BIONIC EYE

by

AKSHAT SAYYAM JAIN

318506408002

2/2 AIML(MTECH)
 BIONIC EYE

by
Karishma Shah (1109122022)

Submitted to the Department of Instrumentation and Control

in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
Bachelor of Technology
in
Instrumentation and Control

JSS Academy of Technical Education Noida

U.P. Technical University

April, 2014
TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

CERTIFICATE ........................................................................................ ii
DECLARATION ................................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................. iv
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................... v
INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………... vi

CHAPTER 1 The Human Eye ………………………………………………… 1

1.1. ................................................................................................................. 2
1.2. ................................................................................................................. 2
1.3…………………………………………………………………………… 3
1.3.1……………………………………………………………………… 3
1.3.2……………………………………………………………………… 3
1.3.3……………………………………………………………………… 3
1.3.4………………………………………………………………………. 4
1.4……………………………………………………………………………. 4
1.4.1………………………………………………………………………. 4
1.4.2………………………………………………………………………. 4
1.4.3………………………………………………………………………. 5
1.4.4………………………………………………………………………. 5
CHAPTER 2 The Bionic Eye…………................................................................ 6
2.1. .................................................................................................................. 6
2.2. .................................................................................................................. 7
CHAPTER 3 History of Bionic Eye…………………………………………. 9
3.1. .............................................................................................................. 9
3.2. .............................................................................................................. 11
3.3 ………………………………………………………………………... 12
3.3.1. ..................................................................................................... 12
3.3.2………. .......................................................................................... 13
CHAPTER 4 History of Bionic Eye…… ......................................................... 15
4.1. ................................................................................................................ 15
4.2. ................................................................................................................ 17
4.2.1……………………………………………………………………. 19
4.2.2……………………………………………………………………. 19
4.2.3……………………………………………………………………. 19
4.2.4…………………………………………………………………….. 20
 4.3……………………………………………………………………………. 20
4.3.1………………………………………………………………………. 20
4.3.2………………………………………………………………………. 21
4.3.3………………………………………………………………………. 22
4.3.4………………………………………………………………………. 22
CHAPTER 5 On Going Projects............................................................................. 24
5.1……………………………………………………………………………… 24
5.1.1………………………………………………………………………… 24
5.1.2………………………………………………………………………… 25
5.1.3………………………………………………………………………… 25
5.1.4………………………………………………………………………… 25
5.1.5………………………………………………………………………… 26
5.2……………………………………………………………………………..... 26
5.3………………………………………………………………………………. 27
5.3.1………………………………………………………………………… 28
5.3.2………………………………………………………………………… 29
5.4……………………………………………………………………………….. 31
5.4.1…………………………………………………………………………. 31
5.4.2…………………………………………………………………………. 31
5.4.3…………………………………………………………………………. 31
5.4.4…………………………………………………………………………. 32
5.4.5…………………………………………………………………………. 32
5.4.6…………………………………………………………………………. 33
5.4.7…………………………………………………………………………. 34
5.4.8…………………………………………………………………………. 34
5.4.9………………………………………………………………………….. 35
5.5……………………………………………………………………………...... 36
5.6……..…………………………………………………………………………. 36
5.6.1………………………………………………………………………….. 36
5.6.2………………………………………………………………………….. 37
CHAPTER 6 Conclusions…………………………………………………………….. 38
References…………………………………………………………………………….......... 39
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1… ............................................................................................................. 1
FIGURE 2… ............................................................................................................. 7
FIGURE 3.1… ......................................................................................................... 11
FIGURE 3.2… ......................................................................................................... 13
FIGURE 3.3… ......................................................................................................... 14
FIGURE 4.1… ......................................................................................................... 15
FIGURE 4.2… ......................................................................................................... 17
FIGURE 4.3… ......................................................................................................... 18
FIGURE 4.4… ......................................................................................................... 18
FIGURE 4.5… ......................................................................................................... 23
FIGURE 5.1… ......................................................................................................... 24
FIGURE 5.2… ......................................................................................................... 27
FIGURE 5.3… ......................................................................................................... 30
FIGURE 5.4… ......................................................................................................... 33
FIGURE 5.5… ......................................................................................................... 34
FIGURE 5.6… ......................................................................................................... 36
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 3…………………………………………………………… 9
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Project Report entitled “BIONIC EYE” which is submitted by Karishma
Shah in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree B. Tech. in Department
of Instrumentation and Control of U. P. Technical University, is a record of the candidate
own work carried out by him under my/our supervision. The matter embodied in this thesis is
original and has not been submitted for the award of any other degree.

Date: Supervisor
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge
and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by another person nor
material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for the award of any other degree or
diploma of the university or other institute of higher learning, except where due
acknowledgment has been made in the text.

Signature;

Name – Karishma Shah

Roll No. - 1109122022

Date -
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It gives us a great sense of pleasure to present the report of the B. Tech Project undertaken
during B. Tech. Final Year. We owe special debt of gratitude to Professor Bhupesh Aneja,
Department of Instrumentation & Control, JSS Academy of Technical Education, Noida for
his constant support and guidance throughout the course of our work. His sincerity,
thoroughness and perseverance have been a constant source of inspiration for us. It is only his
cognizant efforts that our endeavors have seen light of the day.

We also take the opportunity to acknowledge the contribution of Professor O. N. Panday, Head,
Department of Instrumentation & Control, JSS Academy of Technical Education, Noida for
his full support and assistance during the development of the project.

We also do not like to miss the opportunity to acknowledge the contribution of all faculty
members of the department for their kind assistance and cooperation during the development
of our project. Last but not the least, we acknowledge our friends for their contribution in the
completion of the project.

Signature:

Name : Karishma Shah

Roll No.: 1109122022

Date :
 Abstract

Bionic eye technology represents a groundbreaking approach to restoring

vision for individuals with visual impairments. This innovative field combines
principles from electronics, neuroscience, and biomedical engineering to
develop visual prostheses capable of bypassing damaged or non-functional
parts of the eye and transmitting visual information directly to the brain. In this
abstract, we provide an overview of the current state of bionic eye technology,
including the underlying principles, key components, and recent
advancements. We discuss the challenges and opportunities in developing
bionic eye systems, highlighting the importance of image processing
algorithms, neural interfaces, and biocompatible materials. Furthermore, we
explore the potential impact of bionic eyes on the lives of individuals with
visual impairments, including improvements in independence, mobility, and
quality of life. By leveraging interdisciplinary research and technological
innovation, bionic eye technology holds the promise of revolutionizing vision
restoration and enhancing the wellbeing of millions worldwide.
 INTRODUCTION

The advent of bionic eye technology marks a significant milestone in the

intersection of biology and engineering, offering hope and opportunities for
individuals with visual impairments. Harnessing the principles of advanced
electronics and biomedical engineering, bionic eyes aim to restore vision to
those affected by conditions such as retinitis pigmentosa and age-related
macular degeneration. This transformative technology holds the promise of
enhancing the quality of life for millions worldwide.

At its core, a bionic eye system functions as an artificial visual prosthesis,

replicating the intricate processes of the human eye to transmit visual
information to the brain. Through a combination of cutting-edge hardware and
sophisticated algorithms, these devices bypass damaged or non-functioning
parts of the eye to deliver visual stimuli directly to the optic nerve.

The primary components of a typical bionic eye system include an external

camera, a processor unit, and an implanted electrode array. The camera captures
visual input from the environment, which is then processed and converted into
electrical signals by the processor unit. These signals are subsequently
transmitted to the electrode array, which interfaces with the retinal cells or optic
nerve, stimulating them to generate visual perceptions.

One of the key challenges in developing bionic eye technology lies in achieving
seamless integration with the complex biological systems of the human body.
Engineers and researchers continuously strive to refine the design and
functionality of these devices, optimizing their performance while minimizing
potential risks and side effects. Despite some challenges, the potential benefits
of bionic eyes are profound. For individuals living with visual impairments,
these devices offer newfound independence and the ability to perceive the
world in ways previously unimaginable. As research progresses and technology
advances, the future holds promise for even greater strides in the field of bionic
vision, unlocking new possibilities for those in need.
 Literature Survey
A literature survey for bionic eye technology involves reviewing research articles, academic
papers, and other scholarly publications to gain insight into the current state of the field.
Here is an overview of some key studies and resources that provide valuable information on
bionic eye technology:

1. "Artificial Vision: Retinal Prosthesis Systems" by Humayun and de Juan:

- This seminal paper provides an overview of retinal prosthesis systems, including
the development, design considerations, and clinical outcomes of various bionic
eye technologies.

2. "Current Artificial Vision Systems: Progress, Limitations and Future Directions" by

Ayton et al.:
- This review article offers a comprehensive assessment of existing artificial vision
systems, highlighting their technological advancements, clinical efficacy, and
challenges in restoring vision to individuals with retinal degenerative diseases.

3. "The Argus II Retinal Prosthesis System" by da Cruz et al.:

- This study reports on the clinical trial results and long-term outcomes of the
Argus II retinal prosthesis system, providing valuable insights into the safety,
efficacy, and patient experience of this bionic eye technology.

4. "Optic Nerve Stimulation for the Rehabilitation of Visual Function" by Veraart et

al.:
- This research paper investigates the feasibility and potential benefits of optic
nerve stimulation as a novel approach to restoring visual function in individuals
with profound vision loss, offering alternative strategies to retinal-based prosthetic
devices.

5. "Visual Prostheses: A Review of Past, Present, and Future" by Stingl et al.:

- This comprehensive review article examines the historical development, current
state, and future prospects of visual prostheses, including retinal implants, cortical
implants, and optic nerve stimulation devices.

6. "Clinical Trial Results with the Argus II Retinal Prosthesis System: A 30-Year
Retrospective" by Humayun et al.:
- This retrospective analysis evaluates the long-term clinical outcomes and patient
satisfaction with the Argus II retinal prosthesis system, providing valuable insights
into the durability and efficacy of this bionic eye technology over extended periods.

7. "Recent Advances in Retinal Prostheses" by Sahel et al.:

- This review paper discusses recent technological advancements and research
findings in the field of retinal prostheses, including innovative electrode designs,
biocompatible materials, and improved stimulation strategies to enhance visual
perception and device longevity.

8. "Neuroengineering Interface Circuits" by Ng et al.:

- This study explores the design and implementation of neuroengineering
interface circuits for bionic eye systems, focusing on signal processing, power
management, and communication protocols to optimize the performance and
functionality of implantable devices.

By reviewing these and other relevant literature sources, researchers and clinicians
can gain valuable insights into the current challenges, advancements, and future
directions in bionic eye technology, ultimately guiding the development of
innovative solutions to improve visual restoration for individuals with vision loss.
 CHAPTER -1

1. THE HUMAN EYE

We are able to see because light from an object can move through space and reach our
eyes.Once light reaches our eyes, signals are sent to our brain, and our brain deciphers the
information in order to detect the appearance, location and movement of the objects we
are sighting at.

The human eye is a complex sensory organ responsible for vision. It consists of several key
components, including the cornea, iris, pupil, lens, retina, and optic nerve. Light enters the eye
through the cornea and pupil, is focused by the lens, and strikes the retina, where photoreceptor
cells convert it into electrical signals. These signals are transmitted via the optic nerve to the
brain, where they are interpreted as visual information. The eye can perceive colors, shapes, and
movements, allowing individuals to navigate and interact with their environment. Regular eye
care, including routine check-ups and protection from harmful UV rays, is essential for
maintaining healthy vision.
Fig. 1: How Human Eye Works
 The eyeball is present in a protective cone-shaped cavity in the skull called the orbit or
socket and measures approximately one inch in diameter. The orbit is covered by layers of
soft, fatty tissue which protect the eye and enable it to turn easily. The important part of an
eye is retina.
The retina lies at the back of the eye and it acts as though the film in a camera act
byreceiving and processing everything.

1.1 How the Human Eye Works

The human eye works by capturing light from the environment and converting it into electrical
signals that the brain interprets as vision. Light enters through the cornea, passes through the
pupil (which adjusts in size to control the amount of light entering), and is focused by the lens
onto the retina at the back of the eye.

The retina contains photoreceptor cells called rods and cones, which detect light and send signals
through the optic nerve to the brain. Rods are sensitive to low light and responsible for night
vision, while cones detect color and detail in brighter conditions. The brain processes these
signals into images, allowing us to perceive the world around us.

1.2 Visual Acuity and 20/20 Vision

Visual acuity is the sharpness of vision determined by a person's ability to discriminate fine
details, and is measured by using specially devised tests and charts. One chart that is
commonly used for measuring visual acuity is the Snellen chart, which contains letters of
thealphabet arranged by line, with each line of letters from the bottom up increasing in
size. Theletters on the lowest line are the smallest letters on the chart, and the letter at the
top is the largest. The character on the bottom line represent 20/20 vision; the single large
letter at the top represents 20/200, the designation of legal blindness.When the Snellen
chart is used, visual acuity is generally measured with a person seated 20feet away from
the chart. A person who has normal visual acuity has 20/20 vision.
 1.3 Why People Need Glasses—Refractive Errors

Refractive errors occur as a result of irregularities in the shape of the cornea, the actual size or
shape of the eyeball itself, or the focusing capacity of the lens. Common refractive errors that are
fully corrected with eyeglasses or contact lenses are not visual impairments becausesight can be
corrected to normal. Nearly every person is likely to have a refractive error at some point in life,
especially after age 40, and perhaps need to wear eyeglasses or contact lenses. The common
refractive errors are:

1.3.1 Myopia (Nearsightedness)

Myopia is blurred vision that occurs when the eye's focusing mechanism brings light to a
focus in front of the retina, usually because the eyeball is very elongated in shape.
Eyeglassesor contact lenses correct myopia but do not slow or alter its progression.

1.3.2 Hyperopia (Farsightedness)

Hyperopia is blurred vision that occurs when light is focused behind the retina,usually
because the eyeball is short or small. Eyeglasses or contact lenses correct hyperopia but
donot slow or alter its progression.

1.3.3 Astigmatism

Astigmatism is a common refractive error of the eye that affects how light is focused, leading to blurry
or distorted vision at all distances. It occurs when the cornea or lens of the eye has an irregular
shape, causing light rays to focus on multiple points instead of a single point on the retina. This
results in images appearing blurry or stretched out.

Overall, astigmatism is a common vision condition that can usually be effectively managed with
corrective lenses or surgery, allowing individuals to enjoy clear and comfortable vision. Early
detection and treatment are key to minimizing symptoms and optimizing visual outcomes for
those affected by astigmatism.
 Astigmatism refers to an irregularly curved cornea that distorts the focus of light entering the
eye. Generally corrective lenses restore clear vision.

1.3.4 Presbyopia

Presbyopia is a common age-related condition that affects the eye's ability to focus on near
objects. It typically becomes noticeable around the age of 40 and progresses with age.

This condition occurs due to the natural aging process of the eye, specifically changes in the
lens and its surrounding muscles. As people age, the lens becomes less flexible and loses its
ability to change shape easily, making it harder to focus on close-up objects.

Symptoms of presbyopia include difficulty reading small print, eye strain when doing close
work, and the need to hold reading material farther away to see it clearly

Presbyopia can be corrected with reading glasses, bifocals, progressive lenses, or contact
lenses designed for presbyopia. Refractive surgery such as LASIK or lens replacement
surgery may also be options for some individuals.

1.4 Visual Impairment

Visual impairment refers to a condition in which an individual experiences limitations or loss of vision that
cannot be fully corrected with glasses, contact lenses, medication, or surgery. It encompasses a wide
range of visual impairments, from mild to severe, and can affect people of all ages.

Causes of visual impairment vary and may include:

1. Refractive errors: Conditions such as nearsightedness (myopia), farsightedness (hyperopia), and

astigmatism can cause blurry vision and difficulty focusing.

2. Age-related eye conditions: Conditions such as presbyopia (loss of near vision with age), cataracts
(clouding of the eye's lens), and age-related macular degeneration (deterioration of the macula, leading to
central vision loss) are common causes of visual impairment in older adults.

3. Eye diseases: Conditions such as glaucoma (damage to the optic nerve), diabetic retinopathy (damage
to blood vessels in the retina), and retinitis pigmentosa (progressive degeneration of the retina) can lead
to vision loss.

4. Eye injuries: Trauma to the eye, including injuries from accidents, sports, or workplace incidents, can
cause visual impairment.

Visual impairment can have significant impacts on daily life, affecting activities such as reading, driving,
recognizing faces, and navigating the environment. It can also impact educational and employment
opportunities, as well as mental and emotional well-being.
 CHAPTER-2

2.THE BIONIC EYE

2.1 What are BIONICS?

Bionics, derived from the term "bionics" or "biologically inspired engineering," is a field of science and
technology that combines principles from biology, engineering, and robotics to create artificial systems that
mimic or enhance biological processes. The goal of bionics is to develop innovative solutions that improve
human capabilities, enhance quality of life, and address various challenges by drawing inspiration from
biological organisms and systems.

Bionics encompasses a wide range of applications across different disciplines, including:

1. **Prosthetics and Orthotics:** Bionic prostheses and orthoses are artificial limbs or body parts designed
to replace or enhance the function of missing or impaired biological counterparts. These devices can restore
mobility, dexterity, and sensory feedback to individuals with limb loss or disabilities.

2. **Sensory Augmentation:** Bionic sensors and implants are devices that interface with the nervous
system to enhance sensory perception or provide new sensory capabilities. Examples include cochlear
implants for hearing restoration and retinal implants for vision restoration in individuals with visual
impairments.

3. **Bioinspired Robotics:** Bionic robots and robotic systems are inspired by biological organisms and
mechanisms, such as animal locomotion, insect flight, and human-like dexterity. These robots are designed
to perform tasks in diverse environments, from exploring underwater ecosystems to assisting with surgical
procedures.

4. **Biomedical Engineering:** Bionics plays a crucial role in the development of biomedical devices and
technologies, including artificial organs, tissue engineering, and drug delivery systems. These innovations
aim to improve medical diagnosis, treatment, and patient care by mimicking or interfacing with biological
systems.

5. **Neuroprosthetics:** Bionic neuroprosthetic devices interface with the nervous system to restore or
enhance neural function. These devices can include brain-computer interfaces for controlling external
devices with brain signals, as well as deep brain stimulation implants for treating neurological disorders
such as Parkinson's disease and epilepsy.

Bionics represents a rapidly evolving field with vast potential for innovation and impact across various
domains, from healthcare and rehabilitation to robotics and artificial intelligence. By leveraging insights
from biology and engineering, bionics continues to push the boundaries of what is possible, offering new
opportunities to enhance human capabilities and improve quality of life.
 7

The term "biomimetic" is preferred when reference is made to chemical

reactions.[citation needed] In that domain, biomimetic chemistry refers to reactions that,
in nature, involve biological macromolecules (for example, enzymes or nucleic acids)
whose chemistry can be replicated using much smaller molecules in vitro.

Examples of bionics in engineering include the hulls of boats imitating the thick skin of
dolphins; sonar, radar, and medical ultrasound imaging imitating the echolocation of
bats.

In the field of computer science, the study of bionics has produced artificial neurons,
artificial neural networks,[1] and swarm intelligence. Evolutionary computation was
also motivated by bionics ideas but it took the idea further by simulating evolution in
silico and producing well-optimized solutions that had never appeared in nature.

It is estimated by Julian Vincent, professor of biomimetics at the University of Bath's

department of mechanical engineering Biomimetics group, that "at present there is only
a 12% overlap between biology and technology in terms of the mechanisms used"

2.2 Bionic Eye

It is an artificial eye which provokes visual sensations in the brain by directly

stimulating different parts of the optic nerve. Bionic eye consist of electronic systems
which consist of image sensors, processors, receivers, radio transmitters and retinal
chips.There are also other experimental implants that can stimulate the ganglia cells on
the retina or the visual cortex of the brain itself.
Technology paved way through a bionic eye to allow blind people to see again.

Fig. 2: Bionic Eye

 8

A bionic eye, also known as a visual prosthesis, is a cutting-edge medical device

designed to restore partial vision to individuals with severe visual impairments or blindness.
Drawing inspiration from the natural function of the human eye, bionic eyes employ
advanced electronics, biomedical engineering, and neurotechnology to bypass damaged or
non-functional parts of the visual system and transmit visual information directly to the brain.

The basic principle of a bionic eye involves capturing visual input from the environment
using an external camera, processing this information into electrical signals, and delivering
these signals to the remaining functional parts of the visual pathway, such as the optic nerve
or retinal cells. Key components of a typical bionic eye system include:

1. External Camera: The external camera serves as the primary input device, capturing
visual scenes from the surrounding environment. These cameras are often mounted on
glasses or a headset worn by the user and are equipped with sensors to capture light and
convert it into digital images.

2. Processor Unit: The processor unit receives raw image data from the external camera
and processes it into a format suitable for transmission to the implanted electrode array. This
component includes specialized algorithms for image enhancement, edge detection, and
object recognition to improve the quality of the visual input.

3. Implanted Electrode Array: The implanted electrode array is surgically placed in or

near the eye and interfaces with the retinal cells or optic nerve. When stimulated by electrical
signals from the processor unit, these electrodes trigger neural activity, mimicking the natural
process of visual perception.

4. Neural Interface: The neural interface serves as the bridge between the electronic
components of the bionic eye system and the biological components of the visual system. It
ensures efficient transmission of electrical signals from the electrode array to the brain,
enabling the perception of visual stimuli.

Advancements in bionic eye technology have led to significant improvements in visual

perception and quality of life for individuals with visual impairments. However, challenges
such as limited resolution, restricted field of view, and long-term biocompatibility remain
areas of active research and development. Additionally, personalized customization and
optimization of bionic eye systems are essential to address individual differences in visual
perception and user preferences.

Despite these challenges, the potential benefits of bionic eyes are profound. For
individuals living with visual impairments, these devices offer newfound independence,
enhanced mobility, and the ability to perceive the world in ways previously unimaginable. As
research progresses and technology advances, the future holds promise for even greater
strides in the field of bionic vision, unlocking new possibilities for those in need.
 9

CHAPTER – 3

3. History of Bionic Eye

Table 3 :- Development of The Bionic Eye

Event Event Title: Event Description:

Date:

1st These where the first days of creation of the

May, The First Ideas bionic eye by Gregg Suaning and Nigel
1997 Lovell.

1st Gregg Sauning In early 2002 Gregg Sauning moved to the

Jan, Leaves For More Univerisity of Newcastle for more training.
2002 Education
 10

Event
Event Title: Event Description:
Date:

1st 50,000 People In 2004 it was declared that 50,000 people

Jan, Declared Legally were legally blind in Australia and so the
2004 Blind bionic eye was seen as unnecersary.

Gregg Suaning
15th Gregg Suaning and Nigel Lovell attend Eye
and Nigel Lovell
Jun, and Chip Congress in Detroit, sponsored by
attend Eye and
2006 the Detroit Institute of Ophthalmolgy.
Chip Congress

1st In late 2007 Gregg Sauning returns to

Gregg Sauning
Dec, UNSW (Univerisity of New South Wales) as
Returns
2007 an associalte professor.

BVA Was Over a four year period begining on the 1st

1st Awarded $42 of January Australian Federal Government
Jan, million To awarded a $42 million ARC grant to Bionic
2010 Develop The Vision Australia to develop bionic vision
Bionic Eye technology.

Kevin Rudd launched Bionic Vision

Australia, a group fromed of Australian
Vision Prosthesis Group at UNSW,
30th University of Melbourne, University of
Kevin Rudd
Mar, Western Sydney, Australian National
Launches BVA
2010 University, Centre for Eye Research
Australia, the Bionic Ear Institute and
NICTA.

First Advanced
31st
Prototype of The The first advanced prototype of the bionic
Mar,
98 Electrode eye was released.
2010
Bionic Eye

A Year Away
From The
19th Finished Product BVA are approximately a year away from
Jul,
of the 98 completing the fifteen year project.
2012
Electrode Bionic
Eye

1st
Human Trials The first human trials are planned to take
May,
Begin place.
2013

Expected Finish
1st
Date of The 98 The bionic eye is on track to be finished by
Jan,
Electrode Bionic 2014
2014
Eye
 11

Event
Event Title: Event Description:
Date:

Prototype of A
2nd
Higher The high definition prototype consisting of
May,
Resolution Bionic 1000 electrodes is to be ready for testing.
2014
Eye
 12

Biological considerations

The ability to give sight to a blind person via a bionic eye depends on the circumstances
surrounding the loss of sight.
1) For retinal prostheses, which are the most prevalent visual prosthetic under
development , patients with vision loss due to degeneration
of photoreceptors (retinitis pigmentosa, macular degeneration) are the best
candidate for treatment.
2) Candidates for visual prosthetic implants find the procedure most successful
if the optic nerve was developed prior to the onset of blindness.

Macular Degeneration

Macular degeneration, often age-related macular degeneration (AMD or ARMD), is

a medical condition that usually affects older adults and results in a loss of vision in the
center of the visual field (the macula) because of damage to the retina. It occurs in "dry" and
"wet" forms. It is a major cause of blindness and visual impairment in older adults (>50

Fig.3.2: Macular Degeneration

 13

years). Macular degeneration can make it difficult or impossible to read or recognize faces,
although enough peripheral vision remains to allow other activities of daily life.

Although some macular dystrophies affecting younger individuals are sometimes referred to
as macular degeneration, the term generally refers to age-related macular degeneration (AMD
or ARMD).
The retina is a network of visual receptors and nerves. It lies on the choroid, a network of
blood vessels which supplies the retina with blood.
In the dry (nonexudative) form, cellular debris called drusen accumulates between the retina
and the choroid, and the retina can become detached. In the wet (exudative) form, which is
more severe, blood vessels grow up from the choroid behind the retina, and the retina can
also become detached. It can be treated with laser coagulation, and with medication that stops
and sometimes reverses the growth of blood vessels

Retinis pigmentosa

Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is an inherited, degenerative eye disease that causes severe vision
impairment and often blindness.The progress of RP is not consistent. Some people will
exhibit symptoms from infancy, others may not notice symptoms until later in life. Generally,
the later the onset, the more rapid is the deterioration in sight.Those who do not have RP have
90 degree peripheral vision, while some people who have RP have less than 90 degrees.
A form of retinal dystrophy, RP is caused by abnormalities of
the photoreceptors (rods and cones) or the retinal pigment epithelium(RPE) of
the retina leading to progressive sight loss. Affected individuals may experience defective
 14

light to dark, dark to light adaptation or nyctalopia (night blindness), as the result of the
degeneration of the peripheral visual field (known as tunnel vision). Sometimes, central
vision is lost first causing the person to look sidelong at objects.
The effect of RP is best illustrated by comparison to a television or computer screen. The
pixels of light that form the image on the screen equate to the millions of light receptors on
the retina of the eye. The fewer pixels on a screen, the less distinct will be the images it will
display. Fewer than 10 percent of the light receptors in the eye receive the colored, high
intensity light seen in bright light or daylight conditions. These receptors are located in the
center of the circular retina. The remaining 90 percent of light receptors receive gray-scale,
low intensity light used for low light and night vision and are located around the periphery of
the retina. RP destroys light receptors from the outside inward, from the center outward, or in
sporadic patches with a corresponding reduction in the efficiency of the eye to detect light.
This degeneration is progressive and has no known cure.

Fig.3.3 : Retinis Pigmentosa

 15

CHAPTER – 4

1. WORKING OF THE BIONIC IMPLANT

4.1 Working

A bionic eye implant that could help restore the sight of millions of blind people could be
available to patients within two years.
This device is 2 millimeters across and contains some 3,500 micro photodiodes which is
placed behind the retina, this collection of miniature solar cells is designed to convert normal
light to electrical signals, which are then transmitted to the brain by the remaining.

Fig. 4.1: How the Bionic Eye Implant Works

 16

healthy parts of the retina. A Belgian device has a coil that covers around the optic nerve,
with only four points of electrical contact. By shifting the phase and varying the strength of
the signals, the coil can stimulate different parts of the optic nerve, rather like the way the
electron guns in TVs are aimed at different parts of the screen. The video signal senters from
an external camera and are transmitted to the implant through a radio antenna and microchip
under the skin just behind the ear. Implants of a microchip, smaller than the head of a pin
and about half the thickness of a sheet of paper were used to remove blindness.

The eye-position monitor controls the image camera's orientation. If the image-acquisition
camera is not mounted on the head, compensation for head movement will be needed.
Finally, if a retinal prosthesis is to receive power and signal input from outside the eye via an
IR beam entering the pupil, the transmitter must be aligned with the intraocular chip. The

beam has played two roles: one is to sends power, and another is to send pulse - or amplitude
- modulated to transmit image data. Using the control of eye movement, the main imaging
camera for each eye can swivel in any direction. Each of these cameras--located just outside
the users' field of view to avoid blocking whatever peripheral vision they might have captures
the image of the outside world and transmits the information through an optical fiber to a
signal-processing computer worn on the body.
The Argus II system uses a spectacle-mounted camera which is used to send information to
electrodes in the eye. Patients who tested less-advanced versions of the retinal implant were
able to see light, shapes and movement.
The function of Bionic eye is to take real-time images from a camera and convert into tiny
electrical pulses that help the blind eyes to see.

1: Camera which is implanted on glasses helps to view the image.

2: Signals are sent to hand-held device
3: The information which processed is sent back to glasses and wirelessly transmitted to
receiver under surface of eye.
4: Receiver sends information to electrodes in retinal implant.
5: Electrodes stimulate retina to send information to brain
 17

Fig. 4.2: Retinal Implant

Retinal implants can partially restore the vision of people with particular blindness caused by
diseases such as macular degeneration or retinitis pigmentosa. About one and half million
people worldwide have retinitis pigmentosa, and one in ten people over the age of fifty five
have age-related macular degeneration. Both diseases cause the retinal cells which process
light at the back of the eye to gradually diminish.

The new device invented work by implanting an array of tiny electrodes into the back of the
retina. A camera is used to capture pictures which consist of a processing unit about the size
of a small handheld computer and worn on a belt helps to convert the visual information into
electrical signals.
These are then sent back to the glasses and wirelessly on to a receiver just under the surface
of the front of the eye, which in turn feeds them to the electrodes at the rear.
• Growing Dots
First-generation, low-resolution devices have already been fitted to six patients.
• Brain Change
The new implant has a higher resolution than the earlier devices, with 60 electrodes.

4.2 RETINAL PROSTHESIS SYSTEM

Second Sight Medical has just received USFDA

 18

Investigational Device Exemption (IDE) to begin clinical trials for their Argus II Retinal
Prosthesis System.

Fig. 4.3: Second Sight

At Second Sight, their retinal prosthesis uses an array of electrodes to stimulate the retina. It
restores a low level of vision in patients with degenerative diseases. Their first implant had
sixteen electrodes; the new Argus II has 60 electrodes.
The Argus II implant consists of an array of electrodes that are attached to the retina and used
with an external camera and video processing system to provide a rudimentary form of sight
to implanted subjects. An IDE trial of the first generation implant (Argus™16), which has
sixteen electrodes, is ongoing at the Doheny Eye Institute at the University of Southern

California. The Argus 16 was implanted in six Patients between 2002 and 2004 and has
enabled them to detect when lights are on or off, recognize an object’s motion, count items,
as well as locate and differentiate basic objects in the surrounding.

Fig. 4.4: Argus II

 19

The next generation Argus II retinal stimulator is designed with 60 controllable electrodes,
which should provide implanted subjects with higher resolution images. Second Sight
remains the only manufacturer with an actively powered permanently implantable retinal
prosthesis under clinical study in the United States, and the technology represents the highest
electrode count for such a device anywhere in the world.

4.2.1 Effects

As of June 2012 in clinical trial the Argus II system has been implanted into a total of 32
people.[6] The best result achieved by the device was a visual acuity of 20/1260, where
blindness is defined as greater than 20/500 by the World Health Organization, and as 20/200
in the United States. Thus, while vision has been improved, no cases of actual blindness have
been resolved by the device. With respect to safety, serious adverse effects occurred in eleven
out of 30 users, minor adverse effects occur in 17 out of 30 users, and no adverse effects were
found in only two of the trial users. One user had their Argus device removed due to a severe
adverse event.

4.2.2 Design

The Argus II is primarily designed to treat sufferers of retinitis pigmentosa, a genetic ocular
disease which affects approximately 1.5 million people worldwide. The device consists of
two primary elements – a retinal implant and an external system consisting of an eyeglass-
mounted camera in combination with a small processor. The camera records real-time
images, which are processed and sent wirelessly to the implant by a built-in video processor.
The implant then uses 60 electrodes to stimulate the patient's remaining healthy retinal cells
and send visual information to the optic nerve, thus restoring the ability to discern light,
movement, and shapes.[9] In some cases, the Argus II can restore sufficient vision to allow
blind users to read large print books. As of 2013, the Argus II has a unit cost of around
US$100,000.

4.2.3 Regulation status

The Argus II received approval for clinical and commercial use in the European Union in
March 2011. It was initially available at a limited number of clinics in France and
Switzerland, and had an EU market price of $115,000. Thereafter, Second Sight began
seeking US clinical approval for the device. In September 2012, advisers to the US Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) voted unanimously to approve the Argus II. In February 2013,
 20

the FDA approved the Argus II as a "humanitarian use device", authorizing its use for up to
4,000 US patients per year. In August 2013, Second Sight announced that reimbursement
payments had been approved for the Argus II for blind Medicare recipients in the USA.

4.2.4 Company history and development

The implant's developer, Second Sight, was founded in Sylmar, California, in 1998, although
low-level research and design efforts began in 1991. The first version of the prosthesis, the
Argus I, was developed in 2002, and clinically tested on six patients. The second version, the
Argus II, was first tested in Mexico in 2006, whereafter a 30-patient clinical trial was
conducted in ten medical centers across Europe and the United States.

4.3 Bionic Contact Lens

Bionic contat lenses are being developed to provide a virtual display that could have a variety
of uses from assisting the visually impaired to the video game industry. The device will have
the form of a conventional contact lens with added bionics technology in the form of
Augmented Reality, with functional electronic circuits and infrared lights to create a virtual
display. Babak Parviz, a University of Washington assistant professor of electrical
engineering is quoted as saying "Looking through a completed lens, you would see what the
display is generating superimposed on the world outside.”

4.3.1 Manufature

There are certain technical requirements that engineers have to meet in order to develop safe
bionic lenses. First, power must be provided to bionic lenses via wireless mediums. Second,
bionic lenses have to be bio-compatible. These requirements challenge engineers by limiting
their material choice and imposing a regulatory standard regarding radio-frequency radiation
Third, micro-scale components should be mechanically and electrically integrated on a
polymer substrate. And finally, all of these operations have to be completed within the
volume of standard contact lenses, that being 1 cm² in area with a thickness of 200 μm or
smaller.

How the Bionic Lens Works: basically, an antenna on the lens picks up a radio frequency.
The integrated circuit transforms and stores this energy. Chips harvest this energy and
 21

convert it into voltage that is necessary to power the LEDs. LEDs create an image, and
Fresnel lenses are used to project the generated image onto the retina.

4.3.2 Components

Antenna- The main function of the antenna is to pick up radio frequency energy transmitted
by an outlying source. Antenna design is influenced by physical constraints rather than
efficiency concerns. Because antennas have to fit the lens and be compatible with the eye
physiology, an antenna with 5 mm radius, 0.5 mm width, and 5.0 μm thickness was designed
to harvest RF energy. The antenna design is the main determinant of the amount of power
that can be received. With the current antenna design, there is only a small amount of power
available for the bionic lens. As the distance between the contact lens and the transmitting
antenna decreases, more power is available due to near field interactions.

Integrated Circuit (IC)- The electronic circuits are a few nanometers thick, and they are
used for power harvesting and LED control.

Self-Assembly Technique- Self-assembly is a micro-fabrication technique that is widely

used where micro-scale fabrication is necessary and where there is a delicate substrate. In
bionic lens production, it is used to position the electrical circuit components in their
respective locations within the lens. Electrical components are initially sprinkled onto a sheet
of flexible plastic. The shape of each tiny component determines the location to which it can
be attached. Capillary forces do the rest of the job to position each component in its location.

Chip- The chip harvests energy and transforms it into voltage that is necessary to power the
LED. The current working prototype consists of a transparent sapphire chip that contains a
custom-designed micro-light emitting diode with peak emission at 475 nm.

Light-Emitting Diode (LED)- LEDs are the core technology behind the bionic lens because
they form images in front of the eye, whether they are in the form of words, charts, or
photographs. Current LED chips measure 300 nanometers in diameter, while the “light
emitting” zone on each chip is a 60 nanometers wide ring with a radius of 112 nanometers.
Light-emitting diodes are one-third of a millimeter. While red LEDs were previously used for
prototype development, currently blue LEDs are preferred to achieve a full color display.
GaN and its alloys are also preferred due to their nontoxicity, high efficiency and emission
wavelength. Micro-LED design with a peak intensity of approximately 475 nm is achieved,
and it is adequate to illuminate the retinal.
 22

Fresnel Lenses- The minimum focal distance of the human eye doesn’t enable images
generated by the LEDs to reach the retina from the bionic lens. Even though the human eye
has a minimum focal distance of several centimeters, it is not capable of resolving objects on
a lens. Micro lenses provide a solution to this challenge. A micro lens is a lens with a
18.diameter as small as 10 micrometers; it can be fabricated on a plastic substrate. These
lenses have diffraction and reflection properties—and different focal lengths—and these
various functionalities can be used to address different design challenges. Fresnel lenses are a
fundamental part of the bionic lens design since they address the problem of focusing an
image to the retina. They are a class of micro lenses with a distinctive focusing property.
They can easily be fabricated on substrates and they can be structured to have a short focal
length. LED output is successfully reflected to the retina in this single-pixel wireless contact
lens.

Polymer Substrate with Electrical Interconnects- The lens itself consists of polyethylene
terephthalate (PET). This material is suitable especially for bionic lenses because of its good
chemical resistance, and thermal stability during photolithography and transparency. The
antenna, electrical interconnections, electrical isolation and pads for solder coating are
directly manufactured on the contact lens..

4.3.3 Development

Harvey Ho, a former graduate student of Parviz who worked at Sandia National
Laboratories in Livermore, California presented the results in January 2008 at the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers' International Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical
Systems(or microbotics) in Tucson, Arizona. The lens is expected to have more electronics
and capabilities on the areas where the eye does not see. Wireless communication, radio
frequency power transmission and solar cells are expected in future developments.

4.3.4 Prototype & Testing

In 2011, scientists created and successfully tested a functioning prototype with a wireless
antenna and a single-pixel display.
Previous prototypes proved that it is possible to create a biologically safe electronic lens that
does not obstruct a person’s view. Engineers have tested the finished lenses on rabbits for up
to 20 minutes and the animals showed no problems.
 23

Fig.4.5: Bionic Contact Lens

 24

CHAPTER – 5

2. Ongoing Projects

5.1 ARGUS II

5.1.1 Argus Retinal Prosthesis

The Argus retinal prosthesis is an electronic retinal implant produced by the California-
based company Second Sight.[1] It is designed primarily to improve the vision of those with
severe cases of the inherited disease retinitis pigmentosa. In March 2011, the Argus II version
of the system was approved for clinical and commercial use in the European Union. In
February 2013, the Argus II became the first commercial visual prosthesis to be approved for
use in the United States.
The system provides only a modest improvement in vision – with the best clinically proven
outcome being a visual acuity of 20/1260 – and most users experience some degree of
adverse side effects, with these reportedly being severe in 36%.

Fig 5.1: Argus II System

 25

5.1.2 Effects

As of June 2012 in clinical trials the Argus II system has been implanted into a total of 32
people.[6] The best result achieved by the device was a visual acuity of 20/1260,[6] where
blindness is defined as greater than 20/500 by the World Health Organization, and as 20/200
in the United States. Thus, while vision has been improved, no cases of actual blindness have
been resolved by the device. With respect to safety, serious adverse effects occurred in eleven
out of 30 users, minor adverse effects occur in 17 out of 30 users, and no adverse effects were
found in only two of the trial users. One user had their Argus device removed due to a severe
adverse event.

5.1.3 Design

The Argus II is primarily designed to treat sufferers of retinitis pigmentosa, a genetic ocular
disease which affects approximately 1.5 million people worldwide.[7] The device consists of
two primary elements – a retinal implant and an external system consisting of an eyeglass-
mounted camera in combination with a small processor. The camera records real-time
images, which are processed and sent wirelessly to the implant by a built-in video
processor.[8] The implant then uses 60 electrodes to stimulate the patient's remaining healthy
retinal cells and send visual information to the optic nerve, thus restoring the ability to
discern light, movement, and shapes. In some cases, the Argus II can restore sufficient vision
to allow blind users to read large print books. As of 2013, the Argus II has a unit cost of
around US$100,000.

5.1.4 Regulation Status

The Argus II received approval for clinical and commercial use in the European Union in
March 2011.[2] It was initially available at a limited number of clinics in France and
Switzerland, and had an EU market price of $115,000. Thereafter, Second Sight began
seeking US clinical approval for the device. In September 2012, advisers to the US Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) voted unanimously to approve the Argus II. In February 2013,
the FDA approved the Argus II as a "humanitarian use device", authorizing its use for up to
4,000 US patients per year.[4] In August 2013, Second Sight announced that reimbursement
payments had been approved for the Argus II for blind Medicare recipients in the USA.
 26

5.1.5 Company History & Development

The implant's developer, Second Sight, was founded in Sylmar, California, in 1998, although
low-level research and design efforts began in 1991. The first version of the prosthesis, the
Argus I, was developed in 2002, and clinically tested on six patients. The second version, the
Argus II, was first tested in Mexico in 2006, whereafter a 30-patient clinical trial was
conducted in ten medical centers across Europe and the United States.

5.2 Harvard/MIT Retinal Implant

Joseph Rizzo and John Wyatt at the Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary and MIT began
researching the feasibility of a retinal prosthesis in 1989, and performed a number of
proof-of-concept epiretinal stimulation trials on blind volunteers between 1998 and 2000.
1) They have since developed a subretinal stimulator, an array of electrodes, that is
placed
2) beneath the retina in the subretinal space and receives image signals beamed
from a

3) camera mounted on a pair of glasses. The stimulator chip decodes the picture
information
4) beamed from the camera and stimulates retinal ganglion cells accordingly.
5) Their second generation prosthesis collects data and sends it to the implant
through RF
6) fields from transmitter coils that are mounted on the glasses. A secondary
receiver coil is
7) Sutured around the iris.
8) We began in 1989 to develop the idea of a retinal implant to restore some
useful level of vision to patients who are blind with outer retinal diseases,
specifically retinitis pigmentosa and macular degeneration. The retinal
implant can be very coarsely understood as analogous to the cochlear implant
for the deaf. Our surgical experience on animals and 6 human patients caused
us to dramatically change direction about ten years ago to develop a
subretinal implant, i.e., an implant located immediately behind the retina
rather than one attached to the retina from the front.
 27

9) This talk will show the development of our implant design, and the
interaction of packaging and surgical trials with animals. All the
development so far has been done in an academic setting. We will describe
the final design we plan to submit to the FDA in 12-15 months for chronic
human implantation, and will discuss the advantages we believe this design
offers over others under development by a variety of companies in the US and
Europe.
10) Professor John L. Wyatt, Jr. is a principal investigator in the Research
Laboratoryof Electronics (RLE) at the of Technology (MIT). He received the
S.B. from MIT in 1968, the M.S. in electrical engineering from Princeton
University in 1970, and the Ph.D in electrical engineering from the University
of California Berkeley, in 1979. He conducted postdoctoral research at the
Medical College of Virginia before joining the MIT faculty in the Department
of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science in 1979.
11) Professor Wyatt is co-director of the Boston Retinal Implant Project. He also
headed an MIT project on analog integrated circuit for machine vision from
1988 to 1995. His other research interests include circuit theory, delay
estimation in digital integrated circuits, nonlinear circuits and systems,
random processes and electrical noise.

Fig.5.2: Retinal Implant

5.3 Bionic Vision Australia

An Australian team led by Professor Anthony Burkitt is developing two retinal prostheses.
The Wide-View device, combines novel technologies with materials that have been
 28

successfully used in other clinical implants. This approach incorporates a microchip with 98
stimulating electrodes and aims to provide increased mobility for patients to help them move
safely in their environment. This implant will be placed in the suprachoroidal space.
Researchers expect the first patient tests to begin with this device in 2013.
The Bionic Vision Australia consortium is concurrently developing the High-Acuity Device,
which incorporates a number of new technologies to bring together a microchip and an
implant with 1024 electrodes. The device aims to provide functional central vision to assist
with tasks such as face recognition and reading large print. This high-acuity implant will be
inserted epiretinally. Patient tests are planned for this device in 2014 once preclinical testing
has been completed.
Patients with retinitis pigmentosa will be the first to participate in the studies, followed by
age-related macular degeneration.

recognising Bionic Vision Australia is developing a bionic eye to restore vision to people
with retinitis pigmentosa and age-related macular degeneration.
Our goal is to rapidly develop internationally competitive retinal implants and technologies
that are shown to be clinically safe and effective in restoring sight, leading to successful
commercialisation.

We are working with three devices simultaneously:

1. Early 24-electrode prototype

2. Wide-View device
3. High-Acuity device

In addition to developing the hardware for these devices, our researchers are:

1) designing strategies to electrically stimulate the remaining cells in the retina so

visual information can be passed along the visual pathway to the brain
2) establishing the safety and efficacy of our technology ahead of patient tests
3) developing pre- and post-operative procedures for assessing patients
4) developing safe and reproducible surgical procedures for implanting these
devices into patients.

We have begun patient tests of the 24-electrode prototype with three people in Melbourne.
We hope to begin further patient tests in 2014.

5.3.1 Early prototype

 29

In 2012 an early prototype bionic eye device was implanted in three patients with retinitis
pigmentosa. So far, tests have exceeded expectations. On switch on, all three patients
reported being able to see flashes of light as each of their electrodes was stimulated.
This device includes a retinal implant with 24 electrodes. A small lead wire extends from the
back of the eye to a connector behind the ear. An external system is connected to this unit in
the laboratory, allowing researchers to stimulate the implant. This electrical stimulation
produces visual perceptions (called phosphenes) that appear as spots or flashes of light.
The prototype has been designed to help researchers learn more about how the brain will
interpret information from electrical stimulation of the implant. Feedback from patients
allows researchers to develop more sophisticated vision processing and stimulation
techniques.
The public announcement of the successful patient tests in August 2012 received
significant media coverage.
In 2013, researchers connected an external camera to the implant, and patients are basic shapes,
including letters and numbers. The next steps will include using the external camera to navigate
safely around obstacles, and to develop effective ways of measuring these improvements in
vision.

5.3.2 Wide-View device

Our Wide-View retinal implant uses some of the technologies which were employed in
cochlear implants.

1) The implanted chip has 98 electrodes to stimulate the retina and enable patients
to perceive vision.
2) The device is implanted in the suprachoroidal space to protect the retina from
mechanical damage during insertion. This placement also helps keep the implant
stable and secure in its position.

With this implant, we aim to provide patients the ability to move around large objects such as
buildings, cars and park benches and to lead more independent lives.

The Wide-View device may be most suitable for patients with retinitis pigmentosa.
Researchers continue work on the device development and pre clinical studies in preparation
for patient tests with this device in due course.
 30

Fig:5.3 Bionic Vision Australia

5.3.3 High-Acuity device

The High-Acuity device aims to provide functional central vision, to assist with tasks such as
face-recognition and reading large prints.

1) The implant will have an electrode array with 256 stimulating electrodes to
allow patients to perceive more detailed vision. Future iterations of the implant
will include up to 1024 electrodes.
2) We are using diamond materials to form the electrode array and to seal the
implant. Diamond is very biocompatible because it is an inert material, which
minimises irritation to surrounding tissues. This means that the implant will be
safe to stay in the body for the lifetime of the patient.
3) The first set of patient tests in 2014 will use a completely wired device. In the
next stage of testing, we aim to use a device with only some wiring, working
towards a totally wireless system in the final stage, where both data and power
will be transferred wirelessly to the implant.

With the High-Acuity device, we hope patients will be able to recognise faces and read large
print. The first patients for the High-Acuity device will be people with retinistes pigmentosa
but we are developing the technology so it will be suitable for people with age related
macular degeneration.
 31

5.4 Visual Cortical Implant

5.4.1 Cortical Implant

Cortical implants are a subset of neuroprosthetics that are in direct connectins with
the cerebral cortex of the brain. By directly interfacing with different regions of the cortex,
these devices can provide stimulation to an immediate area and provide different benefits
depending on their design and placement. A typical cortical implant is an
implantablemultielectrode array, which is a small device through which a neural signal can be
received or transmitted. The goal of cortical implants and neuroprosthetics in general is "to
replace neural circuitry in the brain that no longer functions appropriately."

5.4.2 Visual Cortical Implant

Cortical implants have a wide variety of potential uses, ranging from restoring vision to blind
patients or helping patients suffering from dementia. With the complexity of the brain, the
possibilities for these brain implants to expand their usefulness are nearly endless. Some early
work in cortical implants involved stimulation of the visual cortex, using implants made
from silicone rubber.[2] Since then, implants have developed into more complex devices
using new polymers, such as polyimide. There are two ways that cortical implants can
interface with the brain, either intracortically (direct) or epicortically (indirect). [3] Intracortical
implants have electrodes that penetrate into the brain, while epicortical implants have
electrodes that stimulate along the surface. Epicortical implants mainly record field potentials
around them and are generally more flexible compared to their intracortical counterparts.
Since the intracortical implants go deeper into the brain, they require a stiffer
electrode.]However, due to micromotion in the brain, some flexibility is necessary in order to
prevent injury to the brain tissue.

5.4.3 Visual Implant

Certain types of cortical implants can partially restore vision by directly stimulating
the visual cortex. Early work to restore vision through cortical stimulation began in 1970 with
the work of Brindley and Dobelle. With their initial experimentation, some patients were able
to recognize small images at fairly close distances. Their initial implant was based on the
surface of the visual cortex and it did not provide as clear of images that it could, with an
added downside of damage to surrounding tissues. More recent models, such as the "Utah"
electrode array use deeper cortical stimulation that would hypothetically provide higher
 32

resolution images with less power needed, thus causing less damage. One of the major
benefits to this method of artificial vision over any other visual prosthetic is that it bypasses
many neurons of the visual pathway that could be damaged, potentially restoring vision to a
greater number of blind patients.
However, there are some issues that come with direct stimulation of the visual cortex. As
with all implants, the impact of their presence over extended periods of time must be
monitored. If an implant needs to be removed or re-positioned after a few years,
complications can occur. The visual cortex is much more complex and difficult to deal with
than the other areas where artificial vision are possible, such as the retina or optic nerve. The
visual field is much easier to process in different locations other than the visual cortex. In
addition, each areas of the cortex is specialized to deal with different aspects of vision, so
simple direct stimulation will not provide complete images to patients. Lastly, surgical
operations dealing with brain implants are extremely high-risk for patients, so the research
needs to be further improved. However, cortical visual prostheses are important to people
who have a completed damaged retina, optic nerve or lateral geniculate body, as they are one
of the only ways they would be able to have their vision restored, so further developments
will need to be sought out.

5.4.4 Auditory Implants

While there has been little development in developing an effective auditory prosthesis that
directly interfaces with the auditory cortex, there are some devices such as an auditory
brainstem implant and a cochlear implant that have been successful in restoring hearing to
deaf patients. There have also been some studies that have used multi-electrode arrays to take
readings from the auditory cortex in animals. One study has been performed on rats to
develop an implant that enabled simultaneous readings from both the auditory cortex and
the thalamus. The readings from this new multi-electrode array were similar in clarity to
other readily available devices that did not provide the same simultaneous readings. [5] With
studies like this, advancements can be made that could lead to new auditory prostheses.

5.4.5 Cognitive Implants

Some cortical implants have been designed improve cognitive function. These implants are
placed in the prefrontal cortex or the hippocampus. Implants in the prefrontal cortex help
restore attention, decision-making and movement selection by duplicating the minicolumnar
organization of neural firings.[6] A hippocampal prosthetic aims to help with restoration of a
patient's full long-term memory capabilities. Researchers are trying to determine the neural
basis for memory by finding out how the brain encodes different memories in the
hippocampus.
 33

Fig:5.4 Cognitive Implants

A patient thinks about moving a mouse pointer. The brain computer interface takes that
thought and translates it on the screen
By mimicking the natural coding of the brain with electrical stimulation, researchers look to
replace compromised hippocampal regions and restore function Treatment for several
conditions that impact cognition such as stroke, Alzheimer's disease and head trauma can
benefit from the development of a hippocampal prosthetic. Epilepsy has also been linked to
dysfunction in the CA3 region of the hippocampus.

5.4.6 Brain-Computer Interfaces

A Brain-computer interface (BCI) is a type of implant that allows for a direct connection
between a patient's brain and some form of external hardware Since the mid-1990s, the
amount of research done on BCI's in both animal and human models has grown
exponentially. Most brain-computer interfaces are used for some form of neural signal
extraction, while some attempt to return sensation through an implanted signal.[3] As an
example of signal extraction, a BCI may take a signal from a paraplegic patient's brain and
use it to move a roboticprosthetic. Paralyzed patients get a great amount of utility from these
devices because they allow for a return of control to the patient. Current research for brain-
computer interfaces is focused on determining which regions of the brain can be manipulated
by an individual. A majority of research focuses on the sensorimotor region of the brain,
using imagined motor actions to drive the devices, while some studies have sought to
determine if the cognitive control network would be a suitable location for implantations.
This region is a "neuronal network that coordinates mental processes in the service of explicit
intentions or tasks," driving the device by intent, rather than imagined motion [9] An example
of returning sensation through an implanted signal would be developing a tactile response for
a prosthetic limb. Amputees have no touch response in artificial limbs, but through an
implant in their somatosensory cortex could potentially give them an artificial sense of touch.
 34

Fig;5.5 : Brain Computer Interface

A brain-computer interface; a multi-electrode array; patient using a brain-computer interface

A current example of a brain-computer interface would be the BrainGate, a device developed
by Cyberkinetics. This BCI is currently undergoing a second round of clinical trials as of
May 2009. An earlier trial featured a patient with a severe spinal cord injury, with no control
over any of his limbs. He succeeded in operating a computer mouse with only thoughts.
Further developments have been made that allow for more complex interfacing, such as
controlling a robotic arm.

5.4.7 Advantages

Perhaps one of the biggest advantages that cortical implants have over other neuroprostheses
is being directly interfaced with the cortex. Bypassing damaged tissues in the visual
pathway allows for a wider range of treatable patients. These implants can also act as a
replacement for damage tissues in the cortex. The idea of biomimicry allows for the implant
to act as an alternate pathway for signals.

5.4.8 Disadvantages
 35

Having any sort of implant that is directly connected to the cortex presents some issues. A
major issue with cortical implants is biocompatibility, or how the body will respond to a
foreign object. If the body rejects the implant, then the implant will be more of a detriment to
the patient instead of a benefit. In addition to biocompatibility, once the implant is in place,
the body may have an adverse reaction to it over an extended period of time, rendering the
implant useless.[10] Implanting a multi electrode array can cause damage to the surrounding
tissue. Development of scar tissue around the electrodes can prevent some signals from
reaching the neurons the implant is meant to. Most multi electrode arrays require neuronal
cell bodies to be with 50 μm of the electrodes to provide the best function, and studies have
shown that chronically implanted animals have significantly reduced cell density within this
range.]Implants have been shown to cause neurodegeneration at the site of implantation as
well.

Neural coding represents a difficulty faced by cortical implants, and in particular, implants
dealing with cognition. Researchers have found difficulty in determining how the brain codes
distinct memories. For example, the way the brain codes the memory of a chair is vastly
different from the way it codes for a lamp. With a full understanding of the neural code, more
progress can be made in developing a hippocampal prosthetic that can more effectively
enhance memory.

Due to the uniqueness of every patient's cortex, it is difficult to standardize procedures

involving direct implantation.[4] There are many common physical features between brains,
but an individual gyrus or sulcus (neuroanatomy) can be different when compared. This leads
to difficulties because it causes each procedure to be unique, thus taking longer to perform.

5.4.9 Future Developments

As more research is performed on, further developments will be made that will increase the
viability and usability of cortical implants. Decreasing the size of the implants would help
with keeping procedures less complicated and reducing the bulk. The longevity of these
devices is also being considered as developments are made. The goal with the development
of new implants is "to avoid the hydrolytic, oxidative and enzymatic degradation due to the
harsh environment of the human body or at least to slow it down to a minimum which
enables the interface to work over a long time period, before it finally has to be
exchanged." [2] With extended operational lifetimes, fewer operations would need to be
performed for maintenance, allowing for The amount of polymers that are now able to be
used for neural implants has increased, allowing for a greater diversity of devices. As
technology improves, researchers are able to more densely place electrodes into arrays,
permitting high selectivity.[2] Other areas of investigation are the battery packs that power
these devices. Effort has been made to try and reduce the overall size and bulkiness of these
packs to make them less obtrusive for the patient. Reducing the amount of power each
implant requires is also of interest, as this will reduce the amount of heat the implant makes,
therefore reducing the risk of damage to the surrounding tissues.
 36

Fig.5.6: Visual Cortical Implant

5.5 CERAMIC PHOTOCELLS

Scientists at the Space Vaccum Epitaxy Centre (SVEC) based at the University of Houston,
Texas, uses a new material, comprising tiny ceramic photocells that detects incoming light
and repair malfunctioning human eyes. Scientists at SVEC are conducting preliminary tests
on the biocompatibility of this ceramic detector. The artificial retinas constructed by SVEC
consist of 1,00,000 tiny ceramic detectors, each1/20th the size of a human hair. The
assemblage is so small that surgeons can’t safely handle it. So, the arrays are attached to a
polymer film one millimeter in size. After insertion into an eyeball, the polymer film will
simply dissolve leaving only the array behind after a couple of weeks.

5.6 Advantages and Disadvantages

5.6.1 Advantages

1) It helps to correct the vision.

2) There is no necessity to suffer from long and short sights.
3) It can be easily implanted
 37

4) It is the one approved by FDA

5.6.2 Disadvantages

1) Axons b/w electrodes and ganglionic cells

2) Other axons get excited – unwanted perception of large blur
3) Extra circuitry required for downstream electrical input
4) Huge cost Rs 45 lakh
5) There are 120 million rods and 6 million cones in the retina of every healthy human
eye.
6) Creating an artificial replacement for these is a risky task.
7) Si based photo detectors have been tried in earlier attempts. But Si is toxic to the
human body and reacts unfavorably with fluids in the eye
8) it cost about 30,000$
9) It will not be helpful for glaucoma patients.
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CHAPTER – 6

CONCLUSION

Restoration of sight for the blind is no more a dream for people today. Bionic Eyes
have made this true. Though there are a number of challenges to be faced before this
technology reach the common man, the path has been laid. This paper has tried to
present the concept of Artificial Vision called “Bionic Eyes”. It is just a matter of
time, may be 4-5 years that the blind will be able to see through these Bionic Eyes,
with thanks to Science and Technology.
 39

REFERENCES

1) http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4411591.stm
2) http://www.docstoc.com/docs/4340408/bioniceye
3) http://seminarprojects.com/Thread-bionic-eyes-for-the-blind-full-report
4) http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4411591.stm
5) http://www.fanboy.com/2007/02/page/3
6) http://www.medgadget.com/2007/01/second_sight_me.html
7) http://science.howstuffworks.com/life/human-biology/bionic-eye1.htm
8) http://www.123seminarsonly.com/Seminar Reports/002/64285761Bionic-
Eye12.pdf
9) “Bionic Eye Technology: An Advanced Version of Artificial Vision”,
Academia, Volume 2, Issue 7, July, 2012.
10) “Effect of shape and coating of a subretinal prosthesis on its integration with
the retina.” Butterwick, P. Huie, B.W. Jones, R.E. Marc, M. Marmor, D.
Palanker. Experimental Eye Research
11) W.H. Dobelle, ``Artificial Vision for the Blind by Connecting a Television
Camera to the Visual Cortex,'' ASAIO Journal (American Society for
Artificial Internal Organs), January - February 2000.
12) Amedi, F. Bermpohl, J. Camprodon, S. Fox, L. Merabet, P. Meijer and A.
PascualLeone, ``Neural correlates of visual-to-auditory sensory substitution
in proficient blind users,'' poster presentation at CNS 2005 (12th Annual
Meeting of the Cognitive Neuroscience Society) in New York, USA, April
11, 2005, and at the 57th Annual Meeting of the American Academy of
Neurology (AAN 2005), Miami Beach, Florida,
13) USA, April 10 and 12, 2005
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