostly due to seasonal changes.

05.Landslides - It's an example of mass Wasting where land from a mountain

falls beneath the ground due to gravity with factors such as volcanic eruption,
earthquake and rain contributing to this occurrence.

IV. What is Sedimentation?

- In the researcher’s own understanding so far, sedimentation is where
sedimentary rocks fill up the ocean floor affecting its elevation surface
making it uneven. Algae will also increase due to this resulting in risk for
people diving in bodies of water full of sediments.
V. What is Faulting of Rocks? (ENDOGENIC PROCESSES)
- Through faulting of rocks, earthquakes might happen.
- It’s under aggradation processes and degradation processes where a land
structure either moves up or down. Connected to tectonic plates movement.
01.Reverse Fault - Hanging wall moves up due to compression.
02.Normal Fault - Hanging wall from faults moves down due to separation of
plates.
03.Strike-slip Fault - Pushes the rocks horizontally.

REFERENCE:
SCIENTIFIC INFORMATIONS
● https://www.dnr.sc.gov/geology/pdfs/education/Weathering%20and%20Erosi
on.ppt#:~:text=Erosion%20is%20the%20physical%20removal,down%20slope
%20primarily%20by%20gravity.
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mJJtD0Mh914
● https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Landslide-flood-and-storm-surge-suscep
tibility-maps-of-Tacloban-City_fig1_292675192
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YE8YERBWa_0&t=211s
● https://studynlearn.com/blog/effects-of-weathering/#:~:text=Weathering%20
can%20contribute%20to%20the,be%20harmful%20to%20living%20organisms.
● https://opentextbc.ca/geology/chapter/5-1-mechanical-weathering/#:~:text=
Granitic%20rock%20tends%20to%20exfoliate,along%20which%20it%20must%
20fracture.
● https://www.earthsciweek.org/classroom-activities/rock-abrasion#:~:text=Ro
cks%20break%20down%20into%20smaller,and%20jagged%20edges%20break
%20off.
● https://www.geolsoc.org.uk/ks3/gsl/education/resources/rockcycle/page356
4.html
● https://eartheclipse.com/science/geology/definition-processes-types-of-che
mical-weathering.html
● https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/weathering/
● https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/geomorphological-hazards-and-
disaster-prevention/weathering-hazards/1ADC30BBBE5E55E97F79FD48796C
3134
● https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/erosion/
● https://www.bgs.ac.uk/discovering-geology/geological-processes/weathering
/#:~:text=Biological%20weathering%20is%20caused%20by,be%20a%20sourc
e%20of%20weathering!
● https://www.earthsciweek.org/classroom-activities/rock-abrasion#:~:text=Ro
cks%20break%20down%20into%20smaller,and%20jagged%20edges%20break
%20off.
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qhSzpCpI38U
● https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/geology/mass-wasting/types-of-m
ass-wasting
● https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/erosion/