PROFED8 Foundation of Special and Inclusive Education

FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 8
A Self-Paced Learning Module for College Students
IMEE M. TALAUE
JOSEPH S. DAUAG
MADELYNE T. MASLANG
-Authors-
1
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge with gratitude the local and international specialists and
authors of the books that were used as references, in particular, Dr. Teresita G. Inciong, Dr.
Yolanda Quijano, Dr. Yolanda Capulong, Dr. Julieta Gregorio, Dr. Howard Gardner, Dr.
William Heward, Dr. Halllahan, Dr. Kaufman, Dr. Pullen and many other experts whose works
appear in the references.
2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title of Module
Module No. Page
1 Part I Special Education in the Philippines: Vision, Policy, Goal and
Objectives of Special Education
2 Part I Special Education in the Philippines: Special Education

Programs and Services
3 Part II The Essential Concepts of Special Education: Meaning of

Special Education and Categories of Children with Special Needs
4 Part II The Essential Concepts of Special Education: The Biological

and Environmental Causes of Developmental Disabilities
5 Part III Children and Youth with Special Education Needs: Students
with Mental Retardation
with Learning Disabilities
Who are Gifted and Talented
with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders
Who are Blind or Have Low Vision
With Hearing Impairment
With Speech and Language Disorders
With Physical Disabilities, Health Impairments and Severe
Disabilities
3
Part I
SPECIAL EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES
Module I
VISION, POLICY, GOAL and OBJECTIVES OF

SPECIAL EDUCATION
4
OUTLINE
Module 1 Special Education in the Philippines: Vision Policy, Goal and Objectives of
Special Education set by the Department of Education is the first module in Professional
Education 224. The historical events in the implementation of Special Education in the
Philippines and its legal bases are included in this module.
At the end of this module, the students shall be able to:

1. Identify the different categories of children and youth with special needs;
2. Explain the vision for children and youth with special needs;
3. Discuss the policy of Inclusive Education for all;
4. Enumerate the goal and objectives of special education;
5. Cite important events relevant to the implementation of special education in the
Philippines; and
6. Discuss the legal bases of special education in the country.
Contents:
Topic Topic Title Page
Number
1 Vision for Children with Special Needs
2 Policy, Goal, Objectives of Special Education
3 Historical Perspective
4 The Legal Bases of Special Education
Essay, Research and Practical Activity, Group Work
Quiz
Further Reading
References
5
Module 1: Special Education in the Philippines: Vision Policy , Goal and Objectives
of Special Education
Topic 1: Vision for Children with Special Needs

Planned Hours: 2 lectures (1 hour presentation, 1 hour student activities, 1-2 hours student
research and study)
Introduction
Everyone has a right to education. Having a disability should not be an excuse for being
deprived access to schools; neither should poverty, religion nor race. Inclusive education is an
inevitable direction to take and must be properly understood, appreciated and prepared for
within the context of society being accepting of individual differences.
This lesson allows you to look and dig deeper on Special and Inclusive education from its
nature and historical contexts. The first step to becoming an effective Special needs and/or
Inclusive teacher lies not in one’s skill to teach strategically, but in one’s willingness and
commitment to respect individual differences. As seen in the previous lessons, diversity is a
natural part of every environment and must be perceived as a given rather than an exception.
The professionalization of special education continues to be pursued through teacher and

administrator training programs. Bold moves are undertaken to:
1) Promote access, equity and participation of children with special needs education in the
mainstream of basic education;
2) Improve the quality, relevance and efficiency of special education in schools and
communities; and
3) Sustain special education programs and services in the country.
Class Discussion
 What is the status of special education programs in the Philippines?
 How does the Department of Education sustain its special education programs in
the country?
 What are the significant events that have shaped the history of special education in
the last century:
A. In the early 1900’s until 1949
B. The third quarter of the century
C. The last thirty years
 What is the importance of legislation in the development and sustenance of special
education programs?
 What are the laws that pertain to:
A. The inclusion of children with special needs in all programs and concerns
of the government.
B. The education of children with special needs.
C. The participation of the home, parents and the community in special
education activities.
6
D. Commemoration of significant events.
What will students learn in this topic?

 Students will identify the different categories of children and youth with special needs;
 Students will explain the vision for children and youth with special needs;
 Students will discuss the policy of Inclusive Education for all;
 Students will enumerate the goal and objectives of special education;
 Students will cite important events relevant to the implementation of special education in
the Philippines; and
 Students will discuss the legal bases of special education in the country.
Description :
Vision for Children with Special Needs
The Department of Education clearly states its vision for children with special needs in
consonance with the philosophy of inclusive education, thus:
 Be adequately provided with basic education, to fully realize his/her potentials for
development and productivity as well as being capable of self-expression of his/her rights
in society.
 He/she is God-loving and proud of being a Filipino.
 He/She will get full parental and community support for his/her education without
discrimination of any kind.
 Should be provided with a healthy environment along with leisure and recreation and
social security measures.
(DepEd Handbook on Inclusive Education, 2000)
Topic 2
Policy, Goal and Objectives of Special Education
Policy of Special Education

The policy on Inclusive Education for All is adopted in the Philippines to accelerate access
to education among children and youth with special needs.
Inclusive education forms an integral component of the overall educational system that is
committed to an appropriate education for all children and youth with special needs.
Goal of Special Education

The goal of special education programs of the Department of Education all over the
country is to provide children and youth with special needs appropriate educational services
within the mainstream of basic education. The two-pronged goal includes the development of
key strategies on legislation, human resource development, family involvement, and active
participation of government and non-government organizations.
7
Objectives of Special Education
There are major issues to address on attitudinal barriers of the general public and effort
towards the institutionalization and sustainability of the special education programs and
services.
Special education aims to:
1. Provide a flexible and individualized support system for children and youth with special
needs in a regular class environment in school nearest the students’ home.
2. Provide support services, vocational programs and work training, employment
opportunities for efficient community participation and independent living.
3. Implement a life-long curriculum to include early intervention and parent education , basic
education and transition programs on vocational training or preparation for college, and
4. Make available an array of educational programs and services:
 Special Education Center built on “a school within a school concept” as the resource
center for children and youth with special needs.
 Inclusive Education in regular schools
 Special and residential schools
 Homebound instruction
 Community-based programs
 Alternative modes of service delivery to reach the disadvantaged children in far-
flung towns, depressed areas and underserved barangays.
Topic 3 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES

1902 The interest to educate Filipino children with disabilities was expressed more
than a century ago in 1902 during the American regime. Mr. Fred Atkinson,
General Superintendent of Education, reported to the Secretary of Public
Instruction that deaf and blind children were found in a census of school-aged
children in Manila and nearby provinces. He proposed that these children be
enrolled in school like the other children.
1907 Special Education Program formally started in the country. Mr. David Barrows,
Director of Public Education, worked for the establishment of the Insular School
for the Deaf and the Blind in Manila. Miss Delight Rice, American Educator,
was the first administrator and teacher of the special school. (at present, the
School for the Deaf is located on Harrison Street, Pasay City while the Philippine
National School for the Blind is adjacent to it on Polo Road)
1926-1949
1926 The Philippine Association for the Deaf (PAD) composed mostly of hearing
impaired members and especial education specialists was founded.
1927 The government established the Welfareville Children’s Village in
Mandaluyong, Rizal.
1936 Mrs. Maria Villa Francisco was appointed as the first Filipino principal of the
School for the Deaf and the Blind (SDB).
8
1945 The National Orthopedic Hospital opened its School for Crippled Children
(NOHSCC) for young patients who had to be hospitalized for long period of time.
1949 The Quezon City Science High School for gifted students was inaugurated.
1949 The Philippine Foundation for the Rehabilitation of the Disabled (PFRD) was
organized.
1950-1975
1950 PAD opened a school for children with learning impairment.
1953 The Elsie Gaches Village (EGV) was established in Alabang, Muntinlupa, Rizal,
to take care of abandoned and orphaned children and youth with physical and
mental handicaps.
1954 The first week of August was declared as Sight Saving Week.
 The private sector supported the government’s program for disabled
Filipinos. Members of Lodge No. 761 of the Benevolent and Protective
Order of Elks organized the Elks Cerebral Palsy Project Incorporated.
 The first Parent Teacher Work Conference in Special Education was held at
the SDB.
1956 The First Summer Institute on Teaching the Deaf was held at the School for the
Deaf and the Blind in Pasay City
1957  Marked the beginning of the integration of deaf pupils in regular classes.
 The Bureau of Public Schools (BPS) of the Department of Education and
Culture (DEC) created the Special Education Section of the Special Subjects
and Services Division.
 The inclusion of special education in the structure of DEC provided the
impetus for the development of special education in all regions of the
country.
 The components of the special education in all legislation, teacher training,
census of exceptional children and youth in schools and the community, the
integration of children with disabilities in regular classes, rehabilitation of
residential and special schools and materials production.
 Baguio Vacation Normal School ran courses on teaching children with
handicaps.
 The Baguio City Special Education Center was organized
-1958  The American Foundation for Overseas Blind (AFOB) opened its regional
office in Manila.
 AFOB- assisted the special education program of the DEC by providing
consultancy services in the teacher training program that focused on the
integration of blind children in regular classes and materials production at
the Philippine Printing House for the Blind.
1960 Some private colleges and universities started to offer special education courses
in their graduate school curriculum.
9
1962  The Manila Youth and Rehabilitation Center (MYRC) were opened. They
extended services to children and youth who were emotionally disturbed and
socially maladjusted.
 DEC issued Circular No. 11 s, 1962 that specified the “Qualifications of
Special Education Teachers”
 PFRD sponsored the Pan Pacific Rehabilitation Conference in Manila that
convened international experts in the rehabilitation of handicapped persons.
 Was the Experimental integration of blind children at the Jose Rizal
Elementary School in Pasay City.
 The First National Seminar in Special Education was held at SDB in Pasay
City.
 St. Joseph of Cupertino School for the Mentally Retarded, a private school,
was founded.
 The training of DEC teacher scholars at the University of the Philippines
commenced in the areas of hearing impairment, mental retardation, and
mental giftedness under RA 5250.
 The Philippine General Hospital opened classes for its school-age
chronically ill patients.
1963  With the approval of RA No. 3562 the training of DEC teacher scholars for
blind children started at the Philippine Normal College.
 The Manila Science High School for gifted students was established.
1964 The Quezon City Schools Division followed suit with the establishment of the
Quezon City Science High School for gifted students.
1965 Marked the start of the training program for school administrators on the
organization, administration and supervision of special education classes.
1967 BPS organized the National Committee on Special Education. General Letter No.
213, regulating the size of special classes for maximum effectiveness was issued
in the same year.
1968 With the approval of RA No. 5250, the teacher training program for teacher of
exceptional children was held at the Philippine Normal College for the next ten
years. In the same year, the First Asian Conference on work for the Blind was
held in Manila.
1969 Classes for socially maladjusted children were organized at the Manila Youth
Reception Center.
1970  The training of teachers for children with behavior problems started at the
University of the Philippines.
 The School of Deaf and the Blind established in 1907 was recognized into
two separate residential schools: the School for the Deaf (PSD) stayed in the
original building and the Philippine National School for the Blind (PNSB)
was built next to PSD.
 A special School was established in San Pablo City, the Paaralan ng Pag-
ibig at Pag-asa
10
1971 DEC issued a memorandum on Duties of the Special Education Teacher for the
Blind.
1973  The Juvenille and Domestic Relations Court of Manila established the
Tahanan Special School for socially maladjusted children and youth
 The first Asian Conference on Mental Retardation was held in Manila under
the auspices of the UNESCO National Commission of the Philippines and
the Philippine Association for the Retarded (PAR). Caritas Manila’s Special
School for the Retarded was organized by Rev. Fr. Arthur Malin, SVD.
 The Juvenille and Domestic Relations Court of Manila established the
Tahanan Special School for socially maladjusted children and youth
 The first Asian Conference on Mental Retardation was held in Manila under
the auspices of the UNESCO National Commission of the Philippines and
the Philippine Association for the Retarded (PAR). Caritas Manila’s Special
School for the Retarded was organized by Rev. Fr. Arthur Malin, SVD.
1975 When the DEC was reorganized into the Ministry of Education Culture (MEC),
the Special Subjects and Services Division was abolished. The personnel of the
Special Education Section was divided into two. Half of them composed the
Special Education Unit of the MEC while the other half was assigned to the
Special Education Unit of the MEC National Capital Region in Quezon City.
1976-2000
1976  Proclamation 1605 declared 1977 to 1987 as the Decade of the Filipino
Child.
 The First Camp Pag-ibig, a day camp for handicapped children was held on
Valentine’s Day in Balara, Quezon City
 The Juvenile and Domestic Relations Court in Quezon City organized the
Molave Youth Hall for Children with Behavior Problems.
1977  MEC issued Department Order No. 10 that designated regional and division
supervisors of special education programs.
 West Visayas State College of Iloilo City started its teacher training program
and offered scholarships to qualified teachers.
 The Bacarra Special Education Center, Division of Ilocos Sur and the
Bacolod Special Education Center, Division of Bacolod City opened.
1978  Marked the creation of the National Commission Concerning Disabled
Persons (NCCDP), later renamed National Council for the Welfare of
Disabled Persons or NCWDP through Presidential Decree 1509.
 MEC Memorandum No. 285 directed schools divisions to organize special
classes with a set of guidelines on the designation of teachers.
 University of the Philippines opened its special education teacher training
program for undergraduate students.
 The Philippine Association for the Deaf started its mainstreaming program
in the Division of Manila City Schools.
11
 The Davao Special School was established in the Division of Davao City
while the Philippine High School for the Arts was organized in Mt Makiling,
Laguna.
 The second International Conference on Legislation Concerning Disabled
was held in Manila under the leadership of the PFRD
1979  The Bureau of Elementary Education Special Education Unit conducted a
two-year nationwide survey of unidentified exceptional children who were
in school.
 The Caritas Medico-Pedagogical Institution for the Mentally Retarded was
organized.
 The Jagna Special Education Center in the Division of Bohol was organized.
1980 The School for the Crippled at the Southern Island Hospital in Cebu City was
organized.
1981 The United Nations Assembly proclaimed the observance of the International
Year of Disabled Persons.
1982 Three special schools were opened: the Cebu State College Special High School
for the Deaf, the Siaton Special Education Center in the Division of Negros
Oriental and the St. John Maria de Vianney Special Education Learning Center
in Quezon City.
1983  Batas Pambansa Bilang 344 enacted the Accessibility Law, “An Act to
Enhance the Mobility of Disabled Persons by Requiring Cars, Buildings,
Institutions, Establishment and Public Utilities to Install Facilities and other
Devices.
 The Batac Special Education Center in the Division of Ilocos Norte was
organized.
1984 Two special education programs were inaugurated: the Labangon Special
Education Center Division of Cebu City and the Northern Luzon Association’s
Heinz Wolke School for the Blind at the Marcos Highway in Baguio City.
1987 More SPED Centers opened: the Pedro Achoran Special Education Center in the
Division of General Santos City, the Legaspi City Special Education Center in
Pag-asa Legaspi City, and the Dau Special Education Center in the Division of
Pampanga.
1990 The Philippine Institute for the Deaf (PID) an oral school for children with
hearing impairment was established.
1991 The first National Congress on Street Children was held at La Salle Greenhills in
San Juan Metro Manila.
1992 The Summer Training for Teachers of the Visually Impaired started at the
Philippine Normal University.
1993 DECS issued Order No. 14 that directed Regional Offices to organize the
Regional Special Education Council (RSEC).
1993- Were declared as the Asian and the Pacific Decade of the Disabled Persons.
2002
1995 Three conventions were held:
12
1. The first National Congress on Mental Retardation at the University of the
Philippines in the Diliman Quezon City.
2. The first National Convention on Deaf Education in Cebu City which was
subsequently held every two years.
3. the First National Sports Summit for the Disabled and the Elderly
1996 The 3rd week of January was declared as Autism Consciousness Week.
1997  DECS Order No. 1 was issued which directed the organization of Regional
Special Education Unit and the Designation of a Regional Supervisor for
Special Education.
 DECS Order No. 26 on the Institutionalization of Special Education Program
in All Schools was promulgated.
1998 DECS Order No. 5, Reclassification of Regular Teacher and Principal Items to
Special Education Teacher and Special Schools Principal Item was issued.
1999  Issuance of DECS Order No. 104 “Exemption of the Physically Handicapped
from Taking the National Elementary Achievement Test (NEAT) and the
National Secondary Aptitude Test (NSAT)”; No. 108 “ Strenghtening of
Special Education Programs for the Gifted in the Public School System”’
No. 448 “Search for the 1999 Most Outstanding Special Education Teacher
for the Gifted”; and Memorandum No. 457”National Photo Contest on
Disability.”
 DECS Order No. 11 were issued “ Recognized Special Education Centers in
the Philippines”’ No.33 Implementation of Administrative Order No. 101
directing the Department of Public Works and Highways , the DECS and the
Commission on Higher Education to provide architectural facilities or
structural features for disabled persons in all state colleges, universities, and
other public buildings”. Memorandum No. 24, “Fourth International Noise
Awareness Day”; and No. 477, “National Week for the Gifted and the
Talented.”
13
Essay No. 1a
Individual Work: Answer the question below. Give relevant examples to support your
answer. (minimum of 150 words)
What is the status of Special Education Programs in the Philippines? How the
Department of Education does sustain its Special Education Programs in the country?
Topic 4
The Legal Bases of Special Education
1935
Enacted the first legal basis of the care and protection of children with disabilities
Article 356 and 259 of Commomwealth Act No. 3203

Asserted “the right of every child to live in an atmosphere conducive to his physical, moral,
and intellectual development” and the concomitant duty of the government “to promote the
full growth of the faculties of every child.”
June 21, 1963

Republic Act No. 3562, “An Act to Promote the Education of the Blind in the
Philippines”
Provided for the formal training of special education teachers of Blind children at the
Philippine Normal College, the Rehabilitation of the Philippine National School for the
Blind (PNSB) and the establishment of the Philippine Printing House for the Blind.
1968
Republic Act No. 5250, “An Act Establishing a Ten-Year Teacher Training Program
for Teachers of Special and Exceptional Children”
was signed into law in 1968. The law provided for the formal training of teachers for deaf,
hard-of-hearing, speech handicapped, socially and emotionally disturbed, mentally retarded
and mentally gifted children and youth at the Philippine Normal College and University of
the Philippines.
1973
The 1973 Constitution of the Philippines, the fundamental law of the land explicitly
stated in Section 8, Article XV
the provision of “a complete, adequate and integrated system of education relevant to the
goals of National Development.” the constitutional provision for the university of
educational opportunities and the education of every citizens as a primary concern of the
government clearly implies the inclusion of exceptional children and youth.
1975
The 1975 Presidential Decree No. 603, otherwise known as the “Child and Youth
Welfare Code” was enacted. Article 3 on the Rights of the Child provides among others
14
that the “emotionally disturbed or socially maladjusted child shall be treated with sympathy
and understanding and shall be given education and care required for his particular
condition. Article 74 which provides for the creation of special classes in every province,
and if possible, special schools for the physically handicapped, the mentally retarded, the
emotionally disturbed and the mentally gifted.
1978
The 1978 Presidential Decree No. 1509, created the “National Commission Concerning
Disabled Persons (NCCDP)” It was renamed as National Council for the Welfare of
Disabled Persons (NCWDP).
1982
The Education Act of 1982 or Batas Pambansa Bilang 232, states that “the state shall
promote the right of every individual to relevant quality education regardless of sex, age,
breed, socioeconomic status, physical and mental condition, social and ethnic origin,
political and other affiliations. The state shall therefore promote and maintain equality of
access to education as well as enjoyment of the benefits of education by all its citizens.”
The Education Act of 1982 or Batas Pambansa Bilang 232, Section 24 “Special
Education Service” affirms that the state further recognizes its responsibility to provide,
within the context of the formal education system services to meet special needs of certain
clientele
1983
In 1983, Batas Pambansa Bilang 344, was enacted the “Accessibility Law” “An Act to
Enhance the Mobility of Disabled Persons” requires cars, buildings, institutions,
establishments and public utilities to install facilities and other devices for persons with
disabilities.
1987
In 1987, Constitutions of the Philippines, cites the “rights of exceptional children to
education” in Article XIV Section 1, declares that the State shall protect and promote the
right of all citizens to quality education at all levels and shall take appropriate steps to
make such education accessible to all. Section 2 emphasizes that “the State shall provide
adult citizen, the disabled and out-of—school youth with training in civic, vocational
efficiency and other skills.
1989
In 1989, RA No. 6759 was enacted. The law declared August 1 of each year as “White
Cane Safety Day in the Philippines.”
Blind persons use the cane in travelling.
1992
In 1992, RA No. 7610 was enacted. The law is “An Act Providing for Strong Deterrence
and Special Protection Against Child Abuse, Exploitation and Discrimination, Providing
Penalties for Its Violation and Other Purposes.”
2000
15
In the year 2000, Presidential Proclamation No. 361 set new dates for the National
Disability Prevention and Rehabilitation Week Celebration on the 3rd Week of July every
year which shall culminate on the birth date of the sublime Paralytic Apolinario Mabini.
2004
The year 2004, Republic Act No. 9288 otherwise known as “the Newborn Screening
Act of 2004” is based on the premise that a retarded child could have been normal. A drop
of blood can save the baby from mental retardation and death. The test primarily checks for
five metabolic disorders that could affect the health of the child within the first few weeks
of life. These are congenital hypothyroidism, congenital adrenal hyperplasia, galactosemia,
phenylketonuria and G6PD deficiency.
Essay No. 1b
What is the importance of legislation in the development and sustenance
of special education programs?
Practical Activity No. 1

Directions: In reference to the question below, you are asked to draft a bill/law on
Special Education. The format is provided below as your guide. Construct your output
according to the following criteria:
Rubrics
Criteria Score Point
Relevance of the proposed bill/law to 20
Special and Inclusive Education
Clarity of the proposed Title 10
Appropriateness of the supporting 20
Policies and Objectives
Total 50
If you are given the chance to become a Lawmaker, what bill/law on special
education can you propose to further improve the welfare of PWD’s in the
Philippines?
TITLE:
POLICIES & OBJECTIVES:
(A)
16
(B)
(C)
Groupwork No. 1
In groups of four, do the following:
1. List the significant events that have shaped the history of special education in the
last century.
A. in the early 1900’s and 1949
B. the third quarter of the century
C. the last thirty years
2. Enumerate the laws that pertain to:

A. The inclusion of children with special needs in all programs and concerns of
the government
B. the education of children with special needs
C. the participation of the home, parents, and the community in special education
activities
D. commemoration of significant events.
Further Readings:
*Republic Act 10533 http://www.gov.ph/downloads/2013/09sep/20130904-IRR-RA-10533-BSA.pdf
*Republic Act 7277 An Act Providing for the Rehabilitation, Self-Development and Self- Reliance of Disabled
Persons and their Integration into the Mainstream of Society and for Other Purposes.
http://www.ncda.gov.ph/disability-laws/republic-acts/republic-act-7277/
Republic Act 9422 An Act Amending Republic Act No. 7277 Otherwise Known as the “Magna Carta for
Disabled Persons and for Other Purposes.”
References:
Inciong, T.G. Quijano, Y.S. , Capulong, Y.T. (2020). Introduction to Special Education. A Textbook for
College Students-First Edition
*Friend, M and Bursuck W.D. (2012). Including Students with Special Needs. A Practical Guide for Classroom
Teachers- Sixth Edition
*Farell, M. Wiley-Blackwel (2009): Foundations of Special Education An Introduction
*Books/Reading Materials were uploaded in our Google Classroom with class code ypyjw7f for your ready
reference.
17
18
Part I
SPECIAL EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES
Module II
SPECIAL EDUCATION PROGRAMS AND SERVICES
19
OUTLINE
Module 2 Special Education in the Philippines: Special Education programs and

Services is the second module in Professional Education 224. For children and youth with
special needs, the urgency is shown through the discussions on the prevalence of this group.
This is followed by the description of the different special education programs and services
with emphasis on inclusive education, its definition, salient features and support services.
Learning Objectives:
1. Define the following terms: prevalence, identifiable prevalence, true revalence and
incidence;
2. Compare the prevalence estimate of children with special needs done by the UNICEF
and the WHO;
3. Explain the figure on the true prevalence of Filipino children and youth with special
needs;
4. Describe the different Special Education Programs and Services offered by the
Philippine public and private schools or institutions and cite examples for each;
5. Discuss the definitions of inclusive education and its salient features; and
6. Enumerate the support services extended to children with special needs.
Contents:
Number
1 Prevalence of Children and Youth with Special Needs
2 Range of Special Education Program and Services
3 Inclusive Education for Children and Youth with
Special Needs
4 Support Services for Children and Youth with Special
Needs
Quiz
Further Reading
Who are the Professionals in Special Education?
References
20
Module 2: Special Education Programs and Services
Topic 1: Prevalence of Children and Youth with Special Needs
Planned Hours: 2 lectures (1 hour presentation, 1 hour student activities, 1-2 hours research
and study)
Introduction
Teachers need to know what particular learning difficulties, disabilities and other special needs;
their students have in order to meet their student’s particular needs. While teachers are not
medical practitioners, clinicians or school psychologists, there are some steps that teachers can
easily take towards identifying students with special educational needs. Teachers can also call
upon assistance from their nearest special education resource centre to assist with
identification.
There are students who require special education of some kind in most elementary and primary
school classes, and with changing social values, increased acceptance and tolerance, and
growth in the provision of services and resources for special education across Philippines, it is
likely that the numbers of students with special educational needs attending regular schools
will increase rapidly. Consequently, it is essential that all teachers develop practical and
effective special educational skills so that they may ensure that all students in their classes,
including those with special educational needs, learn effectively.
The Special Education Division of the Bureau of Elementary Education is in charge of all the
programs and services in the country. It has the following functions:
 Formulate policies, plans and programs;
 Develop standards of programs and services;
 Monitor and evaluate the efficiency of programs and services;
 Conduct in-service training programs to upgrade competencies of special education
administrators, teachers and ancillary personnel; and
 Establish and strengthen linkages and networks.
This module displays the special education programs and services that are enforced in the
different regions of the country.
Class Discussion
 What is the meaning of prevalence?

 What is the prevalence of children with special needs based on?
A. The World Health Organization’s estimate
B. The UNICEF’s estimate?
 Based on the number of Filipino children with special needs who are in special
education programs, how many are out-of-school youth? What do the numbers
mean to you?
 What are the salient features, similarities and differences among the types of
special education services?
21
 What are the support services extended to children with special needs?
 Students will define the following terms: prevalence, identifiable prevalence, true
prevalence and incidence;
 Students will compare the prevalence estimate of children with special needs done by the
UNICEF and the WHO;
 Students will explain the figure on the true prevalence of Filipino children and youth with
special needs;
 Students will describe the different Special Education Programs and Services offered by
the Philippine public and private schools or institutions and cite examples for each;
 Students will discuss the definitions of inclusive education and its salient features; and
 Students will enumerate the support services extended to children with special needs.
Description:
Prevalence refers to the total number of cases of a particular condition, those with
exceptionality (gifted and talent) and developmental disabilities and impairments.
1. Identifiable Prevalence- refers to the cases that have come in contact with some
systems. It was derived from the census data.
2. True prevalence- assumes that there are a larger number of children and youth with
special needs who are in school or in the community who have not been identified as such and
are not in special education programs of the DEPEd.
Incidence- refers to the number of new cases identified within a population over a specific
period of time.
The 1997 UNICEF report situation on the Analysis of Children and Women in the
Philippines indicates that the mean percentage of persons with some types of disabilities is 13.4
per one thousand populations. This means that 134 out of 1000 persons have certain disabilities.
For every millions of population, 10720 have certain disabilities. In the projected population
of eighty (80) million, more than eight and a half million have disabilities. The distribution of
the different categories of exceptionalities and disabilities among children is as follows:
1. 43.3% have speech defects
2. 40% are mute
3. 33.3% have mental retardation
4. 25.9% are those without one or both arms or hands
5. 16.4% are those without one or both legs or feet
6. 16.3% have mental illness
7. 11.5% are totally deaf
8. 11.4% are totally blind
Figure 1. Philippine Population 80M
22
The universal estimate of the prevalence of children with special needs stands at 10%
with disabilities (World Health Organization) and 2% with giftedness and talent.
Figure 1 shows that approximately half of the population of 80 million belongs to the
category of children and youth whose chronological ages range from zero to twenty-four.
Based on this statistics and using the universal estimate of 12% it may be assumed that 4.8
million Filipino children and youth need special education services. The true prevalence
of those with disabilities is estimated to be four (4) million. Those who are gifted and
talented are estimated to be 800,000.
At present, only a small number of these children are in special education classes.
Many of them remain unidentified in regular classes and in the communities. Current
figures show that there are seven hundred ninety-four (794) special education programs in
all the regions, six hundred sixteen (616) of which are in public schools. One hundred
forty-four (144) programs utilize the special education center delivery mode for the full or
partial mainstreaming of children with special needs in regular classes. Likewise there are
thirty-four (34) state and private special and residential schools.
The Special Education Division report on statistics for the school year 2004-2005
gives the following data:
23
Table 1: Special Education Enrolment Data in Public and Private Schools SY 2004-
2005
Categories Number of Children
Gifted and fast learners 77,152
With learning disabilities 40,260
With mental retardation 1,246
With hearing impairment 11,597
With autism 5,172
With behavior problems 5,112
With visual impairments 2,670
With speech defects 917
With orthopedic impairments 760
With special health problems 142
With cerebral palsy 32
Total With disabilities 79, 118
Grand Total 156270
The table shows that only 3% of the estimated 4, 800, 000 children and youth with special
needs are receiving special education services. The majority of these exceptional children are
unidentified either in schools or in their homes and communities. A small number maybe in
community-based programs provided by non-government entities, church, groups and civic
organization.
Topic 2
Range of Special Education Programs and Services
An array of Special Education Programs and Services are available in the country. These are
offered by public schools and private institutions.
1. The Special Is a service delivery system which operates on the “school within the
Education Center school” concept.
(SPED Center)
Function: As the base for the special education programs in a school.
Administers the Center following the rules and regulations for a
SPED Principal:
regular school.
Manage special or self-contained classes, mainstreaming, tutorial, and
mentoring resource room services, assessment, parent education,
SPED Teacher: guidance and counselling and advocacy programs to promote the
education of children with special needs in regular schools.
Functions both as a teacher and tutor as well as a consulting teacher to
SPED Teacher the regular school in planning and implementing appropriate strategies
Function: for the maximum participation of the special children in the regular
class.
2. The Special Class Is the most popular type among the special education programs. It is
or Self-Contained composed of pupils with the same exceptionality or disability.
Class
Handles the special class in the Special Education Center or resource
SPED Teacher:
room.
Public/Private There are special classes for children with mental retardation,
Regular Schools: giftedness and talent, hearing impairment, visual impairment, learning
24
disabilities, or behavioral problems.
3. Integration and Have allowed children and youth with disabilities to study in regular
Mainstreaming classes and learn side by side with their peers.
Programs
When it is no longer unusual to find blind, deaf, and even mentally
Mainstreaming: retarded students participating in regular class activities at certain
periods of the school day.
Children who have moderate or severe forms of disabilities are
Partial
mainstreamed in regular classes in subjects like Physical Education,
Mainstreaming: Home Technology, and Music and Arts.
Full Children with disabilities are enrolled in regular classes are recite in
Mainstreaming: all the subjects.
Assist the regular teacher in teaching the children with special needs.
SPED Teacher:
Gives tutorial lessons at the SPED Center or resource room.
The SPED Teacher travels to the schools to assist the regular teachers
Itinerant Plan: where the children are mainstreamed and to attend to the other needs
of the program.
4. The Special Day Serves one or more types of disabilities. They are taught by trained
School teachers.
5. The Residential Provides both special education and dormitory services for its
School students. Complementing the curricular programs are houseparent
services, diagnostic services, guidance and counseling, recreation and
social activities
Topic 3:
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION FOR CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS
What is inclusive education?

 Inclusion describes the process by which a school accepts children with special needs
for enrolment in regular classes where they can learn side by side with their peers.
 The school organizes its special education program and includes special education
teachers in its faculty.
 The school provides the mainstream where regular teachers and special education
teachers organize and implement appropriate programs for both special and regular students.
What are the salient features of inclusive education?
 Inclusion means implementing and maintaining warm and accepting classroom
communities that embrace and respect diversity or differences.
 Inclusion implements a multilevel, multimodality curriculum. This means that special
needs students follow and adopted curriculum and use special devices and materials to
learn at a suitable pace.
 Inclusion prepares regular teachers and special education teachers to teach interactively.
 Inclusion provides continuous support for teachers to break down barriers of professional
isolation.
 The hallmarks of inclusive education are co-teaching, team teaching, collaboration, and
consultation and other ways of assessing skills and knowledge learned by all students.
Inclusive Practices
25
The concept of inclusive practices is founded on the belief or philosophy that students with
disabilities should be fully integrated into their school learning communities, usually in general
education classrooms, and that their instruction should be based on their abilities, not their
disabilities.
Inclusive practices have three dimensions:
 Physical integration: Placing students in the same classroom as nondisabled peers should
be a strong priority, and removing them from that setting should be done only when
absolutely necessary.
 Social integration: Relationships should be nurtured between students with disabilities
and their classmates and peers as well as adults.
 Instructional integration: Most students should be taught in the same curriculum used for
students without disabilities and helped to succeed by adjusting how teaching and learning
are designed (that is, with accommodations) and measured.
For some students with significant intellectual disabilities, instructional integration means
anchoring instruction in the standard general curriculum but appropriately adjusting
expectations (that is, making modifications).
http://www.disability.gov
When such students were permitted to participate in general education, it was called
mainstreaming. Mainstreaming involves placing students with disabilities in general education
settings only when they can meet traditional academic expectations with minimal assistance or
when those expectations are not relevant (for example, participation only in recess or school
assemblies for access to social interactions with peers).
Topic 4
Support Services for Children with Special Needs
1. Medical and Clinical Specialist
1. Clinical Psychologist, School For Psychological testing

Psychologist, Psychometrician
2. Medical Doctors and Dentist For general check-up of all children
3. Ophthalmologist For all children especially those with

blindness and low vision
4. Otologist or Otolaryngoncologist For all children especially those with
hearing loss, deafness, language and
speech disorders.
5. Neurologist and Child Psychiatrist For all children with mental
retardation, learning disabilities, and
emotional-behavior disorders.
26
6. Speech Therapist For all children with language and
speech problem.
7. Physical and Occupational Therapist For all children with those physical
disabilities
8. For all children with those physical Who communicates verbal activities to
disabilities deaf children through speech reading ,
sign language and gestures
9. Orientation and Mobility Instructor Who teaches independent travel
techniques to blind children
2. Assistive Devices
1. For Blind Students Braille writer
 braille slate and stylus
 braille books
 braille watch
 braille ruler and tape measure
 braille calculator
 arithmetic slate
 computer with voice synthesizer
 embossed materials
 manipulative materials
 talking books
 tape recorder
 braille paper
2. For Low Vision  Large print books
Students  large print typewriter
 magnifying lenses
 Grade 1 lined paper
3. For Deaf Students  Individual hearing aid
 sign language book
 speech kit
 wall mirror
 speech trainer
 group hearing aid
4. For Children with  Teacher-made materials specific to the Individual
mental retardation Education Plan (IEP) on the functional curriculum and
adaptive behaviour skills
5. For children with  Mobility devices such as wheelchair
physical disabilities  braces and splints
 adjustable desk, table and chair
 communication aids for clear speech
 Adapted computer system.
Essay No. 2
What can persons with disabilities do despite their handicaps?
27
Research and Practical Activity
Directions: You are tasked to design and create a journal that presents special education
projects/programs implemented in your community. Please note that the journal must
include at least two (2) implemented projects/programs. Attach 1-2 pictures and a brief
description of each project/program. A sample format of the expected output is
provided below as your guide. Create your journal according to the following criteria:
Rubrics
Criteria Score Point
Quality of the content presentation 25
Creativity of the journal 15
Style of writing (Grammar) 10
Total 50
Sample:
DPWH Southern Leyte upgrades facility to make its office more PWD-friendly
The Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) Southern Leyte field office
has installed an elevator in their new building in an effort to address the accessibility
concerns of persons with disabilities (PWD).
“I am happy that we are able to upgrade our facility here. We need to accommodate
those differently-abled persons and stakeholders and integrate them into the mainstream
society,” said District Engineer Ma. Margarita Junia citing laws requiring government
agencies and private institutions to install facilities for PWDs.
She added, their office is now compliant with the laws such as Batas Pambansa 344
(BP344) also known as the “Accessibility Law” and Republic Act No. 7277 (R.A.
7277) or the Magna Carta for Disabled Persons.
28
The Accessibility Law seeks “to enhance the mobility of disabled persons by requiring
certain buildings, institutions, establishments, and public utilities to install facilities.”
Also, section 25 of R.A. 7277 provides that “the state shall ensure the attainment of a
barrier-free environment that will enable disabled persons to have access in public and
private buildings and such as other places mentioned” in the Accessibility Law enacted
in 1983.
Source:
https://www.dpwh.gov.ph/DPWH/news/region/regionII
Individual Work No. 2

1. This fundamental term is characterized by “the action or process of teaching someone
especially in school, college or university”.
a. Special education c. Education

b. Equality d. Accessibility of education
2. Prensky (2014) stated that the real goal of education is becoming a _______.
a. God-fearing person c. Literate person

b. Good and more capable person d. Good and Innovative person
3. the following belongs to the four pillars of education, EXCEPT for:
a. Learning to be c. Learning to do
b. Learning to live together d. Learning to be better
4. In order to realize the goals of education, education itself has to be _____________.
a. Exclusively available c. Available and accessible to all

b. Accessible to many d. Available and accessible to many
5. Teaching strategies that normally work with the average population will work the same with
those at the extremes.
a. True b. False c. Sometimes d. None of the choices

6. It has been regarded as “an attempt to increase the fairness of universal public education for
exceptional learners.”
a. Special Education c. Inclusive Education

b. Education for All d. All of the above
7. In 1902, he started the interest to educate Filipino children with disabilities.
a. Mr. Fred Atkinson c. Mr. Robert Atkinson

b. Dr. Jose Rizal d. Mr. William H. Taft
8. The establishment of this school formally started the Special education in the Philippines.
a. Welfareville Children’s Village c. University of the Philippines

b. Insular School for the Deaf and Blind d. Philippine Normal University
9. it is a school for people with mental retardation in Mandaluyong that was established by the
government.
29
a. Philippine Normal University c. Welfareville Children’s Village
b. Insular School for the Deaf and Blind d. University of the Philippines
10. It was established in Alabang to take care of the abandoned and orphaned children and
youth with physical and mental handicaps.
a. Bantay Bata Philippines c. Elsie Gatches Village

b. Welfareville Children’s Village d. Insular School for the Deaf and Blind
11. The approval of__________, started the training of DEC teacher scholars for blind children
at the Philippine Normal University.
a. R.A. No. 3562 b. R.A. No. 7277

b. R.A. No. 9442 d. R.A. No. 3662
12. It is better known as, “Recognized Special Education (SPED) Centers in the Philippines.”
a. DECS Order no. 11 s. 2000 c. DECS Order no. 5 s. 1998

b. DECS Order no. 33 s. 1999 d. DECS Order no. 11 s. 2001
13. The approval of __________, started the training of DECS teacher scholars for blind
children started at the Philippine Normal University.
a. R.A. No. 3566 c. R.A. No. 3562

b. R.A. No. 7277 d. R.A. No. 9442
14. it is an act establishing at least one Special Education center for each school division and
at least three Special Education centers in big school divisions for children with special needs,
guidelines for government financial assistance and other incentives and support.
a. Special Education Act of 2010 c, Special Education Act of 2012

b. R.A. No. 3562 d. R.A. No. 9442
15. DECS Order no. 33 Implemented an administrative order no. 101 directing the following
agencies to provide architectural facilities or structural feature for disabled persons in all state
college, universities and other buildings EXCEPT for:
a. DPWH b. DepEd c. DECS d. CHED
TRUE or FALSE:
1. The Department of Education envisions that the child with special needs will get limited
parental and community support for his/her education without discrimination of any kind.
FALSE
2. Professionalization of special education continues to be pursued through teacher and

administrator training programs in order to sustain special education programs and services in
the country. TRUE
3. RA 7277 is an amendment of RA 9442 (2007) that gives more privileges to PWDs. FALSE
4. Special education aims to implement a life-long curriculum to include early intervention and
parent education for students with special needs. TRUE
30
5. RA 10366 mandates the Comelec to set up polling precincts exclusively for PWDs and senior
citizens that are located on the ground level - preferably near the entrance - and without physical
barriers. TRUE
Further Readings:
Who Are the Professionals in Special Education?
Students with disabilities are entitled to a wide range of supports and services. Not surprisingly, many different
individuals can be involved in the delivery of these services. You probably will interact with some of these
professionals, such as special education teachers, almost every day. Others you might work with only occasionally.
Some of these professionals serve students indirectly or work only with the few students who have the most
challenging disabilities. Together, however, these educators create, implement, and evaluate the special education
that students with disabilities receive.
1. General Education Teachers

As the general education teacher, you are the first professional discussed in this section because for many
students with suspected or documented disabilities, you are the person who has the most detailed knowledge of
their day-to-day needs in your classroom. Your responsibilities span several areas. You are the person most likely
to bring to the attention of other professionals a student whom you suspect may have a disability. That is, you
may encounter a student who is reading significantly below grade level, a student whose behavior is so different
from that of other students that you suspect an emotional disorder, or a student who has extraordinary difficulty
focusing on learning.
2. Special Education Teachers
Special education teachers are the professionals with whom you are most likely to have ongoing contact in
teaching students with disabilities, and these professionals have increasingly complex roles. They are responsible
for managing and coordinating the services a student receives, including writing and implementing the
individualized education program (IEP). They typically also provide direct and indirect instruction to students
who are assigned to them. In addition, they may consult with you regarding a student suspected of having a
disability and work with you to determine whether a referral for assessment for possible special education is
warranted, a process explained later in this chapter.
3. Itinerant Teachers
In some high schools, special education teachers now are assigned to work with a particular department,
attending department meetings and providing supports for all students with disabilities enrolled in that
department’s courses. For some groups of students, the special educator with whom you interact might be an
itinerant teacher.
Itinerant teachers often have roles like the professionals just described, but they travel between two or more
school sites to provide services to students. Teachers for students with vision or hearing disabilities often are
itinerant.
4. Transition Specialist
If you work in a school district where each school has only a few students with disabilities, even the special
educator for students with high-incidence disabilities may deliver services this way. One other type of special
education teacher is a transition specialist. This professional typically works in a high school setting and helps
prepare students to leave school for vocational training, employment, or postsecondary education. No matter what
subject you teach in high school, you might work very closely with a transition specialist, but this is especially
likely in business education, consumer sciences, industrial and other vocational arts, and similar areas. This
professional also spends time working directly with students to assess their skills and interests related to life after
school.
31
A transition specialist works with community businesses to arrange student job sites and resolve problems
related to student workers. This professional also may serve as a job coach, accompanying a student to a job site
and helping her master the skills needed to do the job successfully.
5. Intervention Specialists (ISs)
As the nature of special education services changes, so do the job responsibilities and titles of special
educators. For example, you might find that the professionals in your school who used to be called special
education teachers are now referred to as intervention specialists (ISs). This change in title represents an effort
to delabel teachers and parallels the effort to deemphasize students’ labels—that is, to focus on student strengths
and needs rather than the language of disability. Regardless of the type of special education teachers with whom
you work, you will find that they are important instructional partners who are no longer relegated to teaching just
in the special education classroom. They support students by creating adapted materials, teaching with you in the
general education classroom, working directly and separately with students who have disabilities, and often
serving as coordinators for all the services any single student may receive.
Related Service Providers and Other Specialists

In addition to working with special education teachers, you will have contact with a variety of other
service providers (National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities, n.d.). They, too, play important
roles in educating students with disabilities.
The following list includes the individuals with whom you are most likely to work.
School Psychologists School psychologists offer at least two types of expertise related to educating students with
disabilities. First, school psychologists often have a major responsibility for determining a student’s intellectual,
academic, social, emotional, and/or behavioral functioning. They typically contribute a detailed written analysis
of the student’s strengths and areas of need; in many school districts, this document is referred to as a “psych
report” (that is, a psychological report
A second major task for school psychologists is designing strategies to address students’ academic and social
or behavior problems, whether students have been identified as having a disability or not (Kaniuka, 2009). For
example, these professionals typically are part of the team that designs and implements interventions prior to a
decision about referral for possible special education services. Sometimes they serve as behavior consultants.
Occasionally, they assist a teacher by working with an entire class group on social skills. They also might provide
individual assistance to students with emotional or behavioral problems who are not eligible for special education.
Counselors Although counselors most often advise high school students and assist students with disabilities as
they transition from school to postschool, they also work at other school levels and contribute to the education of
students with disabilities. For example, counselors in some school districts assess students’ social and emotional
functioning, including areas such as self-concept; motivation; attitude toward school, peers, and teachers; and
social skills. Counselors also can provide services to both teachers and students.
Speech/Language Therapists Many students with disabilities have communication needs. Some have mild
problems in pronouncing words or speaking clearly. Others have an extremely limited vocabulary. Yet others rely
on alternative means of communication, such as communication boards. The professionals who specialize in
meeting students’ communication needs are speech/language therapists, and they have a tremendously diverse
range of school responsibilities.
At the early elementary level, they might work with an entire class on language development or with an
individual student on pronouncing sounds. At the intermediate elementary level, they might work on vocabulary
with a group of students and might also help a student with a moderate cognitive disability pronounce some words
more clearly or combine words into sentences. At the middle or high school level, they often focus on functional
vocabulary and work mostly with students with low-incidence disabilities. For example, they might help a student
with an intellectual disability learn to read common signs and complete tasks such as ordering in a restaurant or
asking for assistance.
Social Workers Social workers’ expertise is similar to that of counselors in terms of being able to help teachers
and students address social and emotional issues. Thus, social workers may serve as consultants to teachers and
also may provide individual or group assistance to students. However, social workers have additional expertise.
They often are liaisons between schools and families.
32
Administrators The school principal, assistant principal, and sometimes a department chairperson or team leader
are the administrators most likely to participate actively in the education of students with disabilities. Their role
is to offer knowledge about the entire school community and provide perspective on school district policies
regarding special education and also to help address parents’ concerns
Paraprofessionals Individuals who assist teachers and others in the provision of services to students with
disabilities are paraprofessionals .These individuals usually have a certificate based on completing a community
college or similar training program; some are even licensed teachers. Regardless, these service providers generally
complete their work under the direction of teachers and other professional staff members. Paraprofessionals also
might be called paraeducators, instructional assistants, teaching assistants, aides, or other titles, depending on
local practices.
Other Specialists Depending on student needs and state and local practices, other professionals also may
participate in the education of students with disabilities. Here is a list of these individuals and a brief description
of their roles:
• Physical therapist. Assesses and intervenes related to gross motor skills, that is, large muscle activity.
• Occupational therapist. Assesses and intervenes related to fine motor skills, that is, small muscle activity.
• Adaptive physical educator. Designs physical education activities for students with physical, health, or other
special needs that affect participation in traditional programs.
• Nurse. Key person for gathering needed medical information about students with disabilities and interpreting
such information from physicians and other medical personnel.
• Bilingual special educator. Professional trained in both special education and bilingual education that
specializes in serving students from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds.
• Mobility specialist. Helps students with visual impairments learn how to become familiar with their
environments and how to travel from place to place safely.
• Sign language interpreter. Listens to classroom instruction and relays it to students who are deaf or hard of
hearing using sign language.
• Professional from outside agencies. Provides services away from school (for example, private school, hospital,
juvenile justice system) and serves as the liaison between such services and school personnel, especially during
transitions from such services back to school.
• Advocate. Serves as an advisor and sometimes represents parents at meetings related to their children with
disabilities, especially when parents believe they are not knowledgeable enough about the legal and educational
requirements of special education.
Parents and Students
When decisions are being made concerning a student with a suspected or documented disability, the best
interests of the student and her family must be represented. The parents—or a person serving in the role of a
parent, such as a guardian or foster parent—have the right to participate in virtually all aspects of their child’s
educational program. Often parents are strong allies for general education teachers. They can assist teachers by
reviewing at home what is taught in school, rewarding their child for school accomplishments, and working with
school professionals to resolve behavior and academic problems.
Whenever appropriate, students with disabilities also should be active participants in decision making about
their own education. Increasingly, educators are involving students so they can directly state their needs and goals
and learn to advocate for themselves, a concept referred to as self-determination. The extent of student
participation on the team depends on the age of the student, the type and impact of the disability, and the
professionals’ and parents’ commitment. In general, the older the student, the greater her ability to contribute, and
the higher the value placed on her contribution, the greater the participation. Thus, first-grade students with
disabilities usually are not expected to participate in making most decisions about their education.
However, high school students with disabilities usually attend and participate in their team meetings, and
their priorities and preferences are central to decision making. These students often have strong opinions about
what they would like to do after high school, and they also take on more responsibility for monitoring their
progress in reaching their goals.
References:
http://www.seriweb.com
Special Education Resources on the Internet (SERI) provides links to thousands of disability-related websites,
grouped by topic, from those on inclusion in schools to those on specific disabilities such as autism, learning
disabilities, and behavior disorders.
33
http://www.disability.gov
Managed by the U.S. Department of Labor, this website is a comprehensive set of resources related to disabilities
across the lifespan and includes links to resources available in each state.
http://idea.ed.gov/explore/ view/p/%2Croot%2Cdynamic %2CVideoClips%2C
At Building the Legacy: IDEA 2004 you can learn more detail about the requirements of federal special education
law through a series of brief video clips.
http://www.rti4success.org/
The National Center on Response to Intervention provides a straightforward explanation of RtI, training modules
and other resources, and a free monthly newsletter.
References:
Inciong, T.G. Quijano, Y.S. , Capulong, Y.T. (2020). Introduction to Special Education. A Textbook for College Students-First Edition
*Friend, M and Bursuck W.D. (2012). Including Students with Special Needs. A Practical Guide for Classroom Teachers- Sixth Edition
*Books/Reading Materials were uploaded in our Google Classroom with class code ypyjw7f for your ready reference.
34
Part II
THE ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS OF SPECIAL

EDUCATION
Module III
MEANING OF SPECIAL EDUCATION AND

CATEGORIES OF CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL
NEEDS
35
OUTLINE
Module 3 The Essential Concepts of Special Education: Meaning of Special Education

and Categories of Children with Special Needs is the third module in Professional Education
224. Exceptional children and youth like all other pupils in regular classes are individuals with
their unique traits and characteristics. Some of them learn slower than the average pupils, like
those with mental retardation. Those who are gifted and talented learn very fast and show
creativity in their work Others have sensory disabilities like blindness or low vision, deafness,
communication disorders and physical disabilities, like cerebral palsy, spinal cord injuries and
limb deficiency, chronic health impairment like epilepsy, juvenile diabetes mellitus, asthma,
cystic fibrosis and hemophilia, among others.
In spite of their disabilities, exceptional children and youth like all other children have the
same psychological needs: they want to belong, to be accepted, to be appreciated and to be
loved.

1. Define special education and explain the meaning of individually planned, systematically
implemented, and carefully evaluated instruction for children with special needs;
2. Explain how special education enables exceptional children to benefit from the basic
education program of the Department of Education;
3. Cite the difference between special education as essentially instruction and as purposeful
intervention;
4. Define special terms exceptional children and youth and children with special needs;
5. Distinguish the following terms in special education from each other: developmental
disability, impairment or disability, handicap and at risk;
6. Define, compare and contrast the nine categories of CSN from each other; and
7. Develop positive attitudes towards exceptional children and youth.
36
Contents:
Topic
Topic Title Page
Number
1 What is special education?
2 Who are the Exceptional Children or Children and
Youth with Special Needs?
3 The Basic Terms in Special Education: Developmental
Disability, Impairment or Disability, Handicap and At
Risk
4 What are the categories of Exceptionalities Among
Children and Youth with Special Needs?
5 Is it Correct to Use Disability Category Labels?
6 The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of
America
Quiz
Further Readings
References
37
Module 3: The Essential Concepts of Special Education: Meaning of Special
Education and Categories of Children with Special Needs
Topic 1: What is special education?
Planned Hours: 2 lectures (1 hour presentation, 1 hour student activities, 1-2 hours student
research and study)
Introduction
Special education as it exists today has been influenced by a number of different factors.
Although people with disabilities have been identified and treated for centuries, special
education grew rapidly only in the twentieth century. As special education has evolved, it has
been shaped by federal law, the civil rights movement and related court cases, and changing
social and political beliefs.
When compulsory public education began near the turn of the twentieth century, almost
no school programs existed for students with disabilities. Students with disabilities that were
relatively mild—that is learning or behavior problems or minor physical impairments—was
educated along with other students because their needs were not considered extraordinary.
Many children with significant intellectual or physical disabilities did not attend school at all,
and others were educated by private agencies or lived in institutions. In fact, for the first half
of the twentieth century, many states explicitly legislated permission for school districts to
prohibit some students with disabilities from attending. However, as compulsory education
became widespread during the 1920s and 1930s, the number of special classes in public schools
grew.
Throughout this module, we have used the phrase students with disabilities, at this point;
we will introduce you to the specific types of disabilities that may entitle students to receive
special education services, as well as other special needs that may require specialized
assistance. As you read the following definitions, remember that a disability label can only
provide general guidelines about a student. Labels are a form of shorthand that professionals
use, but no label can accurately describe a student. Your responsibility is to understand your
students with disabilities in ways that extend beyond what any label communicate so you can
help them reach their potential.
38
Class Discussion
 Define and explain the following terms:
A. Developmental Disability
B. Impairment or Disability
C. Handicap and At Risk
 In what ways is special education:
A. A legislatively governed enterprise?
B. A part of basic education?
C. The process of teaching and youth with special education needs?
D. An intervention process?
 Students will define special education and explain the meaning of individually planned,
systematically implemented, and carefully evaluated instruction for children with special
needs;
 Students will explain how special education enables exceptional children to benefit from
the basic education program of the Department of Education;
 Students will cite the difference between special education as essentially instruction and
as purposeful intervention;
 Students will define special terms exceptional children and youth and children with special
needs;
 Students will distinguish the following terms in special education from each other:
developmental disability, impairment or disability, handicap and at risk;
 Students will define, compare and contrast the nine categories of CSN from each other;
and
 Students will develop positive attitudes towards exceptional children and youth.
39
Descriptions:
What is Special Education?
Current literature defines special education as individually planned, systematically

implemented, and carefully evaluated instruction to help exceptional children achieve the
greatest possible personal self-sufficiency and success in present and future environments.
Individually Planned Instruction- in the United States , the law on Individual with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA) requires that and individualized education program (IEP) be developed
and implemented for every special education student between the ages 3 and 21.
The basic requirements of IDEA for all IEP’s include statements of:
 The Child’s present level of performance, academic achievements, social adaptation,
prevocational and vocational skills, psychomotor skills and self-help skills.
 Annual goals describing the educational performance to be achieved at the end of each
school year.
 Short-term instructional objectives presented in measurable, intermediate steps
between the present level of educational performance and the annual goals.
 Specific educational services;
 Needed transition services from age 16 or earlier before the students leaves the school
setting.
Systematically Implemented and Evaluated Instructions- each type of children with

special needs requires particular educational services, curriculum goals, competencies and
skills, educational approaches, strategies and procedures in the evaluation of learning and
skills.
Personal Self Sufficiency- an important goal of special education is to help the child
become independent from the assistance of adults in personal maintenance and development,
homemaking, community life, vocational and leisure activities and travel.
The present environment- refers to the current conditions in the life of the child with
disability. The present environment includes the family, the school, and the community where
she/he lives, the institutions in society that extends assistance and support to children and youth
with special education needs such as the government, non-government organizations, socio-
civic organizations and other groups.
The future environment- is a forecast of how the child with a disability can move on the
next level of education from elementary to secondary school and on to college or vocational
program, and finally to the workplace he/she can be gainfully employed.
Special Education Services
 When teachers refer to students with disabilities, they mean students who are eligible to
receive special education services according to federal and state guidelines.
 Special education is the specially designed instruction provided by the school district or
other local education agency that meets the unique needs of students identified as disabled
according to federal and state eligibility criteria.
40
 Special education is a set of services that may include instruction in a general education or
special education classroom, education in the community for students who need to learn
life and work skills, and specialized assistance in areas such as physical education and
vocational preparation.
 Students with disabilities also may receive related services, that is, assistance required to
enable students to benefit from special education. Examples of related services include
speech/language therapy, transportation to and from school in a specialized van or school
bus, and physical therapy. They must receive, as needed, supports such as preferential
seating, access to computer technology, and instructional adjustments that enable them to
be educated with their peers who do not have disabilities. All special education, related
services, and supplementary aids and services are provided to students by public schools
at no cost to parents. You may encounter one additional set of terms relates to students’
services.
 Students with disabilities are entitled to receive accommodations and modifications related
to their instruction. Accommodations are changes in how the student learns key
curriculum. For example, a student may be assigned fewer math problems because he takes
longer than other students to complete each one. Another student may respond to an essay
question on a history test by writing bullet points instead of paragraphs, because it reduces
the writing task and the goal is to determine what she has learned about history. In each
case, the curriculum has remained the same.
Modifications refer to what the student learns and usually implies that some curriculum is
removed. For example, a student with a significant intellectual disability may not learn all the
vocabulary in a science unit, focusing instead on words that he is likely to encounter in day-to-
day life.
Topic 2
Who are Exceptional Children or Children and Youth with Special Needs?
The term Exceptional Children and Youth covers those with mental retardation,
giftedness and talent, learning disabilities, emotional and behavioral disorders,
communication disorders, deafness, blindness and low vision, physical disabilities, health
impairments and severe disabilities. These are children and youth who experience difficulties
in learning basic education curriculum, as well as those performances is so superior that they
need a differentiated special education curriculum to help them attain their full potential.
Exceptional Children are also referred to as Children with Special Needs (CSN). Like the
Children and Youth in elementary and secondary schools, the mental ability of
Exceptional Children or Children with Special Needs maybe average, below or above average.
41
There are four points of view about special education (Heward 2003):
 Special Education is a legislatively governed enterprise.
This point of view is expressed in the legal bases of special education that are discussed in
Module 1. Article IV Section 1 and Section 5, Article XIII, Section 11 of the 1987 Constitution
guarantee that the State shall protect and promote the rights of all citizens to quality education
at all levels and shall take appropriate steps to make such education available to all.
The State shall:

 Provide adult citizens, the disabled, the out-of-school-youth with training in
civics, vocational efficiency and other skills;
 Adopt an integrated and comprehensive approach to health and other social
services available to all people at affordable costs.;
 Be priority to the needs of the underprivileged, the sick, the elderly, the disabled,
women and children.
RA 7277-The Magna Carta for Disabled Persons- provides for the rehabilitation, self-
development, self-reliance of disabled persons and their integration into mainstream society.
The Philippine Policies and Guidelines for Special Education provides that every child
with special needs has a right to an educational program that is suitable to his/her needs. There
are many other laws, memoranda and circulars that have been enacted through the years in
support of special education.
 Special Education is a part of country’s educational system.
With its modest historical beginning in 1907, special education is now a major part of the
basic education program in elementary and secondary schools. The Special Education Division
of the Bureau of Elementary Education formulates policies, plans, and programs, develop
standards of programs and services. The government continues to grant scholarships to
deserving school administrators and teachers to pursue the higher degrees at the Philippine
Normal University and the University of the Philippines. In-service education programs are
conducted to upgrade the competencies of administrators, teachers and non-teaching personnel.
Networks and linkages in the country and overseas are sustained.
 Special Education is teaching children with special needs in the least restrictive
environment.
Teaching is what special education is all about. For this perspective, special education is
defined in terms of who, what, how and where of its implementation.
Who: The Exceptional children or the children and youth with special education needs are
the most important persons in special education. Then there are the following:
 School Administrators
 The special education teacher
 The regular teachers
42
 The interdisciplinary teams of professional such as:
 Guidance counselors
 The school psychologists
 The speech therapist
 Medical doctors and specialists
What: Every Exceptional child needs access to a differentiated and modified curricular
program to enable him/her to learn the skills and competencies in the basic education
curriculum. The individualized education program (IEP) states the annual goals, the quarterly
objectives, the strategies for teaching and evaluation of learning and services the exceptional
child needs. (Please see Further Readings on IEP).
How: Children with mental retardation are taught adaptive skills and basic academic
content that are suitable to their mental ability.
 Gifted children are provided with enrichment activities and advanced content
knowledge so that they can learn more what the basic education curriculum offers.
 Children who are blind learn braille and orientation and mobility or travel techniques.
 Children who are deaf learn sign language and speech reading.
Where: There are several educational placements for these children. The most preferred
is inclusive education where they are mainstreamed in regular classes. Other types of
educational placements are the following:
 special schools
 Residential schools
 Self-contained classes
 Homebound
 Hospital instruction
 Special Education is purposeful intervention.
Intervention prevents, eliminates and/or overcomes the obstacles that might keep an
individual with disabilities from learning from full and active participation in school activities
and from engaging from social and leisure activities.
 Preventive Intervention- is designed to keep potential or minor problems from
becoming a disability.
 Primary Intervention- is designed to eliminate or counteract risks factors so that a
disability is not acquired
 Secondary Intervention is aimed at reducing or eliminating the effects of existing risk
factors
 Tertiary Intervention- is intended to minimize the impact of a specific condition or
disability among those with disabilities.
 Remedial Intervention- attempts to eliminate the effects of the disability.
43
Topic 3
The Basic Terms in Special Education: Developmental Disability, Impairment or
Disability, Handicap and At Risk
Developmental Disability- refers to a severe, chronic disability of a child five years of

age or older that is:
 Attributable to a mental or physical impairment or a combination of mental and physical
impairments;
 Manifested before the persons attains age 22;
 Likely to continue indefinitely;
 Results in substantial functional limitation in three or more of the areas of major life
activities such as self-care, language, learning, mobility, self-direction, capacity for
independent living and economic self-sufficiency;
 Reflects the person’s need for a combination and sequence of special care, treatment or
other services that are lifelong or of extended duration and are individually planned and
coordinated.
Impairment or Disability-refers to reduced function or loss of specific parts of the body

or organ. The following disabilities limit or restrict the normal functions of a particular organ
of the body:
 Blindness or low vision
 Deafness or hard of hearing condition
 Mental retardation
 Learning disabilities
 Communication disorders
 Emotional and behavior disorders
 Physical and health impairments
 Severe disabilities
Handicap- refers to a problem a person with disability or impairment encounters when

interacting with people, events and the physical aspects of the environment.
Examples:
 A child with low vision or blindness cannot read the regular print of textbooks. The child
either read books that are published in large print or transcribed into braille.
 A child who is hard of hearing or who suffers from deafness cannot hear regular
conversation and uses a hearing aid and read the lips of the speaker.
 A child who has a physical disability such as crippling condition cannot walk normally
and uses a wheelchair, braces or artificial limbs.
At Risk-refers to children who have greater chances than other children to develop a
disability. The child is in danger of substantial developmental delay because of medical
biological or environmental factors if early intervention services are not provided.
Categories of Children at Risk
44
1. Established Risk-are those with cerebral palsy, Down Syndrome and other conditions that
started during pregnancy.
2. Biological Risk- are those who are born prematurely, underweight at birth, whose mother
contracted diabetes or rubella during the first trimester of pregnancy or who had bacterial
infections like meningitis and HIV.
3. Environmental risk- results from extreme poverty, child abuse, absence of adequate shelter
and medical care, parental substance abuse, limited opportunities for nurturance and social
stimulation.
Topic 4
What are the Categories of Exceptionalities among Children and Youth with Special
Needs?
Categories of Disability in Federal Law (U.S. Department of Education, 2009)

When we say that students have disabilities, we are referring to the specific categories of
exceptionality prescribed by federal law. Each state has additional laws that clarify special
education practices and procedures, and the terms used to refer to disabilities in state laws may
differ from those found in federal law. For example, although federal law specifies the label
emotional disturbance for some students, in some states, the term behavior disorder or
behavioral and emotional disability is used. Similarly, although IDEA uses the term mental
retardation, some states use the alternative cognitive disability or intellectual disability.
According to IDEA, students with one or more of the following thirteen disabilities that
negatively affect their educational performance are eligible for special education services.
These disabilities also are summarized in the table after the 13 categories.
1. Learning Disabilities
 Students with learning disabilities (LD) have dysfunctions in processing information
typically found in language-based activities.
 They have average or above-average intelligence, but they often encounter significant
problems learning how to read, write, and compute.
 They may not see letters and words in the way others do; they may not be able to pick out
important features in a picture they are looking at;
 They may take longer to process a question or comment directed to them.
 They also may have difficulty following directions, attending to tasks, organizing
assignments, and managing time.
 Sometimes these students appear to be unmotivated or lazy when in fact they are trying to
the best of their ability.
2. Speech or Language Impairments

 When a student has extraordinary difficulties communicating with others for reasons other
than maturation, a speech or language impairment is involved.
 Students with this disability may have trouble with articulation, or the production of speech
sounds. They may omit words or mispronounce common words when they speak.
45
 They also may experience difficulty in fluency, such as a significant stuttering problem.
Some students have far-reaching speech or language disorders, in which they have
significant problems receiving and producing language.
 They may communicate through pictures or sign language.
3. Mental Retardation
 Students with mental retardation (MR) have significant limitations in intellectual ability
and adaptive behaviors.
 They learn at a slower pace than do other students, and they may reach a point at which
their learning levels off. Although the federal description of disability categories does not
distinguish between students with mild mental retardation and those with more significant
intellectual disabilities, many state descriptions do.
 Most individuals with this disability can lead independent or semi-independent lives as
adults and can hold appropriate jobs. Because the term mental retardation can be very
stigmatizing, the alternative term intellectual disability is becoming more common.
4. Emotional Disturbance
 When a student has significant difficulty in the social emotional domain—serious enough
to interfere with the student’s learning—emotional disturbance (ED), also sometimes
called an emotional and behavior disorder (EBD), exists.
 Students with this disability may have difficulty with interpersonal relationships and may
respond inappropriately in emotional situations.
 They may have extraordinary trouble making and keeping friends;
 They may get extremely angry when peers tease or play jokes on them;
 They may repeatedly and significantly show little or inappropriate emotion when it is
expected, such as when a family pet dies. Some students with ED are depressed; others are
aggressive.
 Students with ED display these impairments over a long period of time, across different
settings, and to a degree significantly different from their peers.
 Students with emotional disabilities are not just students whose behavior in a classroom is
challenging to address; rather, they have chronic and extremely serious emotional or
behavioral problems.
5. Autism
 Students with autism, sometimes referred to as autism spectrum disorder because of its
many variations, usually lack appropriate social responsiveness from a very early age.
 They generally avoid physical contact (for example, cuddling and holding), and they may
not make eye contact. Problems with social interactions persist as these children grow;
they appear unaware of others’ feelings and may not seek interactions with peers or adults.
 They may have unusual language patterns, speaking without inflection, repeating what
others say, or repeating something heard on television over and over.
 To feel comfortable, they may need highly routinized behavior, such as a formalized
procedure for putting on their clothes or eating their meals.
 Some students with autism have above-average intelligence; others have intellectual
disabilities.
46
 The causes of autism are not well understood, and the best approaches for working with
students with autism are still emerging.
6. Hearing Impairments
 Disabilities that concern inability or limited ability to receive auditory signals are called
hearing impairments (HI).
 When students are hard of hearing, they have a significant hearing loss but are able to
capitalize on residual hearing by using hearing aids and other amplifying systems.
 Students who are deaf have little or no residual hearing and therefore do not benefit from
traditional devices that aid hearing.
 Some students with hearing loss may be assisted through the use of advanced technology
such as a cochlear implant, a small, complex electronic device implanted near the ear that
can provide a sense of sound.
 Depending on the extent of the disability, students with hearing impairments may use sign
language, speech reading, or other ways to help them communicate.
7. Visual Impairments
 Disabilities that concern the inability or limited ability to receive information visually are
called visual impairments (VI).
 Some students have partial sight and can learn successfully using magnification devices
and other adaptive materials; students who are blind do not use vision as a means of
learning and instead rely primarily on touch and hearing.
 Depending on need, students with visual impairments may use braille, specialized
computers, and other aids to assist in learning. In addition, some students with vision loss
need specialized training to help them learn to move around successfully in their
environment.
7. Deaf-Blindness
 Students who have both significant vision and hearing loss sometimes are eligible for
services as deaf-blind.
 These students have extraordinarily unique learning needs, particularly in the domain of
communication, and because of the highly specialized services they require.
 The degree of the vision and hearing loss may vary from moderate to severe and may be
accompanied by other disabilities.
 Students in this category are likely to receive special education services beginning at birth
or very soon thereafter.
Orthopedic Impairments
 Students with orthopedic impairments (OI) have physical conditions that seriously impair
their ability to move about or complete motor activities.
 Students who have cerebral palsy are included in this group, as are those with other
diseases that affect the skeleton or muscles.
 Students with physical limitations resulting from accidents also may be orthopedically
impaired.
47
 Students with orthopedic impairments are difficult to describe as a group because their
strengths and needs vary tremendously.
 For example, some students with this disability are unable to move about
 Without a wheelchair and may need special transportation to get to school and a ramp to
enter the school building.
 Others may lack the fine motor skills needed to write and may require extra time or adapted
equipment to complete assignments.
8. Traumatic Brain Injury
 Students with traumatic brain injury (TBI) have a wide range of characteristics and special
needs, including limited strength or alertness, developmental delays, short-term memory
problems, hearing or vision losses that may be temporary or permanent, irritability, and
sudden mood swings.
 Their characteristics depend on the specific injuries they experienced, and their needs often
change over time. Because TBI is a medical condition that affects education, diagnosis by
a physician is required along with assessment of learning and adaptive behavior.
 Students who experience serious head trauma from automobile accidents, falls, and sports
injuries are among those who might be eligible for services as TBI.
11. Other Health Impairments

 Some students have a disease or disorder so significant that it affects their ability to learn
in school. The category of disability addressing their needs is called other health
impairments (OHI).
 Students who have chronic heart conditions necessitating frequent and prolonged absences
from school might be eligible for special education in this category, as might those with
severe and chronic asthma.
 Students with diseases such as acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) and sickle
cell anemia also may be categorized as having other health impairments, depending on the
impact of their illnesses on learning.
 Some students—but not all—with attention deficit–hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) also
receive special education services in this category.
48
12. Multiple Disabilities
 The category used when students have two or more disabilities is called multiple
disabilities.
 Students in this group often have an intellectual disability as well as a physical disability,
but this category also may be used to describe any student with two or more disability
types (with the exception of deaf-blindness as noted above).
 This classification is used only when the student’s disabilities are so serious and
interrelated that none can be identified as a primary disability.
 Students with multiple disabilities often benefit from assistive technology, that is, simple
or complex devices that facilitate their learning.
13. Developmental Delays

 The category developmental delays (DD) are somewhat different than the other disabilities
recognized in IDEA. It is an option that states may use for children ages 3 through 9.
 This category includes youngsters who have significant delays
 In physical, cognitive, communication, social-emotional, or adaptive development, but it
is applied instead of one of the more specific disability categories.
 This option has two advantages: First, it avoids the use of more stigmatizing labels for
young children, and second, it acknowledges the difficulty of determining the nature of a
specific disability when children are rapidly growing and changing.
A Cross-Categorical Approach to Special Education
Federal and state education agencies and local school districts use the categories of
disability described in the previous section for counting the number of students receiving
special education services and allocating money to educate them. When you prepare to teach a
student, however, you probably will find that the specific category of disability does not guide
you in discovering that student’s strengths and devising appropriate teaching strategies.
Further, students in different categories often benefit from the same instructional adjustments.
1. High-incidence disabilities are those that are most common, including learning disabilities,
speech or language impairments, mild intellectual disabilities, and emotional
disturbance.
2. Low-incidence disabilities are those that are less common and include all the other
categories: moderate to severe intellectual disabilities, multiple disabilities, hearing
impairments, orthopedic impairments, other health impairments, visual impairments,
deaf-blindness, autism, traumatic brain injury, and developmental delays.
Other Students with Special Needs

Not all students who have special learning and behavior needs are addressed in special
education laws.
1. Students Who Are Gifted or Talented
49
Students who demonstrate ability far above average in one or several areas—including
overall intellectual ability, leadership, specific academic subjects, creativity, athletics, and the
visual or performing arts—are considered gifted or talented.
2. Students Protected by Section 504
Among those likely to be included in this group are some students with attention deficit–
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). These students have a medical condition often characterized
by an inability to attend to complex tasks for long periods of time, excessive motor activity,
and/or impulsivity. The impact of this disorder on students’ schoolwork can be significant.
Students with ADHD may take medication, such as Ritalin or Strattera that helps them focus
their attention.
Many students with learning disabilities or emotional disturbance also have ADHD, but
these students receive assistance through IDEA, as do students with ADHD whose disorder is
so significant that they are determined to be eligible for special education. Other students who
may be protected by Section 504 include those with asthma, severe allergies, or epilepsy.
3. Students at Risk
Often, the general term at risk refers to students whose characteristics, environment, or
experiences make them more likely than others to fail in school (and they also may have
disabilities). Students whose primary language is not English—sometimes referred to as
English-language learners (ELLs)—sometimes are considered at risk, and they may need
assistance in school learning.
They may attend bilingual education programs or classes for English as a second language
(ESL) to have opportunities to learn English while also learning the standard curriculum, or
they may receive assistance in their general education classrooms. Some ELLs also have
disabilities; when this is the case, both English-language instruction and special education are
provided. The checklist presented in the Professional Edge is a tool you can use to analyze your
readiness to work with students and families from diverse backgrounds, including those who
are English language learners.
A second group of at-risk students includes slow learners whose educational progress is
below average but who do not have a disability. These students are learning to the best of their
ability, but they often cannot keep pace with the instruction in most general education
classrooms without assistance. They are sometimes described as “falling between the cracks”
of the educational system because while most professionals agree they need special assistance,
they are not eligible for special education. They are likely to access and benefit from response
to intervention (RtI) services.
Other students who might be considered at risk include those who are homeless; those who
live in poverty or move frequently; those who are born to mothers abusing drugs or alcohol or
who abuse drugs or alcohol themselves and those who are victims of physical or psychological
abuse. Students in these groups are at risk for school failure because of the environment or
circumstances in which they live.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA) Public Law 101-476.
Current federal special education law.
Federal Disability Brief Description2
50
Term1
A disorder related to processing information that leads to
difficulties in reading, writing, and computing; the most
Learning disability (LD)
common disability, accounting for almost half of all
students receiving special education.
A disorder related to accurately producing the sounds of
Speech or language
language or meaningfully using language to
impairment (SLI)
communicate.
Mental retardation Significant limitations in intellectual ability and adaptive
(MR) behavior; this disability occurs in a range of severity.
Emotional disturbance Significant problems in the social-emotional area to a
(ED) degree that learning is negatively affected.
A disorder characterized by extraordinary difficulty in
Autism social responsiveness; this disability occurs in many
different forms and may be mild or significant.
Hearing impairment A partial or complete loss of hearing.
(HI)
Visual impairment (VI) A partial or complete loss of vision.
A simultaneous significant hearing loss and significant
Deaf-blindness
vision loss.
Orthopedic impairment A significant physical limitation that impairs the ability to
(OI) move or complete motor activities.
A medical condition denoting a serious brain injury that
Traumatic brain injury
occurs as a result of accident or injury; potentially
(TBI)
affecting learning, behavior, social skills, and language.
A disease or health disorder so significant that it
Other health
negatively affects learning; examples include cancer,
impairment (OHI)
sickle-cell anemia, and diabetes.
The simultaneous presence of two or more disabilities
such that none can be identified as primary; the most
Multiple disabilities
common is the combination of intellectual and physical
disabilities.
A nonspecific disability category that states may choose
Developmental delay
to use as an alternative to specific disability labels for
(DD)
students up to age 9.
Topic 5
Is it Correct to Use Disability Category Labels?
There are two points of view regarding the use of labels to describe children and youth
with disabilities.
1. Use of disability labels calls attention to the disability itself and overlooks the more
important and positive characteristic of the person. Frowns on labeling these children as
mentally retarded, learning disabled, emotionally disturbed, socially maladjusted, blind, deaf,
or physically disabled. The disability becomes the major influence in the development of
preconceived ideas that tend to be negative, such as helplessness, dependence and doom to a
life of hopelessness.
51
2. It is necessary to use workable disability category labels in order to describe the
exceptional learning needs for a systematic provision of special education services.
Pros and Possible Benefits of Labeling

 Categories can relate diagnostic to specific types of education and treatment.
 Labeling may lead to “protective” response in which children are more accepting of the
typical behavior by a peer with disabilities than they would be that same behavior were
emitted by a child without disabilities.
 Labeling helps professionals communicate with one another and classify and assess
research findings.
 Labels enable disability-specific advocate groups to promote specific programs and to spur
legislative action.
 Labeling helps make exceptional children’s special needs more visible to the public.
Possible Disadvantages of Labeling

 Some people may think only in terms of what the individual cannot do instead of what he
or she might be able to learn to do.
 Labels may cause others to hold low expectations for and to deferentially treat a child on
the basis of the label, which may result to a self-fulfilling prophecy.
 Labels that describe
 Label suggest that learning problems are the primary the result of something wrong within
the child , thereby reducing the systematic examination of and accountability for
instructional variables as the course of performance deficits.
 A labeled child may develop poor self-concept.
 Label may lead peers to reject or ridicule the labeled child.
 Special education labels have certain permanence; once labeled it is difficult for a child to
ever again achieve the status of simply being “just another kid”.
 Labels often provide a basis for keeping children out of the regular classroom.
 A disproportionate number of children from diverse cultural, ethnic and linguistic groups
have been inaccurately labeled a disabled, especially under the category mild mental
retardation.
 Classification of exceptional children requires the expenditure of a great amount of money
and professional and student time that could better be spent in planning and delivering
instruction.
Topic 6
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Public Law 94-142
In the United States, there is a powerful law that was enacted in 1975. Public Law 94-
142, Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) has changed the American system
education. The IDEA is a comprehensive legislation regarding the education of children with
disabilities. The law clearly reflects the concern of the society for citizens with disabilities to
be treated like all other citizens with the same rights and privileges.
52
The major provisions of IDEA states that all children with disabilities who are between
the ages of 3-21, regardless of the type or severity of their disabilities shall receive a free,
appropriate public education. All children with disabilities shall be located and identified.
Provisions of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA)
Core Principles
• Free appropriate public education (FAPE). Students with disabilities are entitled to attend
public schools and receive the educational services they need. This education is provided at no
cost to parents.
• Least restrictive environment (LRE). Students with disabilities must be educated in the least
restrictive environment in which they can succeed with appropriate supports provided. For
most students, this environment is the general education classroom.
• Individualized education. The instructional services and other assistance for a student with
disabilities must be tailored to meet his needs according to a prepared individualized education
program (IEP) that is reviewed and updated annually.
• Nondiscriminatory evaluation. Students must be assessed using instruments that do not
discriminate on the basis of race, culture, or disability. In considering eligibility for special
education services, a student must be assessed by a multidisciplinary team in her native
language using tests that are relevant to the area of concern. Eligibility cannot be decided on
the basis of only one test.
• Due process. If a disagreement occurs concerning a student’s eligibility for special education
placement or services, whether raised by parents or the school district, no changes can be made
until the issue has been resolved by an impartial hearing and, if necessary, the appropriate court,
a procedure referred to as due process.
• Zero reject–child find. No student may be excluded from public education because of a
disability. Further, each state must take action to locate children who may be entitled to special
education services.
Additional Major Provisions
• Transition services. Transition services that prepare students for leaving school (for higher
education, vocational training, or a job) must be addressed in IEPs for students beginning at
age 16. Transition plans must include strategies to improve academic and functional
achievement to foster student success and must be based on student strengths. These plans must
be updated annually and be written to include measurable goals for the postsecondary years.
• General education teacher roles and responsibilities. At least one general education teacher
must participate as a member of the team that writes a student’s IEP, unless school
professionals and parents agree for some reason that this would not be beneficial to the student.
In addition, the IEP must directly address student participation in general education and justify
any placement that is not in general education.
• Highly qualified special education teachers. Special education teachers who teach core
academic subjects must obtain two types of credentials. First, they must have a special
education teaching credential. In addition, in secondary schools, unless special education
53
teachers work only with students with significant intellectual disabilities, they must be
documented as being highly qualified in every core subject area in which they teach. However,
in most states, if they work in general education classrooms, ensuring that students with
disabilities receive their needed supports there, they are not obligated to have the highly
qualified status in those core academic areas. Elementary special educators usually are
considered highly qualified to teach core subject areas at that level.
• Parent participation. Parents must be part of the decision making team for determining
eligibility for special education services as well as for determining the appropriate educational
placement for their children. Furthermore, schools must report to parents on the progress of
their children with disabilities at least as often as they report progress for students without
disabilities.
• Evaluation and eligibility. School districts generally have 60 days from the time a parent
agrees that the child can be evaluated until a decision must be reached about the child’s
eligibility for special education. Students are not eligible for special education simply because
of poor math or reading instruction or because of language differences. For some students, the
requirement that a complete reassessment be completed every three years can be modified.
That is, for older students already existing information can be used in lieu of repeatedly
administering standardized tests.
• Disproportionate representation. School districts must take specific steps to ensure that
students from minority groups are not over identified as being eligible for special education
services. If disproportionate representation exists, districts must take steps to correct this
problem.
• Assessment of students. States are required to measure the academic progress of students
who have disabilities, either by including them in the standardized assessments other students
take or, for students with significant intellectual disabilities, by using an alternate assessment
process. Students are entitled to appropriate accommodations during assessment.
• Discipline. As needed, strategies for addressing a student’s behavior must be included as part
of the IEP. If a student is suspended or placed in an alternative interim placement, a behavior
plan must be developed. In some cases (for example, when students bring weapons or drugs to
school), schools may place students with disabilities in alternative interim placements for up
to 45 days, pending a meeting to determine the next steps. Students must continue to receive
special education services during this time.
• Paraprofessionals. Paraprofessionals, teaching assistants, and other similar personnel must
be trained for their jobs and appropriately supervised.
• Procedural safeguards. States must make mediation available to parents as an early and
informal strategy for resolving disagreements about the identification of, placement of, or
provision of services for students with disabilities. Parents are not obligated to mediate, and
mediation may not delay a possible hearing. Unless waived with parent approval, the school
district also must convene a dispute resolution session prior to a formal hearing regarding
disagreements related to special education.
Essay No. 3
 In what ways is special education:
54
A. A legislatively governed enterprise?
B. A part of basic education?
C. The process of teaching and youth with special education needs?
D. An intervention process?
Research and Practical Activity No. 3 Research
Research about a SPED teacher for information about the children: the category of their
exceptionality, the causes, personal date like their age, family background, number of
years in school and other relevant information.
Practical Activity
Touch base with children with special needs by visiting a special school or a special
education class in your community.
1. Find out from the teacher goes out about his or her job. You may ask how he/she
feels about teaching these children. You may also ask him or her about the future
of these children when they leave school.
2. Write a report on your visit and observation of CSN.
Groupwork No. 3
1. What is the meaning of exceptional children, special education, disability or
impairment, handicap and At Risk?
2. Fill in the matrix with the definition, learning and behavior characteristics of the
categories of CSN.
Category of
Definition Types Characteristics
CSN
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Further Readings:
General Education Teacher Responsibilities Related to Implementing IDEA
 Identify students with learning, behavior, or other needs serious enough to seek input from colleagues.
 Contribute to discussions of students as a member of an intervention assistance team.
55
 Implement strategies and gather data as part of a response to intervention (Rtl) procedure.
 Provide evidence–based day–to–day instruction.
 Collaborate with colleagues regarding students with disabilities.
 Communicate with parents regarding their child’s strengths and needs.
 Participate in writing IEPs as a member of the multidisciplinary team.
 What Is an Individualized Education Program?
The IEP addresses all areas of student need, including accommodations to be made in the general education setting
and the services and supports to be provided there. The IEP also is the means through which student progress is
documented. General education teachers generally are involved as team participants in preparing an IEP if a
student has any participation in the general education setting. Whether or not you are the teacher who serves in
this role for particular students, if you have students with disabilities in your classroom, you will have
opportunities to examine their IEPs or to meet with special educators to review highlights of these important plans.
Required Components of an IEP
The essential components of the IEP were established by P.L. 94-142 in 1975, and they have been updated
through the years. Although specific state requirements for IEP’s vary somewhat, the federally required elements
of IEP’s are described in the following sections.
Present Level of Performance Information about a student’s current level of academic achievement, social
skills, behavior, communication skills, and other areas of concern must be included on an IEP. This information
serves as a baseline and makes it possible to judge student progress from year to year. Often, highlights of the
information collected from the individual assessment of the student or response to intervention data are recorded
on the IEP to partially meet this requirement. Individual achievement test scores, teacher ratings, and summary
assessments by specialists such as speech therapists and occupational therapists also can be used to report the
present level of performance. Another component of this assessment is information about how the student’s
disabilities affect involvement in the general education curriculum.
Annual Goals and Short-Term Objectives Annual goals are the MDT’s estimate of what a student should be
able to accomplish within a year, related to meeting his measured needs resulting from the disability. For some
students, annual goals may refer primarily to academic areas and may include growth in reading, math problem
solving, and other curricular areas. Specifically, a student with a learning disability might have an annual goal to
read and comprehend books at a particular grade level or demonstrate skills for finding and keeping a job. For
other students, annual goals address desired changes in classroom behavior, social skills, or other adaptive skills.
Short-term objectives are descriptions of the steps needed to achieve an annual goal, and they may or may not
be required for all students, depending on state policies. Federal law requires that short-term objectives be written
only for the IEPs of students with significant intellectual disabilities. For example, for a student with multiple
disabilities whose annual goal is to feed herself, short-term objectives might include grasping a spoon, picking up
food with the spoon, and using the spoon to transport food from plate to mouth. The number of short-term
objectives for each annual goal relates to the type and severity of the disability, its impact on student learning, and
the complexity of the goal. Examples of IEP goals and objectives are included in the Professional Edge on the
next page.
Extent of Participation in General Education In keeping with the trend toward inclusive practices, the IEP
must include a clear statement of justification for placing day. Even for extracurricular and other nonacademic
activities, if the team excludes the student from the setting for typical peers, a specific, evidence-based explanation
of why that student cannot participate in such activities must be part of the IEP.
Services and Modifications Needed The IEP contains a complete outline of the specialized services the student
needs; that is, the document includes all the special education instruction to be provided and any other related
services needed. Thus, a student receiving adaptive physical education has an IEP indicating that such a service
is needed. A student’s need for special transportation is noted on the IEP, too. A student who is entitled to
transition or vocational assistance has an IEP that clarifies these services.
One additional element of this IEP component concerns assessment. IDEA stipulates that if a student needs
accommodations (for example, extended time) on district or state assessments, including high-stakes assessments,
56
these should be specified on the IEP and implemented throughout the school year, not just for highstakes tests. If
a student is to be exempt from such assessments, the team must ensure the student will complete an alternate
assessment that takes into account her functioning levels and needs. The Elementary and Secondary Education
Act set specific limits on which students are exempt from high-stakes testing and eligible for alternate assessments,
and these limits were confirmed and clarified in IDEA. Most of the students with disabilities you teach will be
required to complete mandated assessments, and their scores must be considered for measuring adequate yearly
progress (AYP).
Behavior Intervention Plan Every student with significant behavior problems, not just those students labelled
as having emotional disabilities, must have as part of the IEP an intervention plan based on a functional assessment
of the student’s behavior. This requirement reflects the increasing pressure for students to be supported in general
education settings and the acknowledged difficulty of accomplishing that goal without fostering appropriate
student behavior.
Date of Initiation and Frequency and Duration of Service and Anticipated Modifications Each IEP must
include specific dates when services begin, the frequency of the services, the types of accommodations and
modifications that are part of the services, and the period of time during which services are offered. Because the
law generally requires that student progress in special education be monitored at least once each year (or
alternatively, three years), the most typical duration for a service is a maximum of one year. If during the year an
MDT member sees a need to reconsider the student’s educational plan, additional IEP meetings can be convened
or amendments made by phone with parent approval.
Strategies for Evaluation When a team develops an IEP, the members must clarify how to measure student
progress toward achieving the annual goals and how to regularly inform parents about this progress. For example,
when short-term objectives are written, the team indicates the criteria and procedures to be used to judge whether
each objective has been met. For the student learning to move around the school without assistance, the criteria
might include specific point-to- point independent movement, and a checklist might be used to judge student
progress toward reaching the goal.
Transition Plan For each student who is 16 years of age or older, part of the IEP is an outcomes-oriented
description of strategies and services for ensuring that the student will be prepared to leave school for adult life.
This part of the IEP is called a transition plan. Students with disabilities who are college bound might have a
transition plan that includes improvement of study skills, exploration of different universities and their services
for students with disabilities, and completion of high school course requirements necessary to obtain admission
to a university.
In addition to the basic components, IEPs have several other requirements. For example, they are signed by the
individuals who participate in their development, including the student’s parent or guardian. In addition, if a
student has highly specialized needs, they must be addressed in the IEP. Examples of such needs are behavior,
communication, braille (unless specifically excluded on the IEP), and assistive technology. In such cases,
appropriate supports, services, and strategies must be specified
The Value of IEPs
Although technical and potentially time consuming, IEPs guide the education of students with disabilities. An
IEP helps you clarify your expectations for a student and provides a means for you to understand the student’s
educational needs. The document also informs you about the types of services the student receives and when the
student’s educational plan will next be reviewed. Your job is to make a good-faith effort to accomplish the goals
and/or short-term objectives on the IEP as they relate to your instruction. If you do that, you will have carried out
your responsibility; if you do not do that, you could be held accountable
References:
Inciong, T.G. Quijano, Y.S. , Capulong, Y.T. (2020). Introduction to Special Education. A Textbook for College
Students-First Edition
57
reference.
58
Part II
THE ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS OF SPECIAL EDUCATION
Module IV
THE BIOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CAUSES

OF DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES
59
OUTLINE
Module 4 The Biological and Environmental Causes of Developmental Disabilities

is the fourth module in Professional Education 224. It starts with a review of the basic concepts
of human reproduction and the stages of human development in utero. The causes or etiologies
of developmental disabilities are traced in each stages of prenatal development of pregnancy,
during neonatal stage or birth process, and the post natal stage or after birth. The Environmental
factors that cause developmental disabilities are also included.
1. Define the following terms: heredity, genome, chromosomes, deoxyribonucleic acid, gene,
gametes, meiosis, ovum, spermatozoa, fertilization, embryo, fetus;
2. Explain the basic concepts of human reproduction;
3. Enumerate and discuss the basic principles of genetic determination;
4. Describe the course of prenatal development and the stages of human reproduction;
5. Identify the deviations from normal human development that can lead to developmental
disabilities;
6. Define the examples of developmental disabilities and
7. Cite the significant outcomes of the Human Genome Project
Contents:

Number
1 The Basic Concepts of Human Reproduction 61
2 The Biological Sources of Developmental Disabilities 67
3 The Course of Prenatal Development 68
4 Newborn Screening- Your Retarded Child Could Have 77
Been Normal
5 Principles of Normal Develop Early Childhood 79
6 The Human Genome Project 83
Essay, Research and Practical Activity, Group Work 84
Quiz 85
Further Readings 87
References 87
60
Module 3: THE BIOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CAUSES OF
DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES
Topic 1: The Basic Concepts of Human Reproduction
Planned Hours: 3 lectures (2-hour presentation, 1 hour student activities, 1-2 hours
student research and study)
Introduction
Developmental disabilities (DD) are broadly defined as severe, chronic conditions due
to mental and or physical impairments that develop by the age of 22. According to The
Developmental Disability Assistance and Bill of Rights Act of 2000, the term developmental
disabilities apply only to conditions with functional limitations in at least three of the following
areas: self-care, receptive and expressive language, learning mobility, self-direction,
independent living or economic self-sufficiency.
Common causes of developmental disabilities include genetic or chromosomal
abnormalities, substance exposure, preterm birth, low birth weight and specific infectious
diseases. Environmental toxicants have the ability to play a role in each of these causal
mechanisms.
Research has found association between environmental toxicants and developmental
disabilities through both direct and indirect pathways, with the indirect associations through
genetic mutations, preterm birth and intrauterine retardation.
Prenatal and childhood exposures that is associated with Developmental Disabilities.
The developmental stage of an individual ta a time of an exposure can make a huge difference
in the outcome. An exposure that could cause severe malformations for a fetus could be
harmless to an individual later in life. In general exposures early in life (embryo, fetus, infant
and child) are more likely to cause harm to the developing and maturing brain and nervous
system than exposures later in life.
Brain development is greatly influenced by a child’s or mother’s nutrition, experience with
injury, infectious disease, and or infections. Poverty institutional environments stress and other
adverse environments contribute to cognitive impairment. Because poverty increases the risk
of inadequate access to education and health care, unsafe working conditions, polluted
environments and lack of access to safe water and sanitation, its contribution to disability is
considerable.
Class Discussion
1. List and define all significant terms.
2. What is newborn screening? How are mental retardation and other
developmental disabilities detected after birth? What are the advantages of new
born screening?
3. Cite examples of deviations from the normal development milestones that you
have observed?
61
 Students will define the following terms: heredity, genome, chromosomes,
deoxyribonucleic acid, gene, gametes, meiosis, ovum, spermatozoa, fertilization,
embryo, fetus;
 Students will explain the basic concepts of human reproduction;
 Students will enumerate and discuss the basic principles of genetic determination;
 Students will describe the course of prenatal development and the stages of human
reproduction;
 Students will identify the deviations from normal human development that can lead to
developmental disabilities;
 Students will define the examples of developmental disabilities and
 Students will cite the significant outcomes of the Human Genome Project
Description :
Heredity is the mechanism for the transmission of human characteristics from one
generation to the next. Each person carries a genetic code or genome, a complete set of coded
instruction for making and maintaining an organism.
Genome
 -is inherited from both parents.
 -is described as the blueprint or book of human life.
 -carries and determines all the characteristics of a person yet to be born.
 -located within each of the one hundred trillion cells in the human body.
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-classical-genetics/hs-
introduction-to-heredity/v/introduction-to-heredity
Chromosomes
 The nucleus inside the cell contains a complete set of the body’s genome that is twisted
into forty-six packets of threadlike microscopic structures.
 Comes in twenty-three pairs, each pair is composed of one chromosome from the male
(Y) and female (X) parents respectively.
 Each set has twenty-two single chromosomes called autosomes that carry the physical,
mental, and personality characteristics.
 The twenty-third pair, the XY chromosomes determines the sex of the organism.
 A normal female will have a pair of XX chromosomes while a normal male will have
an XY pair of chromosomes.
Deoxyribonucleic Acid or DNA
62
 Inside the chromosome is the long threadlike molecule and genetic substance called the
DNA.
 The DNA is a complex molecule that contains the genome.
 The DNA molecule consists of two strands of twisted ladder-shaped structure called
the double helix that wrap around each other.
 The double helix was discovered by American Biochemist James Watson and British
Biophysicist Francis Crick.
The discovery of the double helix launched an era of molecular genetics. The genetic code
can be read in the rung of the ladder. The Code is spelled out by four chemicals or nucleotide
bases, namely:
 Adenine
 Thymine
 Guanine
 Cystosine
Adenine pairs with Thymine, Guanine pairs with Cystosine to form the rungs of the ladder.
There are three billion chemical pairs in the DNA that contain the human genetic code.
Gene
Each DNA molecule contains many genes, the basic physical and functional unit of
hereditary information. A gene is a specific sequence of the four nucleotides bases whose
sequences carry the information for constructing proteins. Proteins provide the structural
components of the cells, tissues and enzymes for essential biochemical reactions. Genes act as
blueprint for cells to reproduce themselves and manufacture the proteins that maintain life.
63
Genetic determination is a complex affair. Much is known about the way genes work.
But a number of genetic principles have been discovered, among them the principles of:
Dominant-Recessive Genes
If one gene of the pair is dominant and one is recessive, the dominant gene exert its
effect, overriding the potential influence of the recessive gene
of common dominant genes that rule over
Brown eyes Blue eyes
Farsightedness Nearsightedness
Dimples freckles
A recessive gene exerts its influence only if the genes of a pair are both recessive. If a
recessive gene is inherited from only one parent, the trait will not show. The person may never
know that he or she carries the recessive gene.
Example: Can two brown-eyed parents have a blue-eyed baby?
Answer: Yes, they can, if each parent carries a dominant gene for brown eyes and a recessive
gene for blue eyes. The parents have brown eyes because brown eyes are dominant over blue
eyes. But both are carriers of blueness and can pass on their recessive genes for blue eyes. With
no dominant genes to override them, the recessive genes will make the child’s eyes blue.
Sex-linked Genes Principles

Females have two X sex chromosomes and males have an X and Y sex chromosomes
in their respective karyotypes. When one X female chromosome combines with the X male
chromosome, the XX chromosomes results that make the organism a female. When one X
female chromosome combines with the Y male chromosome, the XY chromosomes results that
make the organism a male.
64
Polygenically Inherited characteristics
Poly (many) genic (genes) inheritance describes the interaction of many genes to produce a
particular characteristics. Considering that there a re as many as 140,000 genes, the huge
number combinations possible is hard to imagine. Traits that are produced by the mixing of
genes are said to be polygenically determined.
Nature’s Way of Making Babies
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-human-body-systems/hs-the-reproductive-system/v/welcome-to-the-
reproductive-system
65
Reaction Range and Canalization
Genotype – refers to the person’s genetic heritage or the actual genetic material. The genotype
is established at conception during the process of fertilization and usually remains constant and
does not change. On rare occasions, the constancy is disturbed when mutation takes place or
errors in cell division alter subsequent cell division. Genotype is not readily available for actual
inspection
Phenotype– refers to the person’s observable traits that may be used to draw inferences about
the genotype. The phenotype is the observable result between the genotype and the
environment
Genotype and Phenotype Genetic Heritage
66
Topic 2
The Biological Sources of Developmental Disabilities
Basic Terms in Human Reproduction
Terms Meaning/Description
Gametes Are the human reproduction cells which are created in the
reproductive organs
Ovum(Ova)/Egg The ovaries of the female produce the ovum(ova) or egg cells
Spermatozoa/ sperm The testicles or testes of the male produce the spermatozoa or
sperm
Meiosis Is the process of cell division in which each pair of chromosomes

in the cell separates, with one member of each pair going into each
gamete or daughter cell. (23 unpaired chromosomes)
Fertilization Of a female’s ovum by a male’s sperm starts the process of
Human reproduction.
Zygote Fertilization results in the formation of a single cell (Zygote), two
sets of twenty-three unpaired chromosomes, and one set each
from the male and the female combine to form one set of paired
chromosomes. Each parent contributes fifty percent or half of the
zygote’s genetic code or genome.
Critical Periods and Vulnerability during Pregnancy
Certain periods of development during pregnancy are critical for both the growth and
the organism’s vulnerability to injury and development risks. Vulnerability refers to how
susceptible the organism is being injured or altered by a traumatic incident. A traumatic
incident includes such broad occurrences as teratogens or toxic agents, cell division mutation
and other deviations from the usual sequence of development.
Deviancy from the normal course of prenatal development results to the occurrence of
developmental disabilities. The organism in utero, the zygote, the embryo, and the fetus are
vulnerable to injuries and developmental risks. After birth during postnatal development, the
67
newborn, the infant and the child are all vulnerable and susceptible to injuries that can persist
for the duration of the person’s life.
Topic 3
The Course of Prenatal Development
Development in utero covers about thirty-eight (38) weeks or 280 days or nine months
of gestation or growth in the mother's womb. Prenatal development is divided into three phases.
1. The Germinal Phase
2. The Embryonic Phase
3. The Fetal Phase
The Germinal Phase
68
The initial stage of prenatal development covers the first two weeks after fertilization.
The three significant developments during this phase are the:
1. Creation of the zygote- new cell which result from the transmission of the genetic materials
24 to 30 hours after fertilization
2. Continuous cell division- occurs very rapidly in the first few days and progress with
considerable speed. Cell and tissue differentiation - continues as the inner and outer layers of
the organisms are formed.
3. Implantation or attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall.
Creation of the Zygote

Reproduction begins with the fertilization of a female’s ovum by a male sperm.
Ovulation occurs once every twenty-eight days or so, as an ovum out of hundreds of ova
matures and the single ripe ovum bursts from its follicle. The ovum is drawn into the Fallopian
tube during the ninth to the sixteenth day of the menstrual cycle which is the fertile period.
Ovulation sends a chemical signal to unleash a carefully tuned sequence of biochemical
substances. Only one strong and healthy sperm succeeds. Once it enters the ovum, the electric
charge fires across the membrane and a signal causes the ovum to close, blocking the entry of
the other sperms.
Fertilization- the process occurs in the upper third of the Fallopian tube within eighteen to
twenty-four hour after sexual intercourse. When fertilization does not take place, the ‘womb
weeps’ and the menstrual cycle continues the following month. When an ovum is fertilized,
the menstrual cycle ceases. The first sign of pregnancy is amenorrhoea or the cessation of
menses. The first menses is called menarche; the final cessation of menses is called
menopause. While excessive sometimes painful menses is called menorrhagia.
The zygote is a new cell which results from the transmission of the genetic materials twenty-
four to thirty hours after fertilization. The zygote weighs about one twenty millionth of an
ounce. The zygote carries the human genetic code or genome, the instruction that orchestrates
one’s physical and mental traits and social-biological tendencies and the new person’s entire
lifelong blueprint of characteristics.
Continuous Cell Division and Cell Tissue Differentiation -chemical reactions occur that
cause the zygote to divide repeatedly and generate new cells and tissues of different types.
Cell division- occurs very rapidly in the first few days and progress with considerable speed.
The zygote divides into two cells after thirty-six hours, four cells after forty-eight hours. In
three days, there is a small compact ball of sixteen to thirty-two cells. In four days, a hallow
ball has sixty-four to one-hundred twenty eight cells. By approximately one week, the zygote
has divided into about one hundred fifty cells.
Cell and tissue differentiation - continues as the inner and outer layers of the organisms are
formed. The inner layer of cells which develop into the embryo later on is called blastocyst.
The outer layer of cells that provides nutrition and support for the embryo is called trophoblast.
69
Implantation or Attachment of the Zygote to the Uterine Wall
Implantation starts on the sixth to the seventh day when the blastocyst starts to attach itself to
the uterine wall. Two weeks after, from the eleventh to fifteenth day, the blastocyst invades or
fully attaches itself into the uterine wall and becomes implanted in it.
What can go wrong during the germinal phase?

Abnormalities in the genes and chromosomes can occur. Both the speed of cell division and
the process of cell differentiation expose the zygote to trauma. Genetic disorders can be
transmitted, such as:
Dominant and Recessive diseases like Tay Sachs disease, galactosemia, phenylketonuria
(PKU), genetic mutations;
70
Sex-Linked inheritances such as Lesch Nyhan Syndrome, Fragile X Syndrome.
Polygenic Inheritances;
Chromosomal Deviations, the most common of which is Down Syndrome
Other sex chromosomal anomalies like Klinefelter Syndrome, Turner Syndrome;
71
Cranial or Skull Malformations such as anencephaly or absence of major portions of the
brain, microcephaly and hydrocephaly.
Biological causes of developmental disabilities are traceable to congenital or inherited genetic

materials as well as prenatal factors associated with teratogens or toxic substances, maternal
disorders, substance exposure or too much ingestion of alcohol and drugs and too much
smoking.
Embryonic Phase- the second phase of human development occurs from the end of the
germinal phase to the second month of pregnancy. The mass of cells is now called embryo.
Three Main Process during Embryonic Phase
Intensification of Cell Differentiation- during the implantation, the mass of cells form three
layers from which every part of the human body will develop.
 Ectoderm- outermost layer of cells that will develop into the surface body parts such
as the outer skin or the epidermis including the cutaneous glands- the hair, nails, and
lens of the eye.
72
 Mesoderm- the middle layer that will develop into the body parts surrounding the
internal areas such as the muscles, cartilage, bone, blood, bone ureter, gonads, genitals
ducts, supernal cortex and the joint cavities.
 Endoderm- the inner layer of cells that will develop into the epithelium of the pharynx,
tongue, auditory tube, tonsils, thyroid, larynx, trachea, lungs, digestive tube, bladder,
vagina and urethra.
2. Development of the Life Support System
As the embryo’s three layers of cells develop, the life support systems develop from
the embryo for the transfer of substances from the mother to the zygote and vice versa. Very
small molecules of oxygen, water, salt and food from the mother’s blood are transferred to the
embryo. Carbon dioxide and digestive waste from the embryo’s blood are transferred to the
mother blood.
 The Placenta is a disk-shaped mass of tissue in which small blood vessels from the
mother intertwine.
 The umbilical cord contains two article two arteries and one vein that connect the
embryo to the placenta.
 The amnion or amniotic fluid is a bag of water that contains clear fluid where the
embryo floats. The amnion provides an environment that is temperature and humidity
controlled and shocked proof. The amnion comes from the fetal urine that the kidney
of the fetus produces at approximately the sixteenth week until the ninth month or the
end of the pregnancy.
Organogenesis- is the process of organ formation and the appearance of body organs during
the first two months.
 By the third week, the neural tube forms and eventually becomes the spinal cord. At
the same time, the eye buds begin to appear.
 By the twenty-four day, the cells of the heart begin to differentiate.
 The fourth week is marked by the first appearance of the urogenital systems. The arm
and leg buds appear. The four chambers of the heart take shape and blood vessels
surface.
73
 On the fifth to eight week, the arms and legs differentiate further. The face starts to
form but it is not very recognizable. The intestinal tract develops and the facial
structures fuse. The embryo weighs about one-thirtieth of an ounce.
Human Development “in Utero”
Once every 28 days or so, an egg matures in an ovary, burst from its follicle and enters
the Fallopian tube. Millions of sperms race from the vagina, through the uterus and into the
Fallopian tube. A single sperm fertilizes the egg, the others are locked out. Cell division begins,
and the embryo drifts down the Fallopian tube, reaching the uterus in about a week. The embryo
anchors itself to the wall of the uterus, where it develops into a fetus.
What can go wrong during embryonic phase?
The organs and systems that are developing are vulnerable to environmental changes.
Induced abortion in case of unwanted pregnancy can disturb normal processes of
organogenesis.
If the central nervous system is the primary system that is developing, the cells that
constitute the central nervous system-the brain and the spinal cord - divide more rapidly than
the other organs. At this time, the central nervous system is vulnerable to trauma. Ingestion of
dermatogen’s or toxic agents from alcohol, drugs and nicotine, artificial food additives, stress
and accidents can cause trauma and affect the development that is taking place.
Physical abnormalities can result. At birth, there are infants born with extra or missing
limbs and fingers, ears and other parts, a tail-like protrusion, heart or brain, digestive or
respiratory organs outside the body.
Fetal Phase- the third phase covers seven months that lasts from the third to ninth month of
pregnancy on the average. The length and weight of the fetus mentioned below are for average
Caucasian babies. Asians are generally shorter and lighter.
74
Number of Months Length and weight Developing
At 3 months  The fetus is about 3  The face, forehead, eyelids, nose,
inches long chin, upper and lower arms are
 Weighs about on distinguishable
ounce.  Genitals can be identified as male
or female.
At 4 months  The fetus is five and  Growth spurt occurs in the
a half inches long. body’s lower parts.
 Weighing about four  Prenatal reflexes are stronger.
ounces.  Arms and legs movements can be
felt by the mother.
At 5 months  The fetus is ten to  Structures of the skin, toenails
twelve inches long and fingernails have formed.
and  The fetus is more active and
 Weighs one half to shows preference for a particular
one pound or almost position in the womb.
half a kilo.
At 6 months  The fetus is 14 inches  The eyes and eyelids are
long completely formed.
 Has gained one half  A thin layer of hair covers the
to one pound. head.
 Grasping reflex is present.
 Irregular breathing occurs.
At 7 months  The fetus is almost 17 
inches long
 Has gained one
pound and weighs
about three pounds
During the eighth and  The fetus continues  Fatty tissues develop and the
ninth months to grow longer to functioning of the organs
about 20 inches and systems steps up.
 Gains about 4  The fetus normally weighs 6 to 8
pounds. pounds shortly before birth.
What can go wrong during the fetal phase?
The same effects of teratogens can occur and disturb normal development. The fetus
continues to be vulnerable to trauma that can result to the occurrence of disabilities. Deliberate
termination of pregnancy or abortion for whatever reasons-poor health, rape, incest, out-of-
wedlock relations, if unsuccessful can lead to disabilities. Inadequate birth weight due to
malnutrition or early birth places the infant at developmental risks.
Birth of the Infant
After full gestation for thirty-eight weeks, the fetus leaves the intrauterine environment
of the mother's womb and begins life in the outside world. There are changes in the mother's
75
body that start around the fourth month or mid-pregnancy. These changes are necessary so that
the natural birth process can occur normally.
Some of the changes are:
1. Rearrangement of the muscle structure of the uterus to facilitate fetal expulsion or to permit
the normal passage of the fetus through birth canal.
2. Shortly before birth and during the onset of labor which lasts for seven to twelve hours on
the average, the upper part of the cervical area undergoes expansion. By the time the fetus is
passing the birth canal, the muscle structure of the cervix has loosened and expanded. The
process is called effacement that enables the fetus to be expelled.
The normal and desirable position of the fetus when labor begins is with head toward
the cervix. This position occurs in almost 80% of all childbirth. As the fetus begins to move
downward into the birth canal, the pelvic girdle or the bony hip structures stretches more. The
pressure of the pelvic girdle also molds the head of the fetus. This is the reason why newborn
babies have strangely shaped heads. After a few days, the head returns to its natural shape.
All the movements during birth are generated by the muscle contractions of the uterus
called LABOR. While the fetus is moving downward, it turns clockwise from the effect of
labor. A few minutes after the infant is delivered, the placenta is expelled. The respiratory tract
is immediately cleared of the remaining amniotic fluid and mucus. The doctor provides the
stimulation for the infant to begin to breathe usually by gently patting the buttocks. The infant's
first cry expands the lungs with air for the first time and starts the process of respiration.
What can go wrong during the birth process?
The birth process represents another important time when potential risks to the fetus or infant
are high. The birth process is very complex and at times may not proceed smoothly. Difficulties
may arise to developmental disabilities.
1 . Physical Trauma or mechanical injury
 During birth may injure or damage the brain and impair intellectual functioning.
 In precipitous birth where labor is short (less than two hours) skull molding that
should be slow and smooth may affect and injure the brain.
 In breech birth where the buttocks instead of the head presents itself first poses
substantial danger because the head reaches pelvic girdle during the later stages of
labor when there is more pressure exerting on it. The abnormal pressure generated in
breech birth rapidly compresses the still soft skull which crushes portions of the brain.
Also, the rapid pressure and shifting of cranial bones can damage the circulatory system
around the brain and lead to haemorrhage in the skull and brain damage. Usually, a
fetus in breech position is delivered by caesarean section. Abdominal surgery is done
and the fetus is extracted from the uterine wall.
76
 In the transverse position where the fetus lies across the birth canal, the same problems
in breech birth are present.
2. Anoxia or asphyxia
Occurs in breech delivery and deprives the infant of adequate supply of oxygen for a
period long enough to damage the brain. The infant must depend entirely on the umbilical cord
as a source of oxygen until birth is completed. However, the breech position makes the
umbilical cord too short to remain attached while the head is being expelled. The placenta can
become partially or completely detached while the head is still inside the birth canal. This
eliminates oxygen supply and severe brain injury can happen.
Topic 4
Newborn Screening- Your Retarded Child Could Have Been Normal
Republic Act No. 9288 Newborn Screening Act of 2004- is an act promulgating a
comprehensive policy and national system for ensuring newborn screening. The law developed
jointly by the Department of Health and the National Institute of Health of UP Manila. The law
institutionalize the Newborn Screening System (NBS). It insures that every baby born in the
Philippines is offered newborn screening. The establishment and integration of s sustainable
newborn screening system within the public health deliver system; that all health practitioners
are aware of the benefits of NBS and of their responsibility in protecting their child from any
of the disorder.
What is newborn screening?
Newborn Screening (NBS) is a simple procedure to find out if your baby has a congenital
metabolic disorder that may lead to mental retardation and even death if left untreated.
5 Metabolic Disorders that Newborn Screening can detect:

 Congenital Hypothyroidism
 Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
 Galactosemia
 Phenylketonuria
77
 Glucose Six Phosphate Dehydro genase
Why is it important to have new born screening?
Most babies with metabolic disorders look normal at birth. One will never know that the baby
has the disorder until the onset of signs and symptoms and more often ill effects are already
irreversible.
When is new born screening done?
 Newborn screening is ideally done on the 48th hour or at least 24 hours from birth.
How is new born screening done?

Newborn is a simple procedure. Using the heel prick method, a few drops of blood are
taken from the baby’s heel and blotted on a special absorbent filter card. The blood is dried for
4 hours and sent to the Newborn Screening Laboratory (NBS Lab)
Who collect the sample and how much is the fee for the newborn screening?
Newborn screening can be done by physician, a nurse, a midwife or medical
technologist.
How much is the fee for the newborn screening?
P550.00. The DOH Advisory Committee on Newborn Screening has approved a maximum
allowable fee of P50 for the collection of sample
78
Where are newborn screening results available?
Newborn screening is available in participating health institutions (hospitals, lying-ins,
Rural Health Units and Health Centers)
When are newborn screening results available?

Newborn screening results are available within seven to fourteen working days after
the newborn screening samples received in the NBS laboratory.
What should be done when a baby is tested positive NBS result?

Babies with positive results should be referred at once to the nearest hospitals or
specialist for confirmatory testing and further management
https://media.preziusercontent.com/converted/0/8/6/71a20c5b09edd3432a7ef82922708622128f8.mp4
https://media.preziusercontent.com/converted/e/2/d/d9e2640d3a64f7a7e594f6664e79a0494894c.mp4
Topic 5
Principles of Normal Develop Early Childhood
 Normal development progresses in orderly step-by-step sequences.
 All areas of development are interrelated.
 The skills acquired earlier determine how well later skills will be learned.
 Although there are development milestones in each of the growth areas, children
manifest individual differences in their rate of development. Each child develops at his
or her pace.
Gross Motor Skills- are those which require whole body movement and which involve the
large, muscles of the body to perform everyday functions.
https://media.preziusercontent.com/converted/f/6/3/f82f26e2f680e80617f0c4ff28f3d98b1be60.mp4
Approximate Approximate
Activity Activity
Age Age
Raises chin while lying on 1 month Walks alone unsupported 18months
79
stomach
Raises chest while lying on 2 months Sits self in small chair 18 months
stomach
Reaches for objects but misses 3 months Walks carrying large objects 20 months
Head set forward, steady lumbar 4 months Raises self from sitting position 22 months
curvature with hips first
Turns over from lying to supine 4-6 months Runs well without falling 2 years
position
Sits on lap, grasps objects 5 months Kicks ball without overbalancing 2 years
Sits on high chair, grasps objects 6 months Jumps with both feet on place 2.5 years
Sit alone with good posture 10 months Picks up objects from floor 2.5 years
without help
Creeps and crawl , pulls to 11 months Stands on one foot without falling 3 years
standing position over
Walks with help, walks alone 12 months Pedals tricycle 3 years
Climb stairs steps 13 months
Receptive Language- means the ability to understand or comprehend language heard or

read.
Activity Activity
Age Age
Understand few words 11 months Points to 5 parts on self or doll 1 year 10
months
Points to 1 named body part on 1 year Follow 3-step command given 2 years
request once
Stops activity to name objects 1 year Understand 200-400 words 2 years
Stops activity to responds to 1 year Understand 800 words 3 years
“no”
Points to familiar persons, 1 year 3 Verbalizes past experiences 3 years
objects on request months
Follow-one step simple 1 year 3 Points to big , little, soft, loud 3 years
command months
Points to 3-named body parts on 1 year 5 Follows commands with 2-3 4 years
request months actions
Follows two-step command 1 year 8 Understand app. 1500 words 4 years
months
Points to 5-6 pictures of 1 year 9
common objects on request months
https://media.preziusercontent.com/converted/e/4/e/09c0fdd47b51332f28bdc3601ffa7ca9b6f2d.mp4
Eating Skills - a child needs to learn many skills in order to eat and drink independently
Activity Activity
Age Age
Sucks and swallow liquids Birth Hold cups with two hands 1 year
Gagging reflex Birth Chews table food 1.3 years
80
Sucks and swallows liquids from 2 months Grasps spoon and places in 1.3 years
spoons mouth with some spilling
Eats strained baby foods from 3 months Can manage spoon without help 1.5 years
spoon with little spilling
Bring hands against bottle when 3 months Request for foods when hungry 1.11 years
eating
Sips from a cup that is held 4 months Request for liquids when thirsty 1.11 years
Gets excited at sound of food 4 months Can hold small glass with one 2 years
preparation hand without help
Hold spoon with assistance 5 months Can use fork to get food 3 years
Can feed self-soft food 6 months Can spread butter on bread 3 years
Begins to bite and chew foods 6 months Can help set table 4 years
Holds own bottle 7 months Can use a fork to separate food 4 years
Can chew small lumpy food 8 months Can pour water from pitcher to 4 years
glass
Can take bottle out of mouth & 9 months Can use a knife to cut food 5 years
put it back
Can use fingers to feed self 10 months Can set the table without 6 years
assistance
https://media.preziusercontent.com/converted/1/c/9/21aa3b4a080500d59a9a46a0255edd5a13917.mp4
Dressing Skills- are important skills for children to learn and come under the “umbrella term”
of self-help skills or independent skills.
Activity Activity
Age Age
Can pull and tug with clothing 3-4 months Attempts to place feet in shoes 30 months
Hold out limbs when dressing 1 year Can choose own outfit 3 years
Can remove shoes by self 1.2 years Can unbutton clothes 3 years
Can place socks on feet by self 1 month Places clothing on in correct 3.6 years
direction
Can pull up pants 1.6 years Can dress and undress with 4 years
supervision
Can unzip 1.7 years Can button front buttons on 4.8 years
clothing
Attempts to put on shoes 2 years Can zip up the down snap/ snap 5 years
simple snaps
Pull up pants 2 years Can tie shoes with bows 5.6 years
Undressed self 30 months Can unlace bow on shoes 5.6 years
Can put on shirt and coat 30 months Dresses self completely 5.6 years
https://media.preziusercontent.com/converted/3/8/e/2275f82bb824e54c279bd70126f0d1de4e44e.mp4
Expressive Language
Activity Activity
Age Age
Says first word 10 months Uses plurals 2 years
Shakes head and says no-no 11 months Asks questions 2 years
Imitates sounds of others 1 year Uses negative in speech 2.5 years
(mama)
Uses 3 words in speaking 1 year 1 Enunciates vowel sounds 2.5 years
81
vocabulary months
Use verbs as appear 1 year 2 Enunciates consonants sounds 3 years
months
Uses at least six words 1 year 5 Speech is about 75 to 80% 3 years
months intelligible
Refers to self by name 1 year 9 Uses 3 to 4 syllable words 3 years
months
Uses me and you 2 years Says 6 to 8 word sentences 4 years
Says 50 to 200 words 2 years Speech is about 90 to 95% 4 years
intelligible
Knows full name 2 years
Grooming Skills- good hygiene grooming skills are necessary for socialization, employment
and accessing community resources.
Activity Activity
Age Age
Cries when remove from months Can brush teeth with assistance 3.6 years
bathroom
Splashes water with hands and months Can wash and dry face with 4 years
feet towel alone
Grimaces with face is washed 6 months Can brush teeth alone 4 years
with cloth
Exhibits resistance to washing 8 months Can put away toys with 4 years
face supervision
Can open and pull out drawers 1.6 years Can hung up clothes on hook 4 years
Can wash hands and face but 2 years Brushes hair alone 5 years
well
Can wash front of body while in 2 years Hangs up on clothes alone 5 years
bath
Can run a brush through hair 2.5 years Washes self alone 6 years
Toilet Skills- the independence in toileting routine is important as children grow and develop
Activity Activity
Age Age
About 4 bowel movements a day 1 month Climbs on to toilet by self 2.6 years
associated with waking up
2 bowel movements a day either 2 months Can control bladder for up to 5
at waking up or after being fed hours
Some delay shown between 4 months Begins to develop a routine for 2.6 years
feeding and elimination elimination
Stays dry for1-2 hours interval 8 months Attempts to wipe self but fails 3.6 years
May awaken at night and cry to 1.5 years Stays dry at night 4 years
be change
May indicate wet pants 1.5 years Can toilet self without 5 years
assistance
Has only occasional accidents 1.1 years Washes and dries owns hand 5 years
after toileting
Uses same word for both 1.10 years One bowel movements a day 5 years
functions of elimination
Begins to differentiate between 2 years
elimination functions
82
When is a developmental disability present?
A deviation from the developmental milestone from four to six months is enough ground to
suspect that there might be a disability. When deviations from the normal milestones of
development are observed the parents and caregivers must seek the help of medical persons
immediately. Many times, the situation worsens when long periods of time are allowed to
elapse before seeking professional help. The medical doctor is the best person who can tell if
there is cause for worry in the presence of perceived deviations from the normal development.
83
Topic 6
The Human Genome Project
It is coordinated effort among scientist from the United States, Japan and other countries to
map and characterize all human genetic materials by determining the complete sequence of the
DNA in the human genome.
 The ultimate goal to discover and map the book of life, the precise biochemical code
for each of the thousands of human genes and make the information available further
biological study.
 The finding on genetic mapping has revealed a wealth of information on how each
gene functions ad malfunctions to trigger deadly diseases.
https://media.preziusercontent.com/converted/5/9/6/08de5dfa992b0385edd8c74eae50074a83b4a.mp4
Essay No. 4
How are mental retardation and other developmental disabilities detected after birth?
What are the advantages of newborn screening?
Research and Practical Activity No. 4
Research
 Research about a SPED teacher for the child’s history of the child’s disability.
You may ask the teacher for permission for you to talk to the mother.
Practical Activity
 Touch base with children with special needs by visiting a special school or a
special education class in your community.
 Find out the child’s history of his/her disability. Ask permission from the
mother. Write a report on your visit and case history of the child.
Groupwork No. 4
84
 Cite examples of deviations from the normal developmental milestones that you
observed.
 Fill in the matrix on prenatal development. Write the sequence of growth in each
stage of development. Identify the causes of developmental disabilities during
this period. Define the terms specific to each stage.
Stages in Prenatal
Causes of Developmental Disabilities
Development
The Birth Process
85
Further Readings:
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-classical-genetics/hs-introduction-to-
heredity/v/introduction-to-heredity
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-human-body-systems/hs-the-reproductive-
system/v/welcome-to-the-reproductive-system
https://media.preziusercontent.com/converted/0/8/6/71a20c5b09edd3432a7ef82922708622128f8.mp4
https://media.preziusercontent.com/converted/e/2/d/d9e2640d3a64f7a7e594f6664e79a0494894c.mp4
https://media.preziusercontent.com/converted/f/6/3/f82f26e2f680e80617f0c4ff28f3d98b1be60.mp4
https://media.preziusercontent.com/converted/e/4/e/09c0fdd47b51332f28bdc3601ffa7ca9b6f2d.mp4
https://media.preziusercontent.com/converted/1/c/9/21aa3b4a080500d59a9a46a0255edd5a13917.mp4
https://media.preziusercontent.com/converted/3/8/e/2275f82bb824e54c279bd70126f0d1de4e44e.mp4
https://media.preziusercontent.com/converted/5/9/6/08de5dfa992b0385edd8c74eae50074a83b4a.mp4
References:
reference.
86
Part III
CHILDREN AND YOUTH WITH SPECIAL EDUCATION NEEDS
Module V
STUDENTS WITH MENTAL RETARDATION
87
OUTLINE
Module 5 The Students with Mental Retardation is the fifth module in Professional
Education 224. It starts with a discussion on the different perspective and viewpoints about the
disability. A broad definition of mental retardation is presented together with an explanation of
the factors and the assumptions on the presence of the condition. The classification, causes and
etiological factors and the learning and behavior characteristics of children with mental
retardation are presented. The identification and assessment procedures as well as the
educational approaches are described.
1. Explain why mental retardation is a complex developmental disabilities;
2. Define Mental Retardation and explain the four factors and five assumptions in the
definition;
3. Enumerate and discuss the classification of mental retardation;
4. identify and explain the causes of mental retardation during the phases of prenatal
development , the birth process, infancy and early childhood;
5. Name and describe the assessment procedures to screen and assess children with mental
retardation;
6. Enumerate and describe the educational approaches in teaching children and youth with
mental retardation;
7. appreciate the fact that special education enables children with mental retardation to
develop their skills and potentials;
Contents:
Number
1 Perspective on mental retardation
2 What is mental retardation?
3 Classification of Mental Retardation
4 Incidence and Prevalence
5 Causes of mental retardation
6 Learning and Behavior Characteristics
7 Assessment Procedures
8 Educational Programs
9 Models or Early Intervention
10 Educational Approaches
Quiz
Further Readings
References
Class Discussion
88
1. Explain the four elements in the 1992 AAMR definition of mental retardation.
2. What makes mental retardation a complex, rather than a simple developmental
disability?
3. What are the labels used in the past to describe children with mental retardation?
Why are these terms not used anymore today?
4. What are the classifications of mental retardation? In what ways are they different
from each other?
5. What are the causes of mental retardation?
6. What are the common characteristics of person with mental retardation?
7. What assessment procedures are used in the Philippines to identify children and
youth with mental retardation?

 Students will explain why mental retardation is a complex developmental disabilities;
 Students will define Mental Retardation and explain the four factors and five assumptions
in the definition;
 Students will enumerate and discuss the classification of mental retardation;
 Students will identify and explain the causes of mental retardation during the phases of
prenatal development , the birth process, infancy and early childhood;
 Students will name and describe the assessment procedures to screen and assess children
with mental retardation;
 Students will enumerate and describe the educational approaches in teaching children and
youth with mental retardation;
 Students will appreciate the fact that special education enables children with mental
retardation to develop their skills and potentials;
89
Module 5: STUDENTS WITH MENTAL RETARDATION
Topic 1: Perspective on Mental Retardation
Planned hours: 2 lectures (1 hour presentation, 1 hour student activities, 1-2 hours
Introduction
Mental retardation is a developmental disability characterized by sub average intelligence
and impairments in adaptive daily life skills. The disorder occurs before the age of 18 years,
and is associated with numerous biological, environmental and sociocultural causes. The
concept of mental retardation and language used to refer to mental retardation and the language
used to refer to mental retardation varies from culture; therefore policies and practices related
to service eligibility, assessment and treatment modalities, and preventive measures tend to
vary from culture to culture
Definitions of mental retardation are based on formulations developed by international

leaders in the field, American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR). According to
AAMR refers to substantial limitation in present functioning subaverage intellectual
functioning, existing concurrently with related limitations in two or more of the following
adaptive skills areas: communication, self-care, home living, social skills, community use, self-
direction, health and safety, functional academics, leisure and work.
The concepts and definitions of mental retardation have changed and varied widely in the
last fifty years. Even today, the definition of mental retardation is described as “in transition”.
It is expected that mental retardation will continue to be defined in many different ways.
However, common concepts are found in the various definitions.
1. Experts and authorities agree that mental retardation is a complex condition.
2. Mental retardation is a developmental disability
3. Mental retardation results In substantial limitations in three or more of the major
activities of daily life
4. Mental retardation encompasses a heterogenous group of people with varying needs,
features and life contexts
Experts and authorities agree that mental retardation is a complex condition.
In 1992, the American Association for Mental Retardation stressed the distinction between
the terms trait and state is central to the understanding of mental retardation.
Mental Retardation is not a trait that exists separately from the other characteristics of the
individual. Rather, mental retardation is a condition or state that affects the manner by which a
person is able to cope successfully with the demands of daily living at home, in school, in the
community and other environments.
In general, the different environments are built for normally functioning persons who have
acquired the skills, competencies and maturity through the years of normal development.
90
The person with mental retardation experience difficulties in coping with the various
environments because he or she lacks the mental, emotional, and social skills and competencies
to function in environments meant for normal people.
But he or she has no choice but to live, cope, and function in these environments. As a result,
his or her functioning is impaired in certain specific ways.
Mental retardation is a developmental disability

Unlike people with the same chronological age and average or high mental ability, the
persons with mental retardation suffers from lags or delays in his or her general development
profile. A developmental disability is attributable to a mental or physical impairment or
combination of both factors that is likely to continue indefinitely.
Mental retardation results in substantial limitations in three or more of the major

activities of daily life.
There are self-care, receptive and expressive language, learning, mobility, self-direction,
capacity for independent living and economic self-sufficiency.
Mental retardation encompasses a heterogeneous group of people with varying needs,

features and life contexts
The previous belief was that mental retardation was an all-or-none phenomenon. This
means that either a person was normal or had mental retardation. Now, mental retardation is
viewed to exist in a continuum. The condition is accepted to be changeable. Some persons may
manifest the condition at times and not at other times based on their needs for various levels of
support.
Topic 2
What is mental retardation?
The AAMR 1992 definition is the most accepted in many special education programs all
over the world. Mental Retardation refers to the substantial limitations in present functioning.
It is characterized by significantly sub-average intellectual functioning, existing concurrently
with related limitations in two or more of the following adaptive skills areas: communication,
self-care, home living, social skills, community use, self-direction, health and safety, functional
academics, leisure and work. Mental Retardation manifests before age 18. (Heward 2003)
Clearly, there are four criteria in the definition which are explained below:
 Substantial limitations in present functioning

-Means that the person has difficulty in performing everyday activities related to
taking care of one’s self, doing ordinary tasks at home and work related to the other
adaptive skills areas. The areas of difficulty include academic work, if the person goes
to school.
 Significant sub-average intellectual functioning
91
-Means that the person has significantly below average intelligence. Intellectual
functioning is a broad summation of cognitive abilities, such as the capacity to learn, solve
problems, accumulate knowledge and adapt to new situations.
The persons find difficulty in learning the skills in school that children of his age are
able to learn. The intelligence quotient score is approximately in the flexible lower IQ
range 0 to 20 and upper IQ range of 70-75 based on the result of assessment using one or
more individual intelligence tests.
The current IQ score is 70, though it is acknowledged that IQ scores are not exact
measures and therefore a small number of individuals with mental retardation may attain
scores as high as 75. Sub-average intellectual functioning indicates that intelligence, or at
least intelligence test scores, are not static or unchangeable.
This current concept assumes that one’s intellectual functioning can change and a
person diagnosed to have mental retardation at one point in life no longer meet the criteria
or may no longer be mentally retarded at a later time.
 Limitations in the adaptive skills or behavior

Show in the quality of everyday performance in coping with environmental demands.
Persons with mental retardation fail to meet the standards of personal independence and
social responsibility expected of their chronological age and cultural group. The quality of
general adaptation is mediated by the level of intelligence. Adaptive skills are assessed by
means of adaptive behavior scales.
 Related limitations in the adaptive skills areas

Means that the person has difficulty in performing the following tasks: (Beirne-Smith,
2002)
1. Communication or the ability to understand and communicate information by speaking
and writing through symbols, sign language and non-symbolic behavior like facial
expressions, touch or gestures.
2. Self- care or the ability to take care one’s needs in hygiene, grooming, dressing,
eating, toileting.
3. Home Living or the ability to function in the home, housekeeping, clothing care, property
maintenance, cooking, shopping, home safety, daily scheduling of work.
4. Community Use or travel in the community, shopping, obtaining services.
5. Social Skills in initiating and terminating interactions, conversations, responding to social
cues, recognizing feelings, regulating own behavior, assisting others, fostering
friendship.
6. Self-Direction in making choices, following schedule, completing required tasks, seeking
assistance, and resolving problems.
7. Health and Safety such as maintaining own health, identity and preventing illness, first
aid, sexuality, physical fitness and basic safety.
8. Functional Academics or learning the basic skills taught in school.
9. Leisure such as recreational activities that is appropriate to the age of the person.
10. Work or employment, appropriate to one’s age.
92
What is mental retardation?
Mental Retardation manifests before age 18-22. This means that the condition can start
during pregnancy until the age of 18-22. A person who suffers from brain injury at age 23 or
thereafter, even if the other criteria are met, would not be considered to have mental retardation.
The reason that such individual is excluded from this category is that mental retardation is a
developmental disability.
It is important to understand that in the diagnosis of mental retardation, the person must
meet all three of the above criteria. Thus, an IQ score below 70 or 75, in and of itself, is not
sufficient to classify a person as with mental retardation. The person’s adaptive behavior must
also be impaired, and the condition must have originated during pregnancy until the age of 18
to 22.
Mental retardation has been known by many different names that are no longer used at
present. The old labels are mentally defective, mentally deficient, feeble minded, moron,
imbecile and idiot.
In the past, a person’s IQ was the only determinant of mental retardation. Today, several
associations and agencies define mental retardation in different ways. However, almost all of
them use the IQ score as only one criterion and usually pair it with an assessment of how well
a person can manage daily tasks which are appropriate for his or her age.
Heward (2003) cites five essential assumptions in using the AAMR definition:
1. The existence of limitations in adaptive skills occurs within the context of community
environments typical of the individual’s age peers and is indexed to the person’s
individualized needs for support.
2. Valid assessment considers cultural and linguistic diversity, as well as differences in
communication, sensory, motor, and behavioral factors.
3. Specific adaptive limitations often coexist with strengths in other adaptive skills or
other personal capabilities.
4. The purpose of describing limitations often coexists with strength.
5. With appropriate supports over a sustained period, the life-functioning of the person
with mental retardation will generally improve.
Topic 3
Classification of Mental Retardation
The criteria in the AAMR definition are very extensive, thus a system of sub-categories
of levels of mental retardation was developed.
Four Levels of AAMR Classification System
1. Mild MR with IQ scores from 55 to 70

2. Moderate MR with IQ scores from 40 to 54
3. Severe MR with IQ scores from 25 to 39
4. Profound MR with IQ scores below 25.
93
Current books in Special Education use two classifications:
1. The milder forms of mental retardation, and
2. The more severe forms of mental retardation that cluster the moderate, severe and
profound types.
Four categories of mental retardation according to the intensity of needed supports
AAMR New System of Classification based on the amount of support that the persons
need in order to function to the highest possible level. (Wehmeyer, 2002)
1. Intermittent Supports- are on “as needed” basis that is the person needs help only at certain
periods of time and not all the time. Support will most likely be required during
periods of transition, for example moving from school to work.
2. Limited Supports- are required consistently though not on a daily basis. The support needed
is for no-intensive nature.
3. Extensive Supports- are needed on a regular basis, daily support are required in some
environments, for example daily home living tasks.
4. Pervasive Supports- are daily extensive supports, perhaps of a life, sustaining nature
required in multiple environments.
Topic 4
Incidence and prevalence
Prevalence refers to the total number of cases of a particular condition, those with
exceptionality (gifted and talent) and developmental disabilities and impairments.
1. Identifiable Prevalence- refers to the cases that have come in contact with some
systems. It is derived from the census data.
2. True prevalence- assumes that there are a larger number of children and youth
with special needs who are in school or in the community who have not been
identified as such and are not in special education programs of the DEPEd.
Incidence- refers to the number of new cases identified within a population over a specific
period of time.
According to AMMR 1973 definition, mental retardation can occur 3% of a given

population. Only about 15% of these children have greater than mild disabilities. Compared
to his or her peers, the person passes through the milestone of development much later and
learning rate and development of physical skills are slower.
Due to complications during pregnancy, birth and infancy, concomitant conditions
associated with mental retardation may occur such as Down syndrome, physical handicaps,
speech impairment, visual impairment hearing defects, epilepsy and others.
Topic 5
Etiology: Causes of Mental Retardation
Causes of Mental Retardation
94
There are 250 identified causes of mental retardation. The AAMR classifies the causes or
etiological factors based on time of onset, categorized as:
1. Prenatal or biological (occuring before birth)

2. Perinatal (occuring during birth), and
3. Postnatal and environmental (occuring shortly after birth)
The Specific BIOLOGICAL Causes are known for about two-thirds of individuals with
the more severe forms that include the moderate, severe and profound types. It is important to
understand that the causes listed are conditions, diseases and syndromes that are associated
with mental retardation.
These conditions may or may not result in mental retardation or deficits of intellectual and
adaptive functioning that define mental retardation. Some of the conditions may or may not
require special education services. The term syndrome refer to a number of symptoms or
characteristics that occur together and provide the defining features of a given disease or
condition.
The Environmental Causes are traced to a psychological disadvantage which is a

combination of poor social and cultural environments early in the child's life. The term
developmental retardation is used to refer to mild mental retardation thought to be caused
primarily by environmental influences such as minimal opportunities to develop early
language, child abuse and neglect, and/or chronic social or sensory deprivation.
The following factors are found to contribute to environmentally caused mental retardation
(Greespan, et.al. 1994)
1. Limited parenting practices that produce low rates of vocabulary growth in early
childhood;
2. Instructional practices in high school and adolescence that produce low rates of
academic engagement during the school years;
3. Lower rates of academic achievements and early school failure and early school drop-
out; and
4. Parenthood and continuance of the progression into the next generation.
I. PRENATAL CAUSES- those that originate during conception or pregnancy until before
birth are chromosomal disorders such as:
 Trisomy 21 or Down Syndrome
Named after Dr. Langdon Down, is the best known and well-researched biological
condition associated with mental retardation. It is estimated to account for 5 to 6% of all cases.
Caused by chromosomal abnormality, the most common is trisomy 21, in which the 21st set of
chromosomes is a triplet rather than a pair.
The characteristics physical features are short stature; flat, broad face with small ears and
nose; upward slanting eyes, small mouth with short roof, protruding tongue that may cause
95
articulation problems; hypertonia or floppy muscles; heart defects are common; susceptibility
to ear and respiratory infections; older persons are at high risk for Alzheimer's disease.
 Klinefelter Syndrome
Males receive an extra X chromosomes. Sterility, underdevelopment of male sex organs,

acquisition of female secondary sex characteristics is common. Males with XXY sex
chromosomes instead of the normal XY often have problems with social skills, auditory
perception, language, sometimes mild levels of cognitive retardation.
 Fragile X syndrome
A triplet or repeat mutation on the X chromosome interferes with the production of FMR-
1 protein which is essential for normal brain functioning. Majority of males experience mild to
moderate mental retardation in childhood and moderate to severe deficits in adulthood. Females
may carry and transmit the mutation to their childhood but tend to have fewer disabilities than
affected males. The condition affects approximately one in four thousand males. It is the most
common clinical type of mental retardation after Down Syndrome.
It is characterized by social anxiety, avoiding eye contact, tactile defensiveness, turning
the body away during face to face interactions and stylized, ritualistic forms of greetings.
Preservative speech often includes repetition of words and phrases.
 Prader-Willi Syndrome
Prader-Willi Syndrome is a syndrome disorder caused by the deletion of a portion of

chromosome 15. Initially, infants have hypertonia or floppy muscles or may to be tube-fed.
The initial phase is followed by the development of insatiable appetite. Constant preoccupation
with food can lead to life-threatening obesity if food seeking is not monitored. The condition
affects one in a twenty-five thousand live births. It is associated with mild retardation and
learning disabilities.
Behavior problems are common, such as impulsivity, aggressiveness, temper tantrums,

obsessive-compulsive behavior, some forms of injurious behavior such as skin picking, delayed
motor skills, short stature, small hands and feet and underdeveloped genitalia.
 Phenylketonuria
Phenylketonuria is one of the inborn errors of metabolism. PKU is a genetically inherited

condition in which a child is born without an important enzyme needed to break down an amino
acid called phenylalanine found in the dairy products and other protein-rich foods. Failure to
break down these amino acids causes brain damage that often results in aggressiveness,
hyperactivity, and severe mental retardation.
96
In the United States, PKU has been virtually eliminated through widespread screening. By
analysing the concentration of phenylalanine in a newborn's blood plasma, doctors can
diagnose PKU and treat it with a special diet. Most children who receive the treatment early
enough have an early intellectual development.
 William Syndrome
William Syndrome is caused by the deletion of a portion of the seventh chromosome.

Cognitive functioning ranges from normal to mild and moderate levels of mental retardation.
The characteristics are: elfin or dwarf-like facial features; the physical features and manner
of expression exudes cheerfulness and happiness; “overly friendly,” lack of reserve toward
strangers , often have uneven profiles of skills, with strengths in vocabulary and storytelling
skills and weaknesses in visual-spatial skills; often hyperactive , may have difficulty staying
on task and low tolerance for frustration or teasing.
Developmental Disorder of Brain Formation
Developmental disorder of brain formation includes cranial malformations:

1. In Anencephaly, the major portion of the brain is absent. This is a major neural tube
defect, that is, it occurs in the brain or the spinal cord.
2. In Microcephaly, the skull is small and conical, the spine is curved and typically
leads to stooped portion and severe mental retardation.
3. In Hydrocephaly, blockage of cerebrospinal fluid in the cranial cavity causes an
enlarged head and undue pressure of the brain.
Environmental Influences
Environmental Influences include: maternal malnutrition, irradiation during pregnancy,
juvenile diabetes mellitus and Fetal Alcohol Syndrome or FAS. FAS is one of the leading
causes of mental retardation. The mother's excessive alcohol use during pregnancy has toxic
or poisonous effects on the fetus, including physical defects and developmental delays. FAS is
diagnosed when the child has two or more craniofacial malformation and growth is below the
10th percentile for height and weight.
Children who have some but not all of the diagnostic criteria for FAS and a history of the
mother's prenatal alcohol exposure are diagnosed with fetal alcohol effect or FAE, a condition
associated with hyperactivity and learning problems. The incidence is higher than Down
Syndrome and cerebral palsy.
The Characteristics are cognitive impairment, sleep disturbances, motor dysfunctions,
hyper-irritability, aggression, and conduct problems. Although the risk is highest during the
first three months of pregnancy, pregnant women should avoid during alcohol anytime.
II. PERINATAL CAUSES INCLUDE:

1. Intrauterine Disorders- such as maternal anemia, premature delivery, abnormal
presentation, umbilical cord accidents and multiple gestation in the
case of twins, triplets, quadruplets, and other types of multiple births.
Birth trauma may result from anoxia or cutting off oxygen supply to
97
the brain. Subsequent increase in caesarean births has reduced the
likelihood of perinatal causation.
2. Neonatal Disorders- such as intracranial hemorrhage, neonatal seizures, respiratory
disorders, meningitis, encephalitis, head trauma at birth.
I. POSTNATAL CAUSES INCLUDE:
1. Head Injuries such as cerebral concussion, contusion or laceration;

2. Infections such as encephalitis, meningitis, malaria, German measles, rubella
3. Demyelinating Disorders such as post infectious disorders, post immunization
disorders;
4. Degenerative Disorders such as Rett Syndrome, Huntington Disease, Parkinson's
disease;
5. Seizure Disorders such as epilepsy, toxic-metabolic disorders such as Reye's
syndrome, lead or mercury poisoning;
6. Malnutrition especially lack of proteins and calories;
7. Environmental Deprivation such as psycho-social disadvantage, child abuse and
neglect, chronic social/sensory deprivation; and
8. Hypoconnection syndrome
Though accidents, particularly vehicular accidents are the leading causes of childhood
head injuries, the shaken baby syndrome which is a type of child abuse when a crying infant is
violently shaken by a frustrated caregiver, can result to head injury. Infant's head are
disproportionately large, their neck muscles cannot support the stress of this shaking, causing
the head to flop back and forth. This often results in internal bleeding and brain damage or, in
some cases, even death. Oftentimes, other diagnoses are given such as traumatic brain injury
(Beirne-Smith, 2002)
CULTURAL-FAMILIAL RETARDATION
Cultural-familial retardation refers to the existence of lowered intelligence of unknown

origin associated with a history of mental retardation in one or more family members. The
condition results from the lack of adequate stimulation during infancy and early childhood.
Diseases of the mother during pregnancy may also result in retardation. Infections caused
by sexually transmitted disease such as syphillis, gonorrhea, AIDS, toxoplasmosis (blood
poisoning) and rubella can have negative effects on the developing fetus. Maternal rubella is
most likely to cause retardation, blindness or deafness when the disease occurs during the first
trimester of pregnancy.
Topic 6
LEARNING AND BEHAVIOR CHARACTERISTICS
Persons with mental retardation manifest substantial limitations in age-appropriate

intellectual and adaptive behavior. There are deficits in cognitive functioning that are
98
associated with poor memory, slow learning rates, attention problems, difficulty at generalizing
what has been learned and lack of motivation. They find difficulties in doing school work and
fail the grade levels. Their classmates leave them behind in the achievement of the skills in the
subject areas.
Those with moderate retardation show significant delays in development during the
preschool years. In general, as they grow older, the discrepancies in overall intellectual
development and adaptive functioning become wider when compared to normal age-mates.
Many of them can learn the academic skills up to the sixth grade level and master job skills
well enough to be able to work and support themselves semi-independently when they leave
school.
DEFICITS IN COGNITIVE FUNCTIONING
Sub-Average Intellectual Skills- the first defining characteristics of persons with mental
retardation is below average mental ability as measured by standardized tests.
1. Low Academic Achievement- due to sub-average intellectual functioning,
persons with mental retardation are likely to be slower in reaching levels of
academic achievement equal to their peers.
2. Difficulty in Attending to Tasks - the attention of these children tends to be
distracted by irrelevant stimuli rather than those that pertain to the lesson.
Likewise, they have difficulty in sustaining their attention to learning tasks.
These attention problems contribute to the development of concomitant
problems such as difficulties in remembering and generalizing newly
learned lesson and skills.
DEFICITS IN MEMORY
These students have difficulty in retaining and recording information in the short term or
working memory. Information encountered a few seconds earlier cannot be recalled. Research
shows that many persons with retardation have good long-term memory, but they have
difficulty remembering in the short term, especially if the facts are complex.
1. Difficulty with the generalization of skills- the inability to generalize is
related to the inability to think abstractly. Students with mental retardation
often have trouble in transferring their new knowledge and skills into setting
or situations that differ from the context in which they first learned those
skills.
2. Low motivation- some students show lack of interest in learning their
lessons. Some of them develop learned helplessness where they expect to
continue to fail in doing certain tasks because they have not been able to do
the tasks in the past.
To avoid failure, the person tends to set very low expectations for oneself. Motivation is a
problem for persons with any disability because it is learned. Constant comparison to others
99
who perform in many areas with apparent ease can be frustrating and diminish motivation and
self-esteem, and sometimes create “learned helplessness” and belief in consistent failure.
DEFICITS IN ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR
Persons with mental retardation are likely to demonstrate significant deficits in adaptive
behavior.
1. Safe-care and daily living skills- they are often taught basic self -care skills
deliberately with normal individuals learn by absorption and imitations.
Direct instructions, simplified routine, prompts and task analysis are used to
teach self-care skills in hygiene and grooming, daily living skills in eating,
toileting communications and the other areas of adaptive behavior.
2. Social Development - limited cognitive processing skills, poor language development
and unusual or inappropriate behaviors can seriously impede interaction with
others. Thus making friends and sustaining personal relationships are difficult
for persons with mental retardation.
3. Behavioral Excesses and Challenging behavior- compared to the children without
disabilities, students with mental retardation are more prone to inappropriate
behavior. They have difficulties accepting criticism, limited self-control, as
well as behavior problems like aggression or self-injury.
4. Psychological Characteristics - as in the case of speech and language problems,
mentally retarded persons have slower psychological development (e.g.
toilet-training, walking) and are likely to have some forms of associated
physical problems.
5. Positive Characteristics - likewise everyone else, persons with mental retardation have
their unique characteristics.
While they may have negative attributes like those describe earlier, many of them have
positive characteristics like friendliness and kindness. They can be fun to be with and they can
get along well with others. Being with them makes one appreciate one's normal attributes.
Topic 7
ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES
In the Philippines where the educational system hardly provides for clinicians like school
psychologist or psychometicians, initial assessment is done by the classroom teacher, in order
to identify who among the regular students are in need of special education. Initial assessment
is done through teacher nomination. For school-age children, teachers are an important source
of information about their learning and behavior attributes. A checklist of the learning and
behavior characteristics of children with special education needs is used. When a child
manifests half or more than half of the characteristics in the checklist then the final assessment
follows. Here, the guidance counsellor or special education teacher administers the appropriate
assessment tools developed by the Special Education Division of the Bureau of Elementary
Education of the Department of Education.
100
When a child is suspected to have a developmental disability such as mental retardation a
complete diagnosis of the condition is necessary. A thorough assessment of the condition is
critical in considering a child's eligibility for special educational services, and/or aid in
planning the educational and other services him/her and the family may need. The assessment
process covers a more intensive medical history especially of the mother's condition during
pregnancy and other circumstances related to causative factors and the child's current level of
functioning. The use of more than one assessment procedure provides a wealth of information
about the child permitting the evaluation of the biological, cognitive, social and interpersonal
variables that affect the child's current behavior.
In the diagnostic assessment of children, parents and other significant individuals in the
child's environment provide a rich source of information. The components of assessment,
informal and standardized tests, home visits, interview and observation complement each other
and form a firm foundation for making correct decisions about the child. Major discrepancies
among the findings obtained from the various assessment procedures must be resolved before
any diagnostic decisions or recommendations are made. An evaluation report that provides
information relevant to instruction and other services is useful to both teachers and parents.
The inclusion of families in the management of their children's education presents new
challenges. Their participation in arriving at important decisions about the children will
ultimately be rewarding and beneficial to all the members of the team.
MODELS OF ASSESSMENT
Three assessments of models are used in Western Countries. These are the:
1. Traditional Assessment- The parents fill in a pre-referral form about the family history and
the developmental history of the child. Then the child and parents are referred
to a team of clinical practitioners for thorough evaluation of the child's
intellectual, socio- emotional and physical development, health condition and
other significant information.
Members of the team:
 developmental psychologist
 an early childhood special educator
 an early childhood educator
 a speech/language pathologist (SLP)
 an occupational therapist
 a physician and nurse
 an audiologist and
 other specialists contribute their own skills to the evaluation process
2. Team-based Assessment
Because children with mental retardation often have other problems, it is necessary to
involve a team of practitioners from different areas like the specialists in the traditional model
101
of assessment. The team-based approach is described as multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary and
transdiciplinary in nature.
 In multidisciplinary assessment- individuals team members independently assess the

child and report results without consulting or integrating their findings with one
another.
 In interdisciplinary assessment- the members conduct an independent assessment and
evaluation individually the findings are integrated together withthe recommendations.
 Transdisciplinary Assessment- allows other teams members as facilitator during the
assessment process. A natural extension of this approach is the involvement of the
family in the decision-making process.
3. Activity-Based Models of Assessment
The activity-based model of assessment for young children with developmental delays or
disabilities is better than the other models because of parental involvement as well as the
development of meaningful, child-centered, positive behavioral supports and activity-based
interventions.
Assessment findings are easily translated into the child's program plan. The assessment
materials have a curriculum and evaluation components and do not require specialized
materials or test kits.
Example of criterion referenced assessment tools are the Assessment, Evaluation and
Programming Systems for Infants and Children (AEPS) and the Infant-Preschool Assessment
Scale.
COGNITIVE/DEVELOPMENTAL ASSESSMENT TOOLS
Some of the commonly used assessment tools for measuring the mental ability of children
with mental retardation are:
 The Differential Ability Scales(DAS)
 Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Revised (WPPSIR)
 Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children -III (WISC-III)
 Standford Binet: Fourth Edition
(Beirne-Smith et.al., 2002)
ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR ASSESSMENT TOOLS

It is ability to perform daily activities required personal and social sufficiency. Focuses
on how well individuals can function and maintain themselves independently and how well
they meet the personal and social demands imposed on them by their cultures.
The most common scale is the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales which assesses the
social competence of individuals with and without disabilities from birth to age 19. It is an
indirect assessment in that the respondents are not the individual in question but someone
familiar with the individual's behavior. Example, Adaptive Behavior-Scale-School and the
Scales of Independent Behavior Revised (SIB-R)
102
Topic 8
EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
EARLY INTERVENTION PROGRAM
The child benefits from an early intervention program. The skills that are normally
learned during early childhood are taught at a time when the child is still young and more
malleable than when he or she would have grown older and less flexible. The opportunities to
learn the adaptive skills early are enhanced and increase the chances for the child to be able to
cope with the demands of future environments. Trends in the early intervention emphasize the
important role of the home and the participation of the parents and family members who are
natural caregivers of their children.
Effective early intervention takes place in the natural setting at home when the parents
and the family members accept the fact that the child has a developmental disability and can
learn like his normal siblings in ways that are different.
The willingness on their part to be patient in teaching the child the basic adaptive skills
on self-care and daily living activities redounds to the benefit of both the child and the adults
in the family.
In addition to the behavior skills, social and emotional bonds are deveopled as well as, that set
a strong base for future special education programs and activities. The staff members of early
intervention programs have formal training in early childhood education and special education.
They participate in in-service training program and attend conferences and workshops.
Intervisitation among programs and agencies is held to update the staff's competencies and
learn from each other's experiences.
RATIONALE FOR EARLY INTERVENTION
There are five reasons why early intervention services should be provided:
1. During intervention secondary disabilities that would have gone unnoticed can be
observed.
2. Early intervention services can prevent the occurrence of secondary disabilities.
3. Early intervention services lessen the chances for placement in a residential school
since a child with the basic self-care and daily living skills has a good chance of
qualifying for placement in special education program in regular school.
4. As the family gains information about the disability, the members learn how to offer
support and fulfil the child's need for acceptance, love and belongingness very much
like the ways they behave towards the normal children in the family.
5. Early intervention services hasten the child's acquisition of the desirable learning
and behavior characteristics for the attainment of his or her potential despite the
presence of the disability.
Topic 9
MODELS OF EARLY INTERVENTION
103
1. Home-based instruction program
The Philippine Association for the Retarded (PAR) composed of special education
specialists, parents and medical practitioners initiated the development of Home-Based
Instruction Program for Children with Mental Retardation in the 1970's.
The Goal is to provide a continuous program of instruction both in school and home for a more
effective management of the handicapping condition.
The program utilizes the Filipino adaptation of the Portage Project. The Portage Guide
to Early Intervention is printed in Filipino and the dialect of some regions. The national Capital
Region and Region V are implementing the program. Davao has also implemented the project.
The key persons are the biological or surrogate parents who perform their primary role
as caregivers. All members of the family including the household helpers are trained to
implement the program. Monitoring and evaluation of the program show positive results.
2. Head Start Program

The Head Start Program in Manila City Schools Division addresses pre-school
education for the socially and economically deprived children who are four to six years old.
The program operates on the principle of early intervention as a preventive measure
against behavior problems among young children that may lead ultimately to juvenile
delinquency. The participants are children and siblings of youth offenders, slum dwellers, street
children and other pre-school age. The head start program was subsequently adopted by the
Special Education Centers of Manila with a group of parents serving as teacher-aides.
3. Community-based rehabilitation (CBR) services

The World Health Organiation (WHO, 1984) defines community-based rehabilitation
as measures taken at the community level that use and build on the resources of community to
assist in the rehabilitation of those who need assistance including the disabled and handicapped
persons, their families and their community as a whole.
The Community-Based Rehabilitation (CBR) has been acclaimed as the answer to the
rehabilitation needs in poverty-stricken areas where institution-based rehabilitation programs
are not available.
Piloted by the National Commission for the Welfare of Disabled Persons (NCWPD) in
Bacolod in 1981 and eventually expanded to selected communities in Luzon, Visayas and
Mindanao, CBR services have been successfully organized in many communities for pre-
school and school-age children and young adults .The utilization of the services of volunteers
is employed and maximized in providing rehabilitation programs to urban and rural
communities.
4. Urban Basic Service Program
An early intervention scheme based on the principle of the home-based instruction was
adopted by the Urban Basic Service Program as its education component. The Program also
utilized the Filipino adaptation of the Portage Guide to Early Intervention.
Twelve (12) Barangays or villages identified as depressed ad underserved where chosen
as sites for the program. Children with disabilities who are not receiving special education
services were placed in the program.
104
Twenty to thirty parents were trained yearly to implement early intervention at home
as a means of minimizing the effects of the disabilities and increasing the children's readiness
and response to rehabilitation program.
Topic 10
EDUCATIONAL APPROACHES
The Curriculum
Students with mental retardation need a functional curriculum that will train them on the
life skills which are essentially the adaptive behavior skills. The Goal and direction of a
functional curriculum is towards self-direction and regulation and the ability to select
appropriate options in everyday life at home, in school and in the community. The functional
curriculum fosters independent living, enjoyment of leisure and social activities and improved
quality of life.
A number of curricular programs for children with developmental disabilities are

implemented in the United States and other Western Countries.
1. The Cognitive Curriculum for Young Children (CCYC) is a major curriculum effort
that is based on Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development, Vygotsky's zone of
proximal development and Feuertein's concept of mediated learning. The
CCYC builds its instructional program around the child's deficit in cognition
where mediated learning is applied. Estimates of the child's maximum learning
potentials are derived from his zone of proximal development that is
determined by comparing the child's actual level of performance under the
teacher's direct supervision.
2. Instrumental Enrichment- program wherein the child is trained to develop a sense of

intentionality and a feeling of competence as a result of structured mediated
learning environments.
3. The Montessori Method- aims to develop the child's sense of self-mastery, mastery of
the environment and independence by focusing on his or her perceptual and
conceptual development as well as in acquisition of skills in self-care and daily
living activities.
4. Ypsilante Perry Pre-School Project- derived from Piaget's Cognitive Development

theory. The cognitively oriented curriculum is used in teaching disadvantaged
children with mild retardation who are three to four years old.
5. The Portage Project uses the precision teaching model to deliver a home based
curriculum in language, self-help skills, cognition, motor skills and
socialization. The parents are trained to teach their children using behavior
modification procedures.
105
6. The Carolina's Abcedarian Project includes parent training, social work services,
nutritional supplement, medical care and transportation. Its Curriculum is
designed around the interaction of consumer opinions or the goals that parents
have for their children; Piaget's Developmental Theory; developmental facts
(language, motor, socio-emotional and cognitive/perceptive); adaptive sets
(winning strategies that generate age-appropriate success); and high risked
indicators.
Methods of Instruction
Teaching children with mental retardation requires explicit and systematic instruction. One
such method is the Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA) which is derived from the theory and
principles of behavior modification and the effect of the environment on the learning process.
 Task Analysis -is the process of breaking down complex or multiple skills into smaller,
easier-to-learn sub-tasks. Direct and frequent measurement of the increments of
learning is done to keep track of the effects of instruction and to introduce needed
changes whenever possible.
 Active Student Response (ASR)- the observable response made to an instructional
antecedent is correlated to student achievement.
 Systematic Feedback- through positive reinforcement is employed whenever needed
by rewarding the student's correct responses with simple positive comments, gestures
or facial expressions. Meanwhile incorrect responses are immediately corrected (error
correct technique) by asking the student to repeat the correct responses after the teacher.
Educational Placement Alternatives
The special curriculum emphasized the communication arts, mathematics, self-help skills,
social and recreational skills, motor skills and prevocational and vocational skills. Students
with mental retardation are now included in mainstream schools and even regular classes. This
is particularly the case for those with mild to moderate retardation. These students receive their
special education in either a resource room, where they work with a special teacher one-to-one
or in small group, or in the regular classroom where the special education teacher works with
them. The amount of time students spend outside the regular classroom depends on their
individual needs. Some may spend nearly an entire day in the regular classroom while others
may be there for less than an hour.
Students with Mental Retardation in Inclusive Education
Many children with mild and moderate mental retardation are enrolled in the regular
classroom. They are mainstreamed in the academic subjects under the tutelage of the regular
teacher and the special education teacher. Mainstreaming activities for children with the more
severe forms of mental retardation are more selective. They participate in social activities,
sports and co-curricular activities like special Olympics, camping, scouting, and interest clubs.
106
Suggestions For The Special Education Teachers And Regular Teachers In Whose
Classes Students With Mental Retardation Are Mainstreamed:
 Together, study the student's IEP and agree on the teachers' roles and responsibilities to
make inclusive education and mainstreaming work.
 Set regular meetings with each other, with the students or their families, to assess how
effective the program is going and what else needs to be done.
 Encourage acceptance of the students by the classmates by setting an example and giving
the student the chance to show that he or she is more like the others than different.
 Use instructional procedures that will be of benefit to the student, such as demonstrating
the more complex and difficult tasks and providing multiple opportunities for practice.
When teaching abstract concepts, provide multiple concrete examples
 Supplement verbal instructions with demonstration whenever possible.
 Assign a peer tutor to assist the student during independent activities
 Vary the tasks in drills and practice activities.
 Encourage the use of computer based tutorials and other appropriate computer-based
materials.
 In class lectures, utilize the lecture-pause technique. Have a volunteer tape- record reading
assignments if the student is unable to read.
 Use cooperative learning strategies involving heterogeneous groups of students.
 Use multi-layered activities involving flexible learning objectives to accommodate the
needs of students with diverse abilities.
 Pair students with mental retardation win non-disabled classmates who have similar
interests.
 Encourage regular students to assist the students with mental retardation as they participate
in class activities.
107
Essay No. 5
Do you favor inclusive education for students with disabilities?

Explain your stand on the issue.

Ask 5 of your classmates :
 What were your ideas about persons with mental retardation? How did such
preconceived ideas come about?
Write a narrative report on their answers and place that in your portfolio.
Group work No. 5
In groups of four, do the following: Listen to the audio to the Case Study of
Raymond N.
1. What skills can the 14-1/2-year-old boy Raymond who has a profound mental
retardation do:
a) Independently, or alone, by himself?
b) With minimal verbal and physical prompts?
c) With Maximum verbal prompts and physical assistance?
2. What skills can Raymond not do yet for a teenager his age?
3. How do you feel about being a person with a developmental disability like
Raymond?
4. How can you take care of yourself so that you will continue to develop normally and
be a successful adult?
108
Further Readings:
Characteristics of Students with Moderate to Severe Intellectual Disabilities
Students with moderate to severe intellectual disabilities have on-going needs for support during their school
years and into adult life. Some students are able to learn academic, social, and vocational skills that enable them
to live independently or semi-independently as productive adults. Others’ learning will be more limited, and they
may need intensive services throughout their lives. In many school districts, students with moderate or severe
disabilities are integrated for at least a small part of the day into general education classrooms, most often at the
elementary school level but sometimes at the middle school and high school levels as well, sometimes for related
arts such as art, music, or physical education and less often for core academic subjects.
Most states use scores on intelligence tests and adaptive behavior scales to determine the presence of an
intellectual disability. Although intelligence tests must be interpreted carefully and are not helpful in designing
instruction for students, an overall IQ score of less than 70 with significant difficulty in the area of adaptive
behaviors (for example, ordering a meal in a restaurant) leads to eligibility for special education in the category
of mental retardation. Students with moderate or severe intellectual disabilities generally have IQ scores of
approximately 55 or below. Kylie, whom you learned about at the beginning of the chapter, is a student with a
moderate intellectual disability.
Learning Needs and Rate Generally, students with moderate or severe intellectual disabilities have several
noticeable characteristics. First, the amount of information they can learn may be limited, and second, the rate at
which they learn may be slow. For example, Destiny, a middle school student with a severe intellectual disability,
is learning to communicate her needs to others. She has a communication device that enables her to indicate that
she needs a drink of water, that she needs to use the bathroom, and that she is hungry. Her paraprofessional
sometimes works with her on this skill, but her classmates also ask her questions related to these needs.
Jordan, an elementary student with a moderate intellectual disability, is learning how to tell a story from a
picture book and recognize his name and address. He practices these skills as opportunities arise during general
instruction and when other students are completing individual assignments that are beyond his capability. Students
with moderate or severe intellectual disabilities usually also need to learn many other essential skills that go
beyond academics. One example is social skills.
Several IEP goals and objectives may relate to participating in one-to-one or small-group interactions with
peers; responding to questions asked by others; and sharing toys, games, or materials. Without direct assistance
from teachers implementing inclusive practices, these students may have difficulty making friends throughout
their school.
Maintenance of Learned Skills
A second characteristic of individuals with moderate or severe intellectual disabilities is that they may have
difficulty maintaining their skills; without on-going practice, they are likely to forget what they have learned. In
the classroom, you may find this means that it is not necessary to provide new activities each day. For example,
Jordan, the student mentioned previously who is learning to recognize his name and address, will need computer
practice on that skill for many days. In addition, once he has identified the information, he should practice printing
it on cards, writing it on the chalkboard, and saying it aloud.
Accommodations for Students with Moderate to Severe Intellectual Disabilities
Match Expectations to Instruction Although students with significant disabilities are not expected to learn all the
same information as other students, the goals and objectives on their IEPs should be related to the grade-level or
course competencies. In this regard, the INCLUDE strategy and collaborating with colleagues can help you
effectively teach students with moderate or severe intellectual disabilities. For example, in a social studies class,
the goal for most students might be to understand detailed topographical maps. At the same time, a student with
a moderate intellectual disability might work to locate on a map states where relatives live, and a student with a
severe intellectual disability might work to identify photos of businesses in the community.
References:
109

reference.
110
Part III
Module VI
STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES
111
OUTLINE
Module 6 The Students with Learning Disabilities is the sixth module in Professional
Education 224. It starts with a discussion on the basic concepts on Learning, Mental Ability
and Learning Disabilities. Another significant concept to understand in teaching children with
learning disabilities is the level of the learner’s intelligent functioning or mental ability. The
term learning disabilities will be discussed and its criteria in determining its presence when
assessing children to have learning disabilities. The classification, causes and etiological
factors and the learning and behavior characteristics of children with learning disabilities are
presented. The identification and assessment procedures as well as the educational approaches
are described.

1. Recall the concepts on the learning process and the different stages that a student
undergoes when efficient teaching and effective learning take place.
2. Explain the concepts on mental ability and the measurement of intellectual functioning.
3. Define the term learning disabilities; explain the criteria in determining the presence of
4. Define ADHD; explain the syndromes in the areas of inattention, hyperactivity, and
impulsivity.
5. Explain the causes or etiology of learning disabilities.
6. Discuss the assessment procedures in identifying students with learning disabilities.
7. Enumerate and describe the special education programs for students with learning
disabilities.
8. Manifest patience and understanding in teaching children with learning disabilities.
112
Contents:
Number
1 Basic Concepts on Learning, Mental Ability and 119
Learning Disabilities?
2 Measures of Mental Ability 121
3 Definition of Learning Disabilities 122
4 Three Criteria in Determining the Presence of Learning 123
Disabilities
5 Learning and Behavior Characteristics of Children with 123
Learning Disabilities
6 Causes of Learning Disabilities 125
7 The Body’s Control System :Brain and Nerves 125
8 Assessment of Learning Disabilities 127
9 Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) and Attention 128
Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Essay, Research and Practical Activity, Group Work 132
Quiz 133
Further Readings 135
References 140
113
Class Discussion
1. What are the major concepts in the NJCLD definition of learning disabilities?
2. In what way or ways are learning disabilities different from mental retardation?
3. What are the learning and behavior characteristics of students with learning
disabilities?
4. What are the causes of learning disabilities?
5. What are the assessment procedures for learning disabilities?
6. What are the special education programs for children with learning disabilities?

 Students will recall the concepts on the learning process and the different stages that
a student undergoes when efficient teaching and effective learning take place.
 Students will explain the concepts on mental ability and the measurement of
intellectual functioning.
 Students will define the term learning disabilities; explain the criteria in determining
the presence of learning disabilities.
 Students will define ADHD; explain the syndromes in the areas of inattention,
hyperactivity, and impulsivity.
 Students will explain the causes or etiology of learning disabilities
 Students will discuss the assessment procedures in identifying students with learning
disabilities.
 Students will enumerate and describe the special education programs for students with
 Students will manifest patience and understanding in teaching children with learning
disabilities.
114
Module 6: STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES
Topic 1: Basic Concepts on Learning, Mental Ability and Learning Disabilities
Planned Hours: 2 lectures (1-hour presentation, 1 hour student activities, 1-2 hours student
research and study)
Introduction
There are a number of students in regular classes whose mental ability is within the average
range or may even be above average but who do not learn that skills in the basic education
curriculum that are suitable to their chronological ages and grade levels. These students have
According to the Department of Education, Filipino students indicate the poor performance
of elementary and secondary students in the National Achievement Tests. They learn only half
or even less of the skills and competencies in the basic education curriculum that their teachers
teach them.
Another condition that is related to learning disabilities is Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity

Disorder (ADHD). The major areas in ADHD are inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.
Descriptions:
The Process of Learning
There are two main concepts in the term learning disabilities.
1. Describes the learning process

2. Explains the phenomenon about children who have average or even above average
ability to learn but who experience difficulties in learning.
What is Learning?
Learning is the process by which experience and practice result in a stable change in the
learner’s behavior.
 Learning results from efficient teaching that develops the learner’s genetic capacity to
learn to the maximum in an environment that is conducive to an effective teaching-learning
process. The learner manifests an understanding of content knowledge and demonstrates
the ability to perform skills.
 Learning can be inferred to have taken place when the student’s performance and behavior
indicate the achievement of the long term goals set for the school year and the quarterly
short term objectives.
115
What are the stages of learning?
Effective learning takes place when a teaching episode is planned very well. The
objectives are matched with appropriate activities and experiences together with suitable
instructional materials.
The teaching strategies provide explicit attention and conscious effort to insure that the
learner moves satisfactorily through of the three stages and five sub-stages of learning:
1. The “Knowing” Stage of Learning
A. Acquisition and Reversion
Acquisition of knowledge and skills takes place when the instructional goals and
objectives, and skills and competencies, strategies and materials match the learning ability
of the students.
The teachers’ ability to motivate the learners, his or her delivery of accurate content
through explicit and effective teaching methods, questioning techniques and evaluation
strategies all contribute to the acquisition of knowledge and skills from zero to basic
mastery of content and skills.
In reversion, the content and skills learned earlier are further strengthened to increase
accuracy and mastery. Correct practice drill, review and similar strategies are used with
immediate feedback and reinforcement.
B. Proficiency and Automaticity
Proficiency and Automaticity are determined by the strength or prior learning. When
mastery of a skill or concept is attained, the learner moves onto the sub-stages of
proficiency and automaticity. The goal is to attain fluency so that the skills are
automatically applied to appropriate situations in everyday life. The learner executes the
tasks immediately and successfully without the need of recall the procedures.
2. The “Using” Stage of Learning
A. Maintenance
Maintenance is achieved is achieved when the student continues to use the skills thus
acquired with proficiency and automaticity over time without explicit instruction,
coaching, prompt, help or reinforcement.
B. Generalization
Once a skill is learned proficiently, it should be available for use in appropriate
situation. The goals of generalization are:
a. For the learner to recognize a new or different stimulus as a prompt to apply the
learned skills
b. To use the acquired skills in various situations, behaviors, setting and time.
3. The “Inventing” Stage of Learning
116
A. Adaptation- the student recognizes the need to apply learned skills in situations outside
the school. He or she introduces changes or modifications in the skills and applies them to meet
the new situation without help or prompts.
Topic 2
Measures of Mental Ability
Another significant concept to understand in teaching children with learning disabilities is
the level of the learner’s intellectual functioning or mental ability. Here are some concepts on
mental ability:
Concept 1. Standardized tests of mental ability measure intellectual functioning.

A Standardized mental ability test or IQ test consists of questions and problem solving task
assumed to require certain amounts of intelligence to answer or solve correctly. The child’s
performance in intelligence tests is used to derive a score that represents his or her overall
intelligence.
Concept 2. IQ scores seem to be distributed throughout the population according to the

normal curve.
To describe how one particular score varies from the mean or average score, the population
is divided into units called standard deviations (SD). A standard deviation is a mathematical
concept that refers to the amount by which a particular score on a given tests varies from the
mean or average scores in the norm sample. A person’s IQ test score can be described in terms
of how many standard deviations it is above or below the mean.
Concept 3. Intelligence testing is not an exact science.

There are many factors or variables that can affect an individual’s IQ score such as,
motivation, the time and location of administration, and the inconsistency or bias of the test
administrator in scoring responses that are not precisely covered by the test manual.
Concept 4. There are children whose IQ scores fall within the average as well as the above
average of the normal curve that experience learning difficulties.
Most children with learning difficulties have average to above average intellectual
functioning. They do not belong to the group of children with mental retardation but they
cannot learn most of the basic learning competencies for average children. These children have
117
Topic 3
Definition of Learning Disabilities
In the United States, the term learning disabilities was introduced in 1963 by Dr. Samuel
Kirk, a well-known American Special Education expert. The number of American children
identified to be learning disabled composed the largest number of children who receive special
education services. There are professionals who believe that the number of children includes
the low achievers who are doing poorly in school but do not have learning disabilities.
In the Philippines, special education of children with learning disabilities is only in its early
years of implementation. There are few schools all over the country that have started to offer
programs for children with learning disabilities.
Children with learning disabilities have relatively average or even above average
intelligence that experience severe learning or academic problems in school. Three behavior
problems are present: inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity.
The American National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities (NJCLD) which is

composed of several professional organizations issued the following definitions in 1989:
 Learning disabilities is a generic term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders
manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and used of listening, speaking ,
reading writing, reasoning or mathematical abilities. These disorders are intrinsic to the
individuals and presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction.
 Learning disabilities may occur concomitantly with other handicapping conditions;
learning disabilities are not the result of these conditions.
 The group of disorders is heterogeneous, that there are not only one but several disorders
that occur at the same time. No two learning disabled persons are alike in mental and
behavioral characteristics.
 The significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading,
writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities show in the child’s performance in the school
subjects. These children cannot learn the regular school subjects like his or her normal
classmates although their mental ability is average or above average. Reading is a subject
where they meet many difficulties.
 The phenomenon is explained by the factor called IQ achievement discrepancy. The child
does not learn knowledge and skills in accordance with his or her potential to learn as
measured by standardized mental ability test.
 Learning disabilities is intrinsic to the individual. This means that the causes of learning
disabilities are organic, biological, genetic or environmental. The organic and biological
factors are traced to the central nervous system particularly the brain.
118
Topic 4
Three Criteria in Determining the Presence of Learning Disabilities
1. Severe discrepancy between the child’s potential and actual achievement.
Learning disabilities is present when mental ability tests and standardized achievement test
results show discrepancy between general mental ability and achievement in school. Evidence
of a discrepancy score or greater than two in intellectual ability and achievement in one or more
of the following areas:
 Oral expression
 Listening comprehension
 Reading comprehension
 Written expression
 Basic reading skills
 Mathematical calculations
 Reasoning
2. Exclusion or absences of mental retardation, sensory impairment and other
disabilities.
The exclusion criterion means that the child has significantly problem that cannot be
explained by mental retardation, sensory impairment like low vision, blindness, hearing
impairment, emotional disturbance or lack of opportunity to learn.
3. Need for special education services.
Children with learning disabilities should progress normally as soon as they receive
effective instruction at a curricular level that is appropriate to their current skills. They need
special education services to remediate their achievement deficiencies.
Topic 5
LEARNING AND BEHAVIOR CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILDREN WITH
LEARNING DISABILITIES
The symptoms and characteristics can be manifested immediately after birth, during
infancy, through the school years and adulthood. There is also a great deal of inter-individual
differences and variations in their characteristics.
1. Reading poses the most difficulty among all the subjects in the curriculum. It may be
recalled that the facets of communication are listening, speaking, reading and writing. Reading
problems are ushered in by deficiencies in language skills especially the phonological skills.
These skills develop the ability to understand the rules of how various sounds go with certain
letters to make up words called grapheme-phoneme correspondence. The difficulty in breaking
words in their component sounds results to difficulties in reading and spelling.
Dyslexia- refers to the disturbance in the ability to learn in general and the ability to learn
to read in particular.
2. Written language poses severe problems in one or more of the following areas:
handwriting, spelling, composition and writing which is illegible and slow. Studies (Englert
et.al., 1987) show that these children are:
 They are not aware of the basic purpose of writing as an act of communication
 They approach writing as a test taking task
 Their writing lacks fluency
119
 They write shorter sentences and stories
 They do not use writing strategies spontaneously
 Their written work shows lack of planning, organizing, drafting and editing.
3. Spoken Language poses problems on the mechanical uses of language in syntax or
grammar, semantics or word meaning and phonology or the breakdown of words into their
components sounds and blending individual sounds to compose words.
Developmental aphasia- is a condition characterized by loss of speech functions, often,
but not always due to brain injury.
4. Pragmatics or social uses of language poses on the ability to carry on a conversation.
Children with learning disabilities are found to be unable to engage in the mutual give and take
in carrying in a conversation.
5. Mathematics problems are recognized as second to deficiencies in reading, language
and spelling.
6. These children tend to fail and be retained in a grade level. The level of academic
achievement tends to decrease progressively as the grade level increases.
7. Behavior problems remain consistent across grade levels both I school, in community
and at home.
Perceptual, Perceptual-Motor and General Coordination Problems
1. They exhibit visual and /or auditory perceptual disabilities. The disturbance is in organizing
and interpreting visual and auditory stimuli. They have problems in seeing and remembering
visual shapes that lead to reversals of b and d.
2. They have difficulty with physical activities that involves gross and fine motor skills.
3. They have problems with attention and hyperactivity.
Memory, Cognitive and Metacognitive Problems
A child with learning disabilities manifests deficits in cognitive functioning that show in
poor academic performance in the different areas of learning. Reading, language and
mathematics are the subject areas where they find the most difficulties.
Attention deficits. Selective attention or the ability to focus on the relevant details of the
lesson is the first requirement for learning to take place. This results to inefficient learning or
no learning at all. Selective attention can be increased through coaching and efficient selective
attention strategies.
Poor Memory. Poor ability to store and retrieve information or previous learning is very
evident among children with learning disabilities. They lack the ability to organize information
for recall. Common strategies for storing and recalling information such as verbal or written
rehearsal, coding or associating a new item with a concept already in memory, imagery and
mnemonics are either absent, immature or inefficiently used.
To help students with attention deficits, the teacher frequently calls him or her back to
attention. They also provide the student with study guides and summaries of the lesson. They
teachers have yet to train the student to organize his time, his lessons and himself. He has to
120
increase his ability to process information, develop selective and sustained attention, use
rehearsal memory strategies and self- monitoring strategies to keep track and continue to
improve his own learning.
Problems in Social Competence
A learning disabled person maybe popular, neglected or rejected. They can have low
social acceptance but can enjoy popularity or they may have significant deficits in social skills
but enjoy acceptance by their classmates and friends. These children can enjoy socially
rewarding experiences in mainstream classroom.
Topic 6
Causes of Learning Disabilities
The causes of learning disabilities are attributed to genetic and environmental factors.
Genetic researches show that learning disabilities tend to run in families and heredity is a
possible cause.
Topic 7
The Body’s Control System: Brain and Nerves
The Brain. The grain and the nervous system control our perceptions, thoughts and voluntary
actions and also most of the body’s internal processes. The brain is contained within the hard
bones of the skull and cushioned against injury by surrounding membranes, while the spinal
cord -the central pathway of the nervous system -runs through a channel within the tough
vertebrae of the spine. The brain makes up just two percent (2%) of the average child’s weight
but uses 20 % of oxygen intake.
Three major areas in the brain:

1. The cerebrum- largest part of the brain and is associated with conscious activities and
intelligence. It is divided into two hemispheres and consists of grey matter or neuron cells and
white matter or nerve fibers. The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body and vice
versa. The cerebral cortex is the outer surface of the cerebrum. It processes information from
and for different parts of the body. The somatosensory strip processes sensations, while the
motor strip controls the muscles.
2. The cerebellum- coordinates movement and balance. The thalamus acts as a sort of junction
box, sending incoming nerve impulses to different areas of the brain. The medulla oblongata
controls heart rate and breathing.
3. The brain stem- connects the rain to the spinal cord.
121
The brain is wrapped into three separate membranes. The space between these membranes
contains fluid which allows the brain to float and thus insulates it from knocks to the head. The
same membrane extends over the spinal cord.
Twelve cranial nerves emerge from the brain itself. These subdivide to reach the eyes,
nose, ears and mouth as well as all the muscles of the face. One of the nerve extends down,
independently of the spinal cord, to the heart, larynx, lungs and stomachs, while another goes
to muscles in the neck, where it helps to control the vocal apparatus.
The brain has about one thousand billion nerve cells. The average adult male brain weighs
1.4 kilograms or 3 pounds; the adult female brain weighs 1.25 kilograms or 2.75 pounds. The
mass of brain tissue reaches a maximum at the age of 20 years and thereafter decreases.
The Nervous System. A network of nerves extends throughout our bodies, carrying sensory
information to the brain and instructions from it. The brain and the spinal cord together form
the central nervous system (CNS). The rest of the network is known as the peripheral nervous
system (PNS).
The Genetic Factors in Learning Disabilities.

Learning disabilities constitutes a heterogeneous set of conditions with no single syndrome
nor a single cause or etiology. Research findings cite two genetic causes of learning disabilities.
1. Brain Damage- neurological dysfunction or central nervous system pathology. Models on
the causes of learning disabilities state that the condition can be:
a) Hereditary, indicating the presence in the genetic make-up of certain inherited
diseases or disorders that damage the brain.
b) Innate, resulting from biological influences during the period of conception or
pregnancy.
c) Congenital or constitutional, indicating that the biological influence may have
originated during the process of gestation or development in the prenatal, perinatal
and postnatal periods of development.
Neurologist and other professionals use advance technology to assess brain activities more
accurately. Some of the new procedures are:
a. Electroencephalogram (EEG)-this is a graphic measure and recording of the brain’s
electrical impulses. The EEG is a digitally computerized recording and analysis of the brain
waves. Many students with learning disabilities have abnormal brain waves as shown by the
encephalographs that records the brain’s electrical impulses.
b. Computerized Tomographic scans (CT)-this is neuroimaging technique where X-
rays of the brain are compiled by a computer to produce an overall picture of the brain. The CT
scans enable the neurologist to look at the underlying physiology or physical condition of the
brain.
c. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)- this is a neuroimaging technique whereby radio
waves and MRI are used to produce cross-sectional images of the brain. CT scan and MRI
results show that the brains of those with learning disabilities suffered from disruption in the
122
development of the neural cells during the early months of pregnancy. This means that the
neurons in the brain area did not develop normally.
2. Biochemical Imbalance- a study in 1975 (Feingold) suggested that artificial food colors,
flavors, preservatives, salicylates and megavitamins in many of the foods that children eat can
cause learning disabilities and hyperactivity.
3. Environmental Factors- there are pieces of evidence that show poverty, malnutrition and
inadequate learning experiences that include poor teaching and lack of instructional materials
as causes of environmental disadvantages that make children prone to learning problems.
Three Types of Environmental influences believed to be related to children’s learning
problems are: (Lovitt 1978)
a. Emotional disturbance- many children with learning problems have behavioral
disorders as well. Whether one causes the other or whether both are caused by some other
factors remain uncertain.
b. Lack of motivation - it is difficult to identify reinforcing activities for some students
with learning disabilities. It is possible that they may not simply be interested in any of the
things that other children like.
c. Poor instruction- although children are able to learn in spite of poor teaching and
inadequate strategies, other children are less fortunate. Some of them who have
experienced poor instruction in the early grades are not able to catch up with their peers.
Topic 8
ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING DISABILITIES
Learning disabilities is a complex condition. Therefore, a battery of three to five tests is

used to identify students who may have learning disabilities. These are norm-referenced tests,
process tests, informal reading inventories, criterion referenced tests, and direct daily
measurement of learning. (Heward, 2003)
1. Norm-Referenced Tests- designed to measure how many of the skills in each learning area-
English, Filipino, Mathematics, Science and Makabayan- have been learned or mastered.
Examples:
 The National Achievement Test
 The Regional Assessment Test
 The School Based Achievement Test
2. Processing Information- the specific perceptual problems are in visual perception, auditory
perception and visual-motor coordination. Examples:
 The Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities (ITPA, Kirk, McCarthyand Kirk, 1968)
 The Marianne Frostic Developmental Test of Visual Perception (Frostig, Lefever &
Whittlesey, 1964)
3. Criterion Reference Tests - in specific subjects such as reading, language and mathematics
are used to determine the mastery level of a predetermined criterion that the student should be
capable of achieving. The specific skills already learned are identified as well as those that
have yet to be mastered. Example:
123
 BRIGANCE Diagnostic-Inventory of Basic Skills (Brigance, 1983)
4. Informal Reading Inventory- consists of a series of progressively more difficult sentences
and paragraphs for oral reading. The students’ mistakes in reading skills are recorded
particularly inn pronunciation of vowels and consonants, omissions, reversals substitution and
comprehension.
5. Direct daily measurement- a useful method of determining student’s performance in
learning a particular skill. Example, in mathematics lesson, the teacher observes and records
the correct rate or number of facts stated or write correctly per minute, the error rate or how
many times the students gives wrong responses and the percentage of correct answers.
Recommendations:
a. Children in regular classes who have learning disabilities be identified as early as
possible through appropriate assessment procedures.
b. An Individualized Educational Plan (IEP) can be prepared based on the learning and
behavior characteristics found in the assessment results.
c. The Special Education teacher should assist the regular teacher in teaching children
with learning disabilities.
Teaching Students with Learning Disabilities
Special education experts highly recommend the use of the diagnostic prescriptive-
evaluation approach in teaching children with learning disabilities as well as those with mental
retardation. Here, the results of assessment are used directly to draw up an Individualized
Educational Plan (IEP). The long term annual goals that the student can achieve are identified,
and then the short term quarterly objectives are prescribed. Monthly, weekly and daily
instructional plans are written to achieve the pre-set goals and objectives of teaching. Formative
and summative evaluation procedures are employed to track the mastery of the skills.
Topic 9
ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER (ADD) AND ATTENTION
DEFICIT/HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD)
Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) And Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

are conditions in which children exhibit significant differences in the ability to pay attention
and to engage in active work compared to their normal peers. These children lack of saying
things cannot wait for their turn and often engage in dangerous activities. ADD and ADHD are
common characteristics of children with learning disabilities.
There is attention deficit when the child is not able to attend to a task expected of his or
her age and grade level. Hyperactivity is present when the child engages in high rates of
purposeless movement. Impulsivity is displayed through inappropriate behavior.
124
The essential feature of ADD/ ADHD is a persistent pattern of combination of inattention,
hyperactivity and impulsivity that is more frequent and severe, maladaptive and inconsistent
with the developmental level of the child.
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual on Mental Disorder IV of the American

Psychiatric Association DSM IV, APA gives the symptoms and states that either of 1 or 2 are
present:
1. Six or more of the following eight symptoms of inattention have persisted for at least
six months.
a. Often fails to give close attention to details or makes careless mistakes in schoolwork
or other activities.
b. Often has difficulty sustaining attention in tasks or play activities.
c. Often does not follow through on instructions and fails to finish schoolwork, chores or
duties in the workplace.
d. Often have difficulty organizing tasks and activities.
e. Often avoids dislikes or is reluctant to engage in tasks that require sustained mental
effort such as schoolwork or homework.
f. Often loses things necessary for the tasks or activities such as toys, school assignments,
pencil, books or tools.
g. Is often easily distracted by extraneous stimuli
h. Is often forgetful in daily activities.
2. Six or more of the following eight symptoms of hyperactivity - impulsivity

hyperactivity:
a) Often fidgets with hands or feet squirms in seat
b) Often leaves seat in classroom or in other situations in which remaining seated is
expected.
c) Often runs about or climbs excessively in situations in which it is inappropriate
d) Often has difficulty playing or engaging in leisure activities quietly.
e) Is often on the go or often acts as if driven by a motor.
Impulsivity:
a. Often blurts out answers before questions have been completed
b. Often has difficulty waiting turn
c. Often interrupts or intrudes on others, butts into conversation or games. Some
symptoms are present before age 7.
The ADD/ADHD Iceberg
ADD/ ADHD is a complex condition. The condition may range from mild, moderate,
severe to profound and may exist together with other disabilities. While there are observable
symptoms and characteristics, many of the signs are not visible. Compared to an iceberg, where
only one-eight can be seen in the surface of the ocean, most of the symptoms and characteristics
are not observable and remain hidden in the person’s behavior.
125
The Tip of the Iceberg:
The obvious ADD/ ADHD behaviors:
Impulsivity: Hyperactivity Inattention
 Lacks self-  Restless  Disorganized
control  Fidgets  Doesn’t pay
 Blurts out  Runs or climbs a attention
 Tells untruths lot  Doesn’t seem to
 talks back  Talks a lot listen
 Difficulty  Can’t sit still  Makes careless
awaiting turn  Always on the go mistakes
 Interrupts  Doesn’t follow
 Intrudes through
 Loses temper  Distractible
 Loses things
HIDDEN BENEATH THE SURFACE

The NOT so obvious ADD/ ADHD behaviors:
Neurotransmitter  Inefficient levels of neurotransmitter, neropinephrine,
Deficits Impact dopamine & serotonin, result in reduced brain activity on
Behavior thinking tasks.
 Working memory and recall
Weak Executive  Activation,
Functioning  Alertness and effort internalizing language,
 controlling emotions, complex problem solving.
 Does not get restful sleep
 Can’t fall asleep
 Can’t wake up
Sleep Disturbance  Late for school
(50%)  Sleeps in class
 Sleep deprived
 Irritable
 Morning battles with parents
 Doesn’t judge passage of time accurately
 Loses track of time
 Often late
 Doesn’t have skills to plan ahead
 Forgets long-term projects or is late
Impaired Sense of  Difficulty estimating time required for tasks
Time  Difficulty planning for future
 Impatient
 Hates waiting
 Time creeps
 Homework takes forever
 Avoids doing homework
 Less mature
Time to Four-Year
 Less responsible
Developmental Delay
 14-year old acts like 10
Not Learning Easily  Repeats misbehavior
126
from Rewards and  Maybe difficult to discipline
Punishment  Less likely to follow rules
 Difficulty managing his own behavior
 Doesn’t study past behavior
 Acts without sense of hindsight
 Must have immediate rewards
 Long-term rewards don’t work
 Doesn’t examine his own behavior
 Difficulty changing his behavior
 2/3 have at least one other condition
 Anxiety 37%
 Depression 28%
 Bipolar 12%
Coexisting
 Substance abuse 5%
Conditions
 Tourette disorder 11%
 Obsessive compulsive disorder
 Oppositional defiant disorder 59%
 Conduct disorder 43%
 Specific learning disability 25-30%
 Poor working memory
 Can’t memorize easily
 Forgets teacher and parent requests
 Slow math calculations
 Slow retrieval of information
 Poor written expression
 Difficulty writing essays
Serious Learning
 Poor listening and reading comprehension
Problems 90%
 Difficulty describing the world in words
 Difficulty rapidly putting words together
 Disorganization
 Slow cognitive progressing
 Poor fine motor coordination
 Poor handwriting
 Inattention
 Impulsive learning style
 Difficulty controlling emotions
 Short fuse
 Emotionally reactive
 Loses temper easily
 May give up more easily
Low Frustration
 Doesn’t stick with things
Tolerance
 Speaks or acts before thinking
 Concerned with own feelings
 Difficulty seeing others perspective
 Maybe self-centered
 Maybe selfish
Essay No. 6
127
As a future educator, What do you think should have been done by

the school and you as a teacher to help your students with learning disabilities?
 Can you recall one or two of your classmates in elementary or high school who had
learning difficulties? What were their learning characteristics? Their behavior
characteristics? How did the teachers react to students’ poor performance in class?
Were they given special instruction? Were they punished sometimes?
 Write a narrative report and place that in your portfolio.
Group work No. 6
Poster Making Contest on the ADD/ADHD ICEBERG (1/4 illutration boards)
Criteria:
Creativity and presentation 40%
Originality 30%
Relevance to the theme 30%
Further Readings
Who Are Students with Learning and Behavioral Disabilities and What Are Their Academic Needs?
Students with learning and behavioral disabilities have learning disabilities, mild intellectual disabilities, and
emotional disturbance. These are the students who are most likely to be included in your classroom. Students with
learning disabilities are students who achieve less than typical students academically because they have trouble
with processing, organizing, and applying academic information. Students with learning disabilities are of normal
intelligence, have presumably received adequate instruction, and have not been shown to be sensory impaired,
emotionally disturbed, or environmentally disadvantaged. Students with mild intellectual disabilities are students
who have some difficulty meeting the academic and social demands of general education classrooms, in large part
because of below-average intellectual functioning (that is, scoring 55–70 on an IQ test). Students with mild
intellectual disabilities can meet at least some of the academic and social demands of general education
classrooms. Students with emotional disturbance are of average intelligence but have problems learning
primarily because of external (acting out, poor interpersonal skills) and/or internal (anxiety, depression)
behavioral adjustment problems.
128
Students with learning disabilities, mild intellectual disabilities, and emotional disturbance differ in a number
of ways. The behavior problems of students with emotional disturbance are more severe, and students with mild
intellectual disabilities have lower levels of measured intelligence. Students with learning disabilities may have
more pronounced learning strengths and weaknesses than students with mild intellectual disabilities, who are
likely to show lower performance in all areas. Still, the academic and social characteristics of students with these
disabilities overlap considerably. All three groups may experience significant problems in academic achievement,
classroom behavior, and peer relations. to detect neurological differences in children with learning and behavioral
disabilities, the precise causes of these disabilities in individual children are largely unknown because learning
and behavior result from a complex interaction between students’ individual characteristics, the various settings
in which they learn, and the tasks or other demands they face in those settings. It is often difficult to identify the
primary cause of a learning or behavior problem.
Reading Skills
Students with learning and behavioral disabilities have two major types of reading problems: decoding and
comprehension. Decoding problems involve the skills of identifying words accurately and fluently. Accuracy
problems are most readily observed when students read orally, mispronouncing words, substituting one word for
another, or omitting words. Students with reading fluency problems can read words accurately but do not
recognize them quickly enough. They read slowly, in a word-by-word fashion, without grouping words together
meaningfully.
Students who have serious difficulties decoding written words are sometimes referred to as having dyslexia.
The Professional Edge discusses the meaning of this term and suggests instructional approaches for students with
this disorder. Students with learning and behavioral disabilities often have problems comprehending stories in the
elementary grades and content-area textbooks and advanced literature in the upper grades. Although these
difficulties result in part from poor decoding skills, they may also occur because they lack background and
vocabulary knowledge as well as strategies for identifying the key elements of stories and content-area texts.
Understanding Dyslexia
The term dyslexia is used a lot. You hear that a friend’s child has dyslexia, or you see a person who is dyslexic
on television, or you read that Albert Einstein and Thomas Edison had dyslexia. The word dyslexia, which means
“developmental word blindness,” has a medical sound to it, but until recently there was little convincing evidence
to show that it was medically based. Thanks to the development of computerized imaging techniques, such as
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron-emission tomography (PET scan). While specific
chromosomal links have been hypothesized, no definite conclusions about the genetic transmission of reading
disabilities have been reached. Knowing the cause of severe reading problems is one thing; knowing what to do
to help students who have these problems is another altogether. Put very simply, students with dyslexia have
serious problems learning to read despite normal intelligence, normal opportunities to learn to read, and an
adequate home environment. Students with dyslexia have difficulty developing phonemic awareness, the
understanding that spoken words are made up of sounds. Phonemic awareness problems make it hard for these
students to link speech sounds to letters, ultimately leading to slow, labored reading characterized by frequent
starts and stops and multiple mispronunciations. Students with dyslexia also have comprehension problems largely
because their struggle to identify words leaves little energy for understanding what they read.
Students with dyslexia also have trouble with the basic elements of written language, such as spelling and
sentence and paragraph construction. Finally, students with dyslexia may have difficulty understanding
representational systems, such as telling time, directions, and seasons. Dyslexia commonly is considered a type
of learning disability, and students with dyslexia are served under the learning disability classification of IDEA.
It is important to identify students with dyslexia and other severe reading disabilities early, before they fall
far behind their peers in word-recognition reading skills. Early identification is particularly urgent given recent
studies showing that effective language instruction appears to generate repair in under activated sections of the
brain. The use of RtI to identify reading disabilities will likely help schools to identify children earlier than the
traditional approach of establishing a discrepancy between children’s ability and reading achievement. This is
because schools using a discrepancy model often have to wait for children to get older to have a large enough
discrepancy between achievement and ability to be eligible for special education services. In this way, students
who appear to be learning letter names, sounds, and sight words at a significantly slower rate than their classmates
can receive intensive support as early as kindergarten.
A large body of research (Blachman, 2000; Foorman, 2003; McCardle & Chhabra, 2004; Moats, 2007;
National Early Literacy Panel, 2008; National Reading Panel, 2000; Oakland, Black, Stanford, Nussbaum, &
Balise, 1998; Shaywitz et al., 2008; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998; Swanson, 2000) shows that many students
with severe reading disabilities benefit from a beginning reading program that includes the following five
elements:
1. Direct instruction in language analysis. For example, students need to be taught skills in phonemic
segmentation by orally breaking down words into their component sounds.
129
2. A highly structured phonics program. This program should teach the alphabetic code directly and systematically
by using a simple-to complex sequence of skills, teaching regularity before irregularity, and discouraging
guessing.
3. Writing and reading instruction in combination. Students need to be writing the words they are reading.
4. Intensive instruction. Reading instruction should take place in groups of four or fewer and include large amounts
of practice in materials that contain words they are able to decode.
5. Teaching for automaticity. Students must be given enough practice that they are able to read both accurately
and fluently.
Written Language Skills

The written language difficulties of students with learning and behavioral disabilities include handwriting,
spelling, and written expression. Handwriting problems can be caused by a lack of fine motor coordination, failure
to attend to task, inability to perceive and/or remember visual images accurately, and inadequate handwriting
instruction in the classroom. Students may have problems in the areas of letter formation (is the letter
recognizable?), size, alignment, slant, line quality (heaviness or lightness of lines), straightness, and spacing (too
little or too much between letters, words, and lines).
Students with learning and behavioral disabilities also have trouble with. The English language consists
largely of three types of words: those that can be spelled phonetically, those that can be spelled by following
certain linguistic rules, and those that are irregular. For example, the words cats, construction, and retell can be
spelled correctly by applying phonics generalizations related to consonants, consonant blends (str), vowels, root
words (tell ), prefixes (re), and suffixes (ion, s). The word babies can be spelled by applying the linguistic rule of
changing y to i and adding es. Words such as said, where, and through are irregular and can be spelled only by
remembering what they look like. Students with learning and behavioral disabilities may have trouble with all
three types of words. These students have two major types of written expression problems: product problems and
process problems. Their written products are often verb–object sentences, characterized by few words, incomplete
sentences, overuse of simple subject–verb constructions, repetitious use of high-frequency words, a disregard for
audience, poor organization and structure, and many mechanical errors, such as misspellings, incorrect use of
punctuation and capital letters, and faulty subject–verb agreements and choice of pronouns. These students also
have trouble with the overall process of written communication. Their approach to writing shows little systematic
planning, great difficulty putting ideas on paper because of a preoccupation with mechanics, failure to monitor
writing, and little useful revision.
Math Skills
Math also can be problematic for students with learning and behavioral disabilities. Common problems
include the following:
1. Problems with spatial organization. Students may be unable to align numbers in columns, may
reverse numbers (write a 9 backward, read 52 as 25), or may subtract the top number from the
bottom number in a subtraction problem
2. Lack of alertness to visual detail. Students misread mathematical signs or forget to use dollar
signs and decimals when necessary.
3. Procedural errors. Students miss a step in solving a problem.
4. Failure to shift mindset from one problem type to another. Students solve problems of one type,
but when required to solve problems of another type, they solve them in the way they did those
of the first type. For example, Kristy has just completed several geometry problems that required
finding area. The next problem asks for the perimeter, but she continues to compute area.
5. Difficulty forming numbers correctly. Students’ numbers are too large or are poorly formed,
which makes solving computational or algebraic problems awkward, particularly when the
students are unable to read their own numbers.
6. Difficulty with memory. Students are frequently unable to recall basic math facts or use their
working memory when solving problems involving multiple steps.
7. Problems with mathematical judgment and reasoning. Students are unaware when their
responses are unreasonable. They may also have trouble solving word problems
8. Problems with mathematical language. Students may have difficulty with the meanings of key
mathematical terms, such as regroup, formula, intersect, and minus. They also may have trouble
participating in oral drills or verbalizing the steps in solving word, computational, or algebraic
problems. Students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds may have additional
problems learning math skills.
Learning Skills
130
Students with learning and behavioral disabilities have difficulty performing skills that could help them learn
more readily. These include attention, organizing and interpreting information, reasoning skills, motor skills,
independent learning and academic survival skills.
Attention Students may have difficulty coming to attention or understanding task requirements. Students also
may have trouble focusing on the important aspects of tasks.
Students with learning and behavioral disabilities may have trouble sticking to a task once they have started it.
This lack of task persistence is largely due to a lack of confidence resulting from a history of school failure. The
emotional repercussions of school failure are covered later in this chapter in the discussion of the personal and
psychological adjustment of students with learning and behavioral disabilities. Memory problems also may make
learning difficult for students. Some problems occur when information is first learned. Finally, students may also
fail to retain what they learn.
Organizing and Interpreting Information Students with learning and behavioral disabilities may have trouble
organizing and interpreting oral and visual information despite adequate hearing and visual, 2008 skills.
Reasoning Skills Students also may lack the reasoning skills necessary for success in school. Important reasoning
skills include reading comprehension, generalization (the ability to recognize similarities across objects, events,
or vocabulary), adequate background and vocabulary knowledge, induction (figuring out a rule or principle
based on a series of situations), and sequencing (detecting relationships among stimuli.
Motor Skills Some students with learning and behavioral disabilities may have motor coordination and fine motor
impairments
Independent Learning Students with learning and behavioral disabilities have been referred to as passive
learners, meaning that they do not believe in their own abilities; have limited knowledge of problem-solving
strategies; and even when they know a strategy, cannot tell when it is supposed to be used. Being a passive learner
is particularly problematic in the upper grades, where more student independence is expected.
What Are the Social and Emotional Needs of Students with Learning and Behavioral Disabilities?
Considering students’ social needs is crucial, because students who have social adjustment problems in
school are at risk for academic problems as well as serious adjustment problems when they leave school. Students
with learning and behavioral disabilities may have needs in several social areas, including classroom conduct,
interpersonal skills, and personal and psychological adjustment.
Interpersonal Skills
Students with learning and behavioral disabilities are likely to have difficulty in social relations with their
peers. Evidence for these problems comes from more than 20 years of research showing that these students have
fewer friends, are more likely to be rejected or neglected by their peers, and are frequently rated as socially
troubled by their teachers and parents. Many of these problems can be traced to the failure of students to engage
in socially appropriate behaviors or social skills in areas such as making friends, carrying on conversations, and
dealing with conflict.
Personal and Psychological Adjustment

Students with little success at academics and/or social relationships may have personal and psychological
problems as well. One common personal problem is self-image. Students with learning and behavioral disabilities
often have a poor self-concept; they have little confidence in their own abilities. Poor self-image can in turn lead
to learned helplessness. Students with learned helplessness see little relationship between their efforts and school
or social success. When these students succeed, they attribute their success to luck; when they fail, they blame
their failure on a lack of ability. When confronted with difficult situations, students who have learned helplessness
are likely to say or think, “What’s the use? I never do anything right anyway.”
What Accommodations Can You Make for Students with Learning and Behavioral Disabilities?
As you have just read, students with learning and behavioral disabilities have a range of learning and social-
emotional needs. Although these needs may make learning and socializing difficult for them, students with
learning and behavioral disabilities can succeed in your classroom if given support.
Addressing Academic Needs
131
As you have already learned, you can discern whether students with learning and behavioral disabilities need
differentiated instruction by using the INCLUDE strategy to analyze their academic needs and the particular
demands of your classroom. In most cases, students with learning and behavioral disabilities are expected to meet
the same curricular expectations as their classmates without disabilities. Therefore, when differentiating their
instruction, provide them with instructional accommodations rather than modifications. Try the three types of
accommodations described bypassing a student’s need by allowing the student to employ compensatory learning
strategies; making an accommodation in classroom management, grouping, materials, and methods; and providing
Addressing Social and Emotional Needs

One of the most important reasons given for inclusive education is the social benefit for students with and without
disabilities. Unfortunately, experience shows that many students with learning and behavior problems do not
acquire important social skills just from their physical presence in general education classes.
Although much of the emphasis in your training as a teacher concerns academics, your responsibilities as a
teacher also include helping all students develop socially, whether or not they have special needs. As with
academics, the support students need depends largely on the specific social problems each student has. Students
who have significant conduct problems benefit from a classroom with a clear, consistent behavior management
system. In classrooms that are effectively managed, the rules are communicated clearly and the consequences for
following or not following those rules are clearly stated and consistently applied. Conduct problems also can be
minimized if students are engaged in meaningful academic tasks that can be completed successfully.
Accommodations depend on the types of interpersonal problems your students have. You can use social skills
training for students who do not know how to interact with peers and adults.
Accommodating Learners in Math Who Are Linguistically and Culturally Diverse

Math can be a challenging subject for all students, including those with learning and behavioral difficulties.
Students from linguistically and culturally diverse backgrounds may face additional challenges when learning
math.
Trouble Spot Recommendation Learning a new language

• Determine the student’s level of proficiency in both English and the native language.
• Assess math abilities in both languages.
• If a student is stronger in math than in English, provide math instruction in the primary language.
• Listen to the words you most frequently use in teaching math. Work together with the ESL teacher to help the
student learn these words or to help you learn them in the student’s language.
• Use a variety of ways to communicate such as gesturing, drawing sketches, writing basic vocabulary and
procedures, rewording, and providing more details.
• Provide time and activities that will allow students to practice the English language and the language of math.
Cultural differences
• Use word problem situations that are relevant to the student’s personal cultural identity (e.g., ethnicity, gender,
geographical region, age).
• Share examples of the mathematical heritage of the student’s culture (e.g., folk art, African and
Native American probability games, measurement systems

• Involve family and community members in multicultural math.
Tricky vocabulary
• Use concrete activities to teach new vocabulary and the language of math.
• Use only as many technical words as are necessary to ensure understanding.
• Give more information in a variety of ways to help students understand new vocabulary.
• Develop a picture file; purchase or have students make a picture dictionary of math terms and frequently used
vocabulary.
Symbolic language
• Allow students to draw pictures, diagrams, or graphic organizers to represent story problems.
• Make clear the meanings and function of symbols.
• Point out the interchangeable nature of operations.
• In algebra, teach students to translate phrases to mathematical expressions.
Level of abstraction and memory

• Allow students to develop mathematical relationships using concrete representations accompanied by verbal
descriptions.
132
• Develop mathematical understanding from concrete to abstract form.
• Use visual and kinesthetic cues to strengthen memory.
• Keep distractions to a minimum.
Source: From “Realizing the Gifts of Diversity among Students with Learning Disabilities,” by P. Scott and D. Raborn, 1996, LD Forum,
21(2), pp. 10–18. Reprinted by permission of the Council of Learning Disabilities.
Behavior Characteristics of Students with Attention Deficit–Hyperactivity Disorder Inattention

• making careless mistakes
• having difficulty sustaining attention/easily distracted
• seeming not to listen
• failing to give close attention to details in schoolwork and related activities
• failing to finish tasks
• having difficulty organizing
• avoiding tasks that require sustained attention
• losing things
• being forgetful
Hyperactivity
• fidgeting
• being unable to stay seated
• moving excessively (restlessness), including climbing on furniture and other items
• having difficulty making and keeping friends
• talking excessively
• being prone to temper tantrums
• acting in a bossy way
• being defiant
Impulsivity
• blurting out answers before questions have been completely asked
• having difficulty awaiting a turn
• interrupting conversations/intruding upon others
• acting before thinking
• being viewed as immature by teenage peers
• failing to read directions
Sources: Adapted from "Arranging the Classroom with an Eye (and Ear) to Students with ADHD," 2001, Teaching Exceptional
Children, 34(2), pp. 72-81; and "Psychiatric Disorders and Treatment: A Primer for Teachers," by S. R. Forness, H. M. Walker,
and K. A. Kavale, 2003, Teaching Exceptional Children, 36(2), pp. 42-49.
References:
Inciong, T.G. Quijano, Y.S. , Capulong, Y.T. (2020). Introduction to Special Education. A Textbook for College Students-
First Edition
*Friend, M and Bursuck W.D. (2012). Including Students with Special Needs. A Practical Guide for Classroom Teachers-
Sixth Edition
133
Part III
Module VII
STUDENTS WHO ARE GIFTED AND TALENTED
134
OUTLINE
Module 7 Students who are Gifted and Talented is the seventh module in Professional
Education 224. It starts on the Central Concepts of Giftedness and Talent. This is followed by
Human Intelligence, its theories and definition, the multiple intelligence and the groundwork
for a lifetime of intelligence. The Definition of giftedness and talent are presented as well as
their characteristics and its processes which will be employed in assessing children to be gifted
and talented. Creativity ability is considered as central to the definition of giftedness, thus
dimensions of creative behavior will be tackled and their most common characteristics. The
differentiated curriculum and instructional systems are also described.

1. Discuss the nature of the human intellect as expounded by philosophers, psychologist and
educators through the centuries.
2. Enumerate and describe the theories and definitions of intelligence.
3. Enumerate and discuss the multiple intelligence of a person.
4. Discuss the concepts on brain development before and after birth.
5. Enumerate the ways and means by which intellectual development may be enhanced.
6. Compare and contrast the various definitions of gifted and talented children.
7. Enumerate and discuss the characteristics of gifted and talented children.
8. Describe the assessment procedures, curricular programs, and instructional systems for gifted
and talented children.
Contents:

Number
1 Thirty Years of Enhancing Giftedness and Talent
Among Filipino Children and Youth
2 Vignettes on Children and Youth who are Giftedness
and Talented
3 Great People of the 20th Century: Gifted and Talented
All
4 The Central Concepts of Giftedness and Talent
5 Human Intelligence
6 Theories and Definitions of Intelligence
7 The Multiple Intelligence
8 Laying the Groundwork for a Lifetime of Intelligence
9 Definitions of Giftedness and Talent
135
10 Characteristics of Giftedness and Talented Children and
Youth
11 Creativity as the Highest Expression of Giftedness
12 Assessment of Gifted and Talented Children
13 Differentiated Curriculum and Instructional Systems
Quiz
Further Readings
References
Class Discussion
1. Compare and contrast the theories and definitions of intelligence as advanced by the
following proponents, Alfred Binet snd Theodore Simon, Charles Spearman, Lewis
M. Terman, Edward L Thorndike, Louis L. Thurstone, J.P. Guilford, Robert
Sternberg, Howard Gardner.
2. What is creativity? Why is it considered as the highest expression of giftedness?
3. Quote the portion of the definition of giftedness by the authorities under the
following headings:
A. Creativity
B. Intelligence
C. Talent
D. Task commitment
E. Leadership role
 Students will discuss the nature of the human intellect as expounded by philosophers,
psychologist and educators through the centuries.
 Students will enumerate and describe the theories and definitions of intelligence.
Enumerate and discuss the multiple intelligence of a person.
 Students will discuss the concepts on brain development before and after birth.
 Students will enumerate the ways and means by which intellectual development may be
enhanced.
 Students will compare and contrast the various definitions of gifted and talented children.
 Students will enumerate and discuss the characteristics of gifted and talented children.
 Students will describe the assessment procedures, curricular programs, and instructional
systems for gifted and talented children.
136
Module 7: STUDENTS WHO ARE GIFTED AND TALENTED
Topic 1: Thirty Years of Enhancing Giftedness and Talent Among Filipino

Children and Youth
Introduction
Student who are Gifted and Talented
Intelligence quotient scores seem distributed throughout the 1997population according

to the normal curve or bell curve. Approximately 34.13% of a given population fall on standard
deviation above the mean and another 34.13% below the mean. The 68.26 % of given
population are expected to have average mental ability. Meanwhile, there are students who fall
two or more standard deviation above the mean who compose 16% of a given population.
These students are described as above average, bright, superior and high achievers. They
belong to the group who are endowed with intellectual giftedness. It is not unusual for them
for excellent academic performance. Meanwhile, there are students who may not be as
intellectually endowed but who, nevertheless, manifest their talent in many ways.
This module covers the central concepts on giftedness and talent, the theories and
definition of human intelligence with an expanded presentation on the multiple intelligence
theory by Howard Gardner. The groundwork for a life time intelligence traces the essential
concept on the development of the brain. The emerging paradigms and various definition of
giftedness and talent, the characteristics of gifted and talented persons, assessment procedures
and instruction systems are presented as well.
Thirty Years of Enhancing Giftedness and Talent among Filipino Children and Youth
Dr. Aurora H. Roldan, President of the Talented and Gifted Philippines Foundation, Inc. (TGP) and a pillar in
the education of gifted Filipinos children and youth recalled the first step of faith in the Filipino gifted that she
took in December 1973 (Sunday Inquirer Magazine, Feb, 20, 1994). She hosted the Children’s Festival of words,
a creative writing workshop for verbally gifted youngsters. She wrote that such move seemed ordinary then when
the word “gifted” was bandied about very casually. Dr. Roldan did not use the term gifted in the early years of the
children’s festival of words. She simply invited private and public schools to nominate student as CFW
participants on the basic of academic excellence and writing ability. Through the years, CFW discovered a treasure
trove of delightful talents. For one, Lea Salonga joined the Festival as a preschooler 1997. Talented young strata
participated in the workshops.
Dr. Roldan recalled the turning point for gifted education in the Philippines when she organized and hosted the
Fifth World Conference on Gifted and Talented Children in Manila in August, 1983. Gifted education specialists
from all over the world exchanged views on the theories and practices on gifted education. The event provided
the impetus for the establishment of the Talented and Gifted Philippines Foundation, Inc. (TAG-Philippines).
From then on, TAG has actively fought to fulfill its objectives of conducting research on the unique characteristics,
needs and concerns of the Filipino gifted child and his or her family, to help design and implement educational
provisions, both in and out of school, to best nurture such giftedness, and to develop and publish instructional and
reference materials for educators, parents and the gifted youth themselves.
Topic 2
137
Vignettes on Children and Youth Who Are Gifted and Talented
The following articles highlight the achievements of young Filipinos who show advanced cognitive
development, superior intellectual ability and talent in the arts. These children and youth are gifted and talented.
Find out what their characteristics are that make them different from children and youth of the same chronological
ages.
Meet the gifted
Conversations have never been this interesting. Emil Justin Cebrian talks about his admiration for the
wisdom of Confucius, his thoughts on the spread of the SARS epidemic, and his disapproval on the use of
contraceptives – just like any learned, opinionated adult. Except that he is only 12 years old.
Meet the gifted children. “Alam ko naman, higher level ang pag iisip ko kaysa iba,” Justin says, insisting
that “most of the time, I don’t think about it. I’m really just and ordinary kid.” Hardly, According to parents, Fred
and Ceres, Emil, Justin, named after the great French sociologist Emil Durkheim, was already talking before her
turned one. He mastered National Anthem, flags, capitals and Philippines presidents before he turned two. After
several accelerations, the award-winning storyteller of Museo Pambata is now an incoming senior at Arellano
High School and, as usual, gunning for the highest honors. When that happens, he will perhaps be the youngest
valedictorian in the country (Nathalie Tomada, The Philippine Star, May 19, 2003)
Whiz kid
Omar Parrenas Rizwan of East Hanover, New Jersey is a Microsoft Certified Professional (MCP),
recognized and promoted by Microsoft as an expert with the technical skills needed to design, implement and
support solutions with Microsoft products.
His MCP lapel pin, certificate of excellence and official ID card identifies his status to colleagues and
clients, certifying that he has the skill to work in network support for many companies. The thing is, Omar just
turned nine last April. Omar is a computer whiz kind, the youngest Microsoft Certified Professional in the world.
Presently, he is taking a series of exams to become a Microsoft Certified Systems Engineer by the time he turns
ten in April 2004
“I don’t know where that amazing talent came from because there was never a genius in my family.”
says Rizwan’s mother, Lea Parrenas-Rizwan, a registered nurse and natrive of Pototan, Iloilo. My husband is a
physician and he’s smart and intelligent, but not that extraordinary like Omar.” Her Pakistani-American husband,
Dr. Mohammad Rizwan, an internal medicine specialist at New Jersey’s Columbus Hospital, is also an awe of his
eldest son’s advanced computer skills. “Maybe its pure God-given talent,” Dr. Rizwan says. “And he deserves it
because he’s a very good boy and he works hard for it.” Omar, his parents recall, began reading his ABCs at 18
months. At age two and a half, he could identify all car models. At three, he could read traffic signs and tell
directions.
His interest in computers began at age five when his father bought a computer book. “His learning of the
computer was gradual, but his being a fast reader helped a lot,” says Mrs. Rizwan While other kids his age are
throwing tantrums at Toys ‘R Us outlets Omar would rather be at Barnes and Noble, quietly browsing through
computer books. “It’s very seldom that he would ask for a toy. He’d rather read his computer books at home,”
says Dr. Rizwan. But he does have the complete Harry Potter series.
A week before turning nine, Omar took the MCP exam at Infotech Research International, an East
Hanover testing facility. Omar passed the test in half the time – 45 minutes – leaving his fellow examinees, all
adults flabbergasted.“Those are not ordinary exams. Omar must be a very brilliant young mane. The exam is not
the kind of thing that you can just study and regurgitate,” says Dr. Merten, vice president of education for the
138
Chubb Institute, a reputable technical school. The multiple-choice tests ask very specific questions about Windows
KP, such as the best way to configure a computer to run a particular application. Examinees must know all sorts
of computer applications known only in the world of computer geeks. May testing centers offer preparation
classes, but Omar did his own preparation in the confines of his family’s upscale home.
Omar is now preparing to become a Microsoft Certified Systems Engineer. The certification which
encompasses all kinds of subjects from computer hardware to database design and management and network
infrastructure design inquires nine exams. Omar who eventually wanted to be a programmer passed the second
exams in ten minutes. He hopes to pass all nine tests before he turns ten.
His aunt says that despite his enormous talent, he’s a very normal kid. He usually sits on her lap and talks
about computers. He also loves to tease his sisters. But he never brags about his talent. He is not affected by all
the attentions he’s getting. When asked about his favorite TV show, he said he does not like TV and does not
watch it.
Omar, who is a recipient of the 2000 Young Writers and Illustrators Award and a straight A student also
plays chess, piano and soccer. He had become too advanced for his class where he will be in fourth grade this fall.
As of now, even Bill Gates’ men are unsure of what to make of Omar, who is still years away from the legal
working age. (Edmund M. Silverstre, The Philippine Star, July 23, 2003)
Gifted and Talented Filipino Youth
Aliw Award affirms Karel’s Exceptional Gift
When the Aliw Foundation recently gave its Best New Female Artist award to Karel Marquez for
“Magnificat” friends, were especially thrilled, because they had practically seen the popular teen talent grow up
in front of their very eyes.
Passion for Theater
In some TV interview, Karel has said that her love for performing bloomed during those rehearsal and
performances, during which she imbibed the passion for theater that her mother Pinky shared with musical’s other
original performers like Andy Bais, Rito Asilo, Jingle Buena, Dulce and Bodjie Pascua. For our part, we have
always been struck by Karel’s unique Combination of “ Frenchy “ looks and husky singing Voice. We urged
Pinky to give her young daughter opportunities to perform, but it took year before Karel herself realized that she
felt most fulfilled when she was singing and acting.
Career Boost
But Karel’s biggest career boost came when she was chosen over many other auditions for the coveted
slot veejay. Despite all these successes, Karel continues to dream of doing more than just walk-on-roles in
theatrical production. Which is why we sat down with Pinky & Karel to conceptualize a play that will star Pinky
& Karel in a story about a Mother & Daughter, to be mounted early next year. Karel’s new Aliw award affirm
what those who’ve known her for years have long been aware of: That she’s a young talented and genuine gift
and love for performing that will take her far in the field of entertainment. (Nestor U. Torre, Philippine Daily
Inquirer, August 28th, 2004)
Topic 3: Great People of the 20th Century: Gifted and Talented All
In 1996, the editor of TIME, the weekly magazine, published a special edition that
featured the remarkable characters that influenced the forces and great events of the pas one
139
hundred year. Titled “Great People of the 20th Century” the book presents the biographies
and achievements of the most memorable and unforgettable individuals. As stated in the book,
the six sections “Brim with insight into the life and times of an unforgettable gallery of men
and women: the diplomats and the warriors, the scientist and the moguls, the explorers who
surprised us and the artist who moved us” These are:
•The Leaders- The Diplomats and Dictators Who Have Shaped The Destiny Of Nation
American President Theodor Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, Franklin Delano

Roosevelt, Harry S. Truman, John F. Kennedy, Lyndon B. Johnson and Richard Nixon;
Russian Marxist Vladimir Lenin, and Joseph Stalin, Russian President Mikhail Gorbachev,
Chinese Communist Leader Mao Zedong, German Chancellor Adolf Hitler, British Prime
Minister Winston Churchill, French President Charles de Gaulle.
•The Activists- The Men and Women Who Fought For Chance from Outside The
Traditional Hall Of Power
Indian peace advocate Mohandas Gandhi, South Africa President Nelson Mandela,
Israeli President David Ben-Gurion, Ayatollah Khomeini of Iran, German Doctor Albert
Schweitzer, the Dalai Lama of Tibet, Yugoslavian Mother Teresa, American Educator John
Dewey, Italian educator Maria Montessori, American Margaret Sanger, American preacher
Billy Graham, Pope John XXIII, Pope John Paul II, Polish President Lech Walesa, and
Philippine President Corazon C. Aquino.
•The Pioneers- The Men and Women Who Have Dared To Explore New Field and
Breakdown Barriers
American pilot Charles Lindbergh who pioneered the first solo flight across the
Atlantic Ocean, American pilot Amelia Earhart, the First woman to fly the Atlantic solo,
American pilots Wilbur and Orville Wright, French Jacques Costeau who explored the
depths of the oceans, mountains climbers Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norkey, American
Environmentalist Rachel Carson, Viennese father of psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud, Swiss
psychologist Carl Gustav Jung, French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre, American baseball
player Jackie Robinson.
140
•The Innovators- The Gifted Few whose Visions Have Changed Our Lives
American Henry Ford, founder of Ford Motor Co., American Pilot Eddie
Rickenbacker, American Newspaper publisher William Randolph Hearst, American
Cartoon filmmaker Walt Disney, British Economist John Maynard Keynes, Russian David
Sarnoff, the father of mass media, American Ted Turner, Founder of Cable News Network
or CNN. American Computer genius and founder of Microsoft, Bill Gates.
•The Scientist-Searchers Whose Work Has Revolutionized Human Society In The Span
Of Only 100 Years;
Albert Einstein who revolutionized modern physics with his work on the atomic nature
of matter, Polish scientist Marie Curie who discovered radium, Scott doctor Alexander
Fleming who discovered the antibiotic nature of penicillin British Francis Crick and
American James Watson who identified the double helix structure of the deoxyribonucleic
acid or DNA, American Dr. Jonas E. Salk who discovered polio vaccine, American Chemist
Linus Pauling for his work on chemical bond, British mathematician and theoretical physicist
Stephen Hawkins, wheelchair best-known scientist in the World. American Astronomers
Edwin Hubble who proposed the theory of the expansion of the universe, Kenyan born
paleoanthropologist Louis and Mary Leaky who discovered bone fragments of apelike
prehumen called homo habilis, American anthropologist Margaret Mead.
•The Creators- The Artist whose Work Has Shaped And Mirrored The Century;
Spanish visual artist and painter Pablo Picasso, considered as the century’s most
significant artist who created the cubist style of art, German architect Mies Van Der Rohe,
American photographer Alfred Stieglitz, American painter Georgia O’ Keefe, American
novelist James Joyce, British novelist Virginia Woolf, Irish play right George Bernard
Shaw, British stage and film actor Laurence Olivier, stage and film comedian Charlie
Chaplin, Russian neoclassical choreographer George Balanchine, Russian composer Igor
Stravinsky, American jazz band leader Louis Armstrong, American composer George
Gershwin, American Rock and roll legend Elvis Presley, British pop star’s band called the
Beattles compost of bassist Paul MacCartney, lead guitarist George Harrison, rhythm
guitarist John Lennon and drummer Ringo Star.
Topic 4:
The Central Concept of Giftedness and Talent
The prominent men and women from different countries all over the world who have
carved a name for themselves in their respective fields of endeavour, as well as the many other
people who have excelled in their lines of expertise, have four things in common: they possess
the central elements of giftedness and talent, namely, intelligence or high intellectual ability,
creativity, talent, and task commitment.
141
Can you imagine what it is to be like Lea Salonga or Cecile Licad who attained
international fame and brought honors to our country through their outstanding achievement in
the performing arts at a very young age? Or Emil Justine Cebrian, John Santiago Tiosin and
Omar Parrenas Rizwan whose remarkable and impressive academic achievements at early age
accelerated their education? They’re in school indicating that their mental ages are far advanced
that their chronological ages.
How about our National Hero, Dr. Jose Protacio Rizal Y. Alonso Realonda, Who is one among
the geniuses of renown in the world? Not far behind are the other exceptional Filipino heroes whose
intelligence and creative talents showed in the roles they played in the attainment of our freedom from
the foreign conquerors. Likewise, worthy to recall are the many other compatriots and leaders, both rich
and poor, in various fields of endeavors, which pursued their commitment to serve the people through
significant leadership roles, innovative ideas, creative interventions and similar achievements.
Topic 5
HUMAN INTELLIGENCE
The nature of human intellect has fascinated scholars and became the subject of debates,
studies and propositions as early during the time of the Greek philosopher Plato & Aristotle.
When the field of psychology began to emerge in the 17th & 18th centuries as a discipline
separate from philosophy, mathematicians and biology; individuals such as John Locke,
Charles Darwin, Francis Galton and Charcot continued to influence the study of intelligence.
A number of prominent European schools of Psychology flourished until the early part of the
19th Century. Some American Psychologist studied in Europe and returned home to established
influential psychology programs in the United States. The study of intelligence gained
popularity and greatly influenced by the works of Wilhelm Wundt, James McKeen Cattel.
G.S. Hall and Herman Ebbinghaus.
The prominent psychologist of the 20th Century was Edward L. Thorndike, Alred Binet,
Pearson, Charles Spearman, Goddard, Stern, Theodore Simon, Yerkes, LEwis Terman,
Hollingworth, Goodenough, Vigotsky and Jean Piaget.
In the latter part of 20th century, new statistical designs and modern experimental strategies
were developed that made psychological testing popular in most Western countries. The theory
of multiple intelligence began to appear, particularly in the work of Thurstone and Guilford.
The prominent theorists were Burt, Thurstone, P. Cattel, Wechsler, Guilford, Vernon, Hunt,
Anna Anastasia, Thorndike, Inhelder, Taylor and Eysenack.
Current trends in intelligence theory and research involves the formative of more complex
multiple intelligence theories. Standardized tests to measure intelligence are used only as one
of the sources of data about mental ability. The fields of genetics and neurological research
methodologies on the measurements of intelligence has generated a number of factors on
intelligence. Other data are considered simultaneously in determining the intelligence level of
person. Data are derived from the environment, biological factors and psychological aspects of
142
the intellect. The prominent theorists in the present movement include R. Cattell, Carroll,
Jensen, Kamin, Renzulli, Gardner, and Sternberg.
Topic 6
Theories and Definitions of Intelligence
1. The Binet- Simon Scale (1890’s)

The modern approach to understand the concept of intelligence began with the work of
Alfred Binet, a French Psychologist (1857-1911), and his colleague, Theodore Simon (1873-
1961). Binet was hired by the Paris school system to develop tests that would identify children
who were not learning and would not benefit for further education.
Together Binet and Simon developed and co-authored a test to roughly measure the
intellectual development of children between the ages of three to twelve. They wanted to find
to measure the ability of children to think and reason. Binet developed a test that asked children
to follow commands, copy patterns, name objects, and put things in order or arrange them
properly. From Binet’s work, the term intelligence quotient or IQ evolved. The IQ is the ratio
of mental age to chronological age with 100 as the average.
2. Spearman’s Two Factor Theory of Intelligence (1904)

Charles Spearman, a British Psychologist (1863-1945), advanced the two factor theory
of intelligence “g” and “s”. Thus the performance of any intellectual act requires some
combination of “g” or general factor which is available to the same individual to the same
degree for all intellectual acts, and of “s” or specific factors which are specific to that act and
which varies in strength from one act to another.
The theory explains that if one knows how a person performs on one task that is highly
saturated with “g” one can safely predict on level of performance for another highly “g”
saturated task. Prediction of performance on tasks with high “s” factors is less accurate.
3. Terman’s Stanford Binet Individual Intelligence Test (1906)

Lewis Madison Terman, an American cognitive psychologist (1877-1957), published a
revised and perfected Binet-Simon Scale for American populations in 1906 while he was at
Stanford University. In 1916 he adopted William Stern’s suggestion that the ratio between
mental and chronological age be taken as a unitary measure of intelligence multiplied by 100
to get rid of decimals. The resulting intelligence quotient became known as the IQ. The class
formula for the IQ is IQ= mental age divided by chronological age x 100.
4. Thorndike’s Stimulus Response Theory (1920’s)
Edward L. Thorndike, an American psychologist (1874-1949) and his students used

objective measurements of intelligence on human subjects as early as 1903. During the 1920’s
he developed a multifactored test of intelligence that consisted of completion, arithmetic,
vocabulary and directions tests (CAVD). the logic behind the CAVD tests eventually became
the foundation of modern intelligence tests.
143
He drew three broad classes of intellectual functioning:
 Abstract intelligence- measured by standard intelligence tests

 Mechanical intelligence- the ability to visualize relationships among objects and
understand how the physical world works.
 Social intelligence- ability to function successfully in interpersonal situations.
He proposed that abstract intelligence has four dimensions, namely:
 Altitude or the complexity of difficulty of tasks one can perform,
 Width or variety of task of a given difficulty,
 Area which is function of width and altitude, and
 Speed which is the number of task one can complete in a given time.
Thorndike is cited for his work on what he considered as the two most basic intelligence's:
 Trial error; and
 Stimulus response association.
His proposition stated that stimulus response connections that are repeated are
strengthened while those that are not used are weakened.
5. L.L Thurstone’S Multilple Factors Theory Of Intelligence (1938) .
Louis L. Thurstone was an America psychometrician (1887-1955) who studied

intelligence tests and tests of perception through factor analysis. His theory stated that
intelligence is made up of several specific factors his Multiple Factors Theory of Intelligence
rather than a general factor and several specific factors. His Multiple Factors Theory of
Intelligence identified the seven primary mental abilities as:
 Verbal comprehension;
 Word fluency;
 Number facility;
 Spatial visualization;
 Associative memory;
 Perceptual speed; and
 Reasoning.
Thurstone was among the first to propose and demonstrate that there are numerous
ways in which a person can be intelligence. His multiple factor has been used in the
development of intelligence testes that yield a profile of the person’s in each of the seven
primary mental abilities.
6. Catell’S Theory On Fluid And Crystallized Intelligence.
Raymond B. Catell , a British-America psychologist (1905-1998), theorized that are

two types of intelligence:
 Fluid intelligence- is essentially nonverbal and relatively culture free. Fluid
intelligence involves adaptive and new learning capabilities, related to mental
144
operations and processes on capacity, decay, selection and storage of information.
This type of intelligence is more dependent on the physiological structures or parts of
the brain that are responsible for intellectual behaviour. It increases until adolescence,
and then goes through brain’s physiological structures.
 Crystallized intelligence- develops through the exercise of fluid intelligence. It is the
product of the acquisition of knowledge and skills that are strongly dependent upon
exposure to culture. It is related to mental product and achievements and highly
influenced by formal and informal education factors throughout the life span.
Crystallized intelligence continues to increase through middle adulthood.
7. Gulford’s Theory on The Structure of The Intellect (1967).
J.P. Guilford, and American psychologist, advanced a general theory of human

intelligence whose major application or use is for educational research, personnel selection and
placement and the education of gifted and talented children. The theory on the structure of the
intellect (SOI) advances that human intelligence is composed of 180 separate mental abilities
(the initial count was 120) that have been identified through factor analysis.
The mental abilities are composites of three separate dimensions, namely: contests,
operations and products.
The four types of contents are:

a. Figural or the properties of stimuli experienced through the senses visual, auditory,
olfactory, gustatory and kinaesthetic, Examples are shapes and forms, sizes, colors,
sounds, temperatures, intensity, volumes;
b. Symbolic or letter numbers, symbols, designs;
c. Semantic or words and ideas; and
d. Behavioral or actions and expressions of thoughts and ideas.
The five kinds of operations are:

a. Cognition or the ability to gain, recognize and discover knowledge
b. Memory or the ability to retrain, store, retrieve and recall the contents of thoughts;
c. Divergent productions or the ability to produce a variety of ideas or solution to a
problems;
d. Convergent production or the ability to produce a single best solution to a problems;
and
e. Evaluations or the ability to render judgment and decide whether the intellectual contests
are correct or wrong, good or bad.
The six kinds of products are:

a. Units that come in single number, letter or word;
b. Classes or a higher order concept, for example, men and woman people;
c. Relations or corrections between and among classes and concepts;
d. System or the system of ordering or classifications of relations;
145
e. Transformation or the process of altering or restricting of intellectual content; and
f. Implications or the process making inference from separate pieces of information.
Guilford developed a wide variety of psychometric tests to measure the specific mental
abilities predicted by the theory. The test provided operational definitions of the mental abilities
proposed by the theory. The following examples illustrate three closely related abilities that
differ in terms of operations, content, and product:
1. Evaluation of semantic unit or EMU measured by the ideational fluency test in
which respondents are asked to make judgements about concepts, for example; “which
of the following objects best satisfies the criteria hard and round; an iron, button, a
tennis ball, or a light bulb?”
2. Divergent production of semantic units or DMU would require the respondent to
list all the items he or she can think of that are hard and round.
3. Divergent production of symbol units or DPU involves a different content category,
for example: List all the words that end in tion.
8. Sternberg’S Triachic Theory Of Intelligence (1982)
Robert Sternberg of Yale University theorized that intelligence is a fixed capacity of

a person. Hence, with higher intellectual capabilities, as in the case with children and youth
who are gifted and talented.
The Triarchic theory of intelligence seeks to explain in an integrative way the

relationship between:
1. Intellectual and Internal world of the individual, or the mental mechanisms that
underlie intelligent behaviour.
2. Intelligence and external world of the individual, or the use of these mental
mechanisms in everyday life in order to attain an intelligent fit to the environment,
3. Intelligence and experience, or the mediating role of one’s passage through life
between the internal and external individual.
Sternberg calls his theory triarchic because intelligence has three main parts or dimensions:
 A contextual part;
 An experimental part; and
 A componential part.
Contextual Intelligence- emphasizes intelligence in its sociocultural context, thus,

intelligence for a child requires adaptive behaviour (children’s basic cognitive skills according
to Gesell) that is not required of an older person. Similarly, it may be stated that intelligence
for a Filipino child, especially those who are deprived of the basic needs, requires adaptive
behavior that is not required of an American child.
Experiental Intelligence- emphasizes insight and the ability to formulate new ideas and
combine seemingly unrelated facts or information. Sternberg emphasizes the role of
146
experience. He says that the habitual, highly practiced ways of dealing with the environment
are true indicators of intelligence. Rather it is the way a person responds to an event that is
new, novel and even unexpected that shows how smart he or she is.
Componential Intelligence- emphasizes the effectiveness of information processing.

Sternberg defines component as the underlying cognitive mechanism that carry out the adaptive
behavior to novel situations. The cognitive mechanisms are equivalent to the skills, knowledge
and competencies that a person would have acquired mainly through education and experience.
There are two kinds of components:

 Performance Components - are used in the actual execution of the tasks. They
include encoding, comparing, chunking, and triggering actions and speech.
 Metacomponents- are the higher order executive processes used in planning,
monitoring, and evaluating one’s working memory program.
Sternberg has identified six significant metacomponents:

a. Recognition of what has to be done. Understanding the task at hand;
b. Selecting performance components and encoding important features of tasks;
c. Selecting an appropriate mental representation visually or verbally;
d. Organizing performance components by formulating plans for organizing and
sequencing the steps or procedures in the process;
e. Deciding how to allocate attention and resources; and
f. Monitoring one’s performance.
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence (1983)
Howard Gardner is a psychologist and professor at Harvard University Graduate School

of Education and Director of Project Zero. He developed his breakthrough theory of multiple
intelligence or MI. He did a massive synthesis of a lot of research including brain research,
evolutionary research and genetic research. He did brain research on stroke victims, prodigies,
people with autism and even “idiot” “savants.”
Topic 7
The Multiple Intelligence
The MI theory advances that in teaching anything, a parent or teacher can draw on a child’s
many intelligence's which are linguistic, logical-mathematics, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial,
musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalist. The theory rejects the idea of central
intelligence, rather, it subscribes to “each his own learning style.” Gardner emphasizes that MI
is originally not an educational theory. It is a theory on how the mind is organized and
developed.
1. Linguistic Intelligence- is the ability to use language to excite, please, convince, stimulate
or convey information.
147
Indicators of logical-mathematical intelligence are manifested by person who:
 Ask a lot of questions, particularly “why” and “ what if” questions
 Have a good vocabulary, enjoy talking, can spell easily
 Pick-up new language easily, bilingual, trilingual, etc.
 Enjoy playing with words, word games, word puzzles, rhymes
 Enjoy reading, love stories, jokes, riddles
 Like to write
 Can talk about language skills
Linguistic intelligence can be developed through the use of the following activities :
reading fiction and nonfiction, literary work, newspapers, magazines, reports, biographies,
bibliographies, the Internet ; engaging in storytelling, debates, plays, listening to audiotapes,
watching films; writing reports, stories, speeches.
Practitioners who have high linguistic intelligence include novelist, poets, journalist,
storytellers, actor, orators, comedians, politicians.
2. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence- is the ability to explore patterns, categories and

relationships by manipulating objects or symbols and to experiments in controlled, orderly
ways.
The indicators of logical-mathematical intelligence are manifested by person who:

 Want to know how things work.
 Are interested in “if…then” logic.
 Oriented towards rule-based activities
 Play with numbers , enjoy solving problems
 Love to collect and classify object.
Logical- mathematical intelligence can be enhanced with the use of the following
activities; mazes, puzzles, outline, matrices, sequences, codes, pattern, logic, analogies,
timelines, equations, games, formulas, theorems, calculations, computations, syllogism,
probabilities.
Person who excel in the following in professions have high logical-mathematical

intelligence: mathematicians, scientists, computer engineers and programmers, doctor,
astronomers, inventors, accountant, lawyers, economists, detectives, trivia champions.
3. Bodily-Kinethetic Intelligence refers to the ability to use find and gross motor skills in
sports, the performing arts, or arts and craft production.
The indicators of this component of the multiple intelligence's are observed among person
who:
 Have a good sense of balance, good eye- hand coordination
 Have sense of rhythm , graceful in movements
148
 Communicate ideas through gestures, body movements and facial expression “read’”
body languages ,
 Have early ease in manipulating objects and toys.
 Solve problems through “doing”.
The following activities develop bodily kinaesthetic intelligence: role playing,

dramatization, skirts, mimes, body language, gesture, facial expressions, dancing, sports,
games, experiments, laboratory work. Persons who are successful in the following professions
have high bodily kinesthetic intelligence: ballet and folk dancers, choreographers, sculptors,
professional athletes, gymnasts, surgeons, calligraphers, jewellers, watchmakers, carpenters,
circus performers.
4. Spatial Intelligence- is the ability to perceive and mentally manipulate a form or object,
perceive and create tension, balance and composition in visual or spatial display.
Some indicators of this aspect of MI are manifested by person who:
 Like to draw, doodle, sketch.
 Have a keen eye for detail.
 Like to take things apart, like to build things.
 Have a good sense of relating parts to the whole.
 Enjoy puzzles, riddles
 Remember places by description or image, can interpret maps.
 Enjoy orienteering, mechanically adept.
Some of the activities that enhance spatial intelligence are: illustrations, construction,
maps, paintings, drawing, mosaics, sketches, cartoons, sculptures, storyboards, videotapes.
Person who are successful in the following professionals have high spatial intelligence: urban
planners, architects, engineers, surveyors, explorers, navigators, mechanics, curators, map,
designers, fashion designers, florists, interior, designers, visual artist, muralists, photographers,
movie directors, set designers, chess players, cartoonist.
5. Musical Intelligence- is the ability to enjoy, perform or compose a musical piece. The
indicators of musical intelligence are shown by person who :
 Have sensitivity to sound patterns, hum or move rhythmically.
 Capture the essence of a beat and adjust movement patterns according to changes.
 Have good sense of pitch
 Hum tunes can discriminate among sounds.
 Play with sounds, remember tunes and sound patterns
Person who succeed in the following occupations have high musical intelligence :
composers, musicians, conductors, critics, opera artist, singes, rapper, instrument makers and
players, sounds recording artists.
6. Interpersonal intelligence- is the ability to understand and get along with other. The
indicators of this components of the multiple intelligence are observed in person who:
149
 Demonstrate empathy towards others, feel so much for others.
 Are sensitive to the feelings of others.
 Act as mediator or counsellor to others
 Relate well to peers adults alike, like to be with other people
 Are admired by peers, make friends easily
 Display skills of leadership
 Work cooperatively with others
 Enjoy cooperative and group activities.
The types of activities that will develop interpersonal intelligence include group project
and charts, communications, social interaction, dialogues, conversations, debates, arguments,
consensus building, group work on murals and mosaics, round robins, games, challenges and
sports.
People who succeed in the fields of endeavour have high interpersonal intelligence:
Teacher, Social workers. Doctor and nurses, anthropologist, counsellors, priests/ministers,
nuns, entrepreneurs, ombudsmen, managers, politician, salesperson, tour guides.
7. Intrapersonal Intelligence- is the ability to gain access to and understand one’s inner
feelings, dreams and ideas. The indicators of this element of multiple of intelligence are
evidenced by the people who:
 Are goal-oriented, develop plans carefully
 Are aware of their strengths and weaknesses, confident of their own abilities and
accept their limitations
 Are self-regulating and self- directing, do not need to be told what to do
 Motivate themselves to engage in projects
 Work towards the achievement of one’s goals
 Express preferences for particular activities
 Communicate their feelings
 Engage in creative thinking, novel and original ideas
 Keep hobbies, productive pursuits diaries.
The activities that will enhance interpersonal intelligence's include insight and intuition,
creative and critical thinking, goal setting, reflection and self-meditation, self-assessment,
affirmation, keeping journals, logs and reflectionnaires. “I” statements, discussion,
interpretation and creative expression of values, philosophical thoughts and ideas, quotations.
8. Naturalist Intelligence- is the most recent addition to the original lists of seven multiple
intelligence. Naturalist intelligence refers to the person’s ability to identify and classify patterns
in nature. A person uses his or her naturalist intelligence in the ways he or she relates to the
environment. A person who has naturalist intelligence abilities is likely to be sensitive to
changes in flora and fauna, weather patterns and similar environmental factors.
Topic 8
150
Laying the Groundwork for a Lifetime of Intelligence
There are essential concepts on brain development “in utero” or in the mother’s womb that
every special education student must understand (Healy, 1996).
 Life begins in the mother’s uterus eighteen to twenty-four hours after fertilization-
sperm cells from the father and the egg cell from the mother unite to form the zygote,
the one celled organism that will develop for the next nine months into the embryo,
the fetus, and finally will be born as the infant.
 The zygote undergoes meiosis or cell division from two, four, and sixteen until there
are millions of human cells, clusters of which are predetermined to develop into the
central nervous system, the skeletal system.
 The brain cells begin to form as early as three weeks after fertilization had taken place.
 The pregnant mother’s condition and the uterine environment exert tremendous
influences on brain development. There are pieces of evidence that specific academic
disabilities such as reading or mathematical may be affected by hormones secreted
during pregnancy. Poor mental nutrition and lack of protein retard brain growth. A
pregnant woman’s heavy use of alcohol, prohibited drugs, even common drugs for
headaches, heartburn, diarrhea without doctor’s prescription can affect brain
development.
 The natural pattern of brain development shows that the brain is organized in systems
of connections that do increasingly complex functions as they mature mainly from
inside to outside and from back to front.
 The neurons or brain cells begin to form as early as three weeks after fertilization,
multiplying more rapidly than the other cells of the body. A thin layer of neurons in
the developing embryo folds inward and rises to a fluid-filled cylinder known as the
neural tube. The cells produced in the neural tube will migrate to another location and
accurately lay down the connections to link one part of the brain to another.
 Starting at the top of the spinal cord, the fetal brain first develops brain stem structure
of reflexes and basic motor coordination. Rocking movements help develop part of
this complex. The cerebellum and the vestibular system which is linked to the balance
mechanism of the ear undergird the later development of higher cognitive skills.
 Neurons, the future thinking cells, are produced in abundance. Many neurons migrate
to particular sections of the brain to form part of the subsystems that will later control
reflexes, voluntary body movements, perception, language and thinking. Some
neurons fail to attach themselves to any area and disintegrate or disappear. The process
of differentiation and migration determines the future structure of the brain.
 Ten to twelve weeks after conception during the first trimester (3 months of
pregnancy), the neurons that carry electrical messages through the nervous system and
brain send pulsing stacco bursts of electricity. The distinctive coordinated waves of
neural activity change the shape of the brain and curve mental circuits into pattern that
over time will enable the newborn infant to perceive a father’s voice, a mother’s touch,
a colourful mobile moving over the crib. The most breath taking is the finding that the
electrical activity of brain cells changes the physical structure of the brain. For the
151
rhythmic firing of neurons is no longer assumed to be by- product of building the brain
but it is an essential process that takes place in utero.
 The growth spurts in the formation of neurons or brain cells lasts from the second
trimester of pregnancy (4th to 6th month) until the age of two. Meanwhile, glial cells
begin to form and nourish the neurons and hold them together.
The cell systems are the raw materials for the normal development of the brain. Any
disturbance in the process may cause cranial malformation, a learning disability of mental
retardation.
Studies on the impact of the mother’s emotional state on brain development suggest
that pregnancies marked by excessive fear, anger or stress may produce irritable infants.
Intense feelings release chemicals that are passed from the mother’s bloodstream into the
infant’s circulatory system. Children of depressed mothers have slightly altered patterns of
brain activity that may put the infant at risk for depression. Later on, these children may exhibit
difficult disposition, impulsivity, and learning difficulties.
Modern technology makes it possible to study the “seat” of intelligence, the human
brain directly. Neurology or brain investigations that are non-invasive or harmless are done
with the aid of computerized scanners and techniques for measuring the intensity of electrical
impulses or chemical changes. Neurological studies show that conducive home environment
correlate positively with school achievement. Early childhood education influence better
intellectual growth. Research findings indicate that children need different types of learning at
different ages. Early age-appropriate experiences provide little children with a strong base for
the acquisition of later skills.
Experts agree that the infant does not come to the world as a product of heredity or a
blank state at the mercy of the environment. Rather, focus of neurological research centers on
the ways in which genetics and environment should interact for intelligence to develop to the
highest possible level.
Studies show that the interaction between genetic traits and experiences is constant
from the time of conception. Every baby inherits a physical brain structure as well as certain
chemical and electrical response patterns that strongly influence the ways in which the brain
responds to environmental stimuli while in the mother’s womb and after birth. A current study
shows that a child’s personal tempo- the natural pace of responding and the speed of carrying
out activities- seem to be genetically determined.
Topic 9
Definitions of Giftedness and Talent
Through the years, the concept on intellectual giftedness had changed as shown in the
following figure: (Heward, 2003).
Old Concepts Emerging Paradigm
Giftedness is high IQ Many types of giftedness
Trait-based Qualities-based
Subgroup Elitism Individual excellence
Innate, “In There” Based on context
Test-Driven Achievement-driven “What you do is
gifted”
152
Authoritarian “you are or are not gifted” Collaborative , determined by
consultation
School-oriented Field-and-domain oriented
Ethnocentric Diverse
FEDERAL OR AMERICAN GOVERNMENT’S DEFINITION
The first federal definition of the gifted and the talented was contained in the 1972 Marland
Report. Gifted and talented children are capable of high performance and demonstrate potential
ability in any of the following six areas:
 General intellectual ability
 Specific academic aptitude
 Creative or productive thinking
 Leadership ability
 Ability in the visual or performing arts
 Psychomotor ability
The Gifted and Talented Children’s Act of 1978 defined gifted and talented children as
those “possessing demonstrated or potential abilities that give evidence of high performance
capability in such areas as intellectual, creative, specific, academic or leadership ability, or in
the performing or visual arts and who, by reason thereof require services or activities not
ordinarily provided by the school.” the definition encompasses almost all of the areas where a
person can demonstrate outstanding performance.
The 1991 “Report on National Excellence: A Case for Developing America’s Talent”
deleted the term gifted and used outstanding talent and exceptional talent instead. The
definition stated that talent occurs in all groups across all cultures and is not necessarily
revealed in test scores but in person’s high performance capability” in the intellectual, creative
and artistic realms. Giftedness is said to connote “a mature power rather than a developing
ability.”
KEY CONTEMPORARY AND RELATED DEFINITIONS

Renzulli’s Three Trait Definition- states that giftedness results from the interaction
of:
1) Above average general abilities
2) A high level of task commitment
3) Creativity
Gifted and talented children are those possessing or capable of developing this composite
set of traits and applying them to any potentially valuable area of human performance.
Children who manifest or are capable of developing an interaction among the three clusters
require a wide variety of educational opportunities and services that are not ordinarily provided
through regular instructional programs.
Piirto’s Pyramid Model of Talent Development- states that the gifted are “ those
individuals who, by way of having certain learning characteristics such as superior memory,
observational powers, curiosity, creativity and the ability to learn school-related subject
153
matters rapidly and accurately with a minimum of drill and repetition, have a right to an
education that is differentiated according to those characteristics.” Piirto further states that even
if gifted students do not become producers of knowledge or makers of novelty, special
education should train them to become adults who will produce knowledge or make new artistic
and social products.
Piirto’s pyramid model is composed of:
1) A foundation of genetic endowment
2) Personality attributes such as drive, resilience, intuition, perception, intensity, and the
like
3) The minimum intelligence level necessary for function in the domain in which the
talent is demonstrated.
4) Talent in a specific domain such as mathematics, writing, visual arts, music, science
or athletics and
5) The environmental influences of five sun of home, community and culture, school,
chance and gender.
Maker’s Problem-Solving Perspective- incorporates high intelligence, high creativity,

and excellent problem-solving skills. He enumerates the following characteristics of a gifted
person: a problem solver- one who enjoys the challenge of complexity and persists until the
problem is solved in a satisfying way. Such individual is capable of:
1) Creating a new or more clear definition of an existing problem
2) Devising new and more efficient or effective methods
3) Reaching solutions that may be different from the usual, but are recognized as being
effective than previous solutions.
Topic 10
Characteristics of Giftedness and Talented Children and Youth
Highly gifted students, according to Silverman’s studies (1995) have IQ scores 3 standard
deviations or greater above the mean. The IQ score is greater than 145 or 35 to 55 points more
or even higher than the average IQ scores of 90 to 110. Among American children, there is
only 1 child in 1, 000 or 1 child in 10, 000. Silverman found the following characteristics
among these highly gifted individuals.
 Intense intellectual curiosity
 Fascination with words and ideas
 Perfectionism
 Need for precision
 Learning in great intuitive leaps
 Intense need for mental stimulation
 Difficulty confirming to the thinking of others
 Early moral and existential concern
 Tendency toward introversion
Shaklee (1989, cited in Heward, 2003) listed the identifiers of young gifted and talented
children as follows:
154
 Exceptional learners in the acquisition and retention of knowledge:
a. Exceptional memory
b. Learns quickly and easily
c. Advanced understanding /meaning of area
 Exceptional user of knowledge in the application and comprehension of
knowledge
a. Exceptional use of knowledge
b. Advance use of symbols systems-expressive and complex
c. Demands a reason for unexplained events
d. Reasons well in problem-solving -draws from previous knowledge and
transfers it to other areas
 Exceptional generator of knowledge- individual and creative attributes
a. Highly creative behavior in areas of interest and talent
b. Does not conform to typical ways of thinking, perceiving
c. Enjoy self-expression of ideas, feelings or belief
d. Keen sense of humor that reflects and advanced, unusual comprehension of
relationship and meaning
e. Highly developed curiosity about cause, future, the unknown
 Exceptional motivation- individual motivation attributes
a. Perfectionism: striving to achieve high standards, especially in areas of talent
and interest
b. Show initiative, self-directed
c. High level of injury and reflection
d. Long attention span when motivated
e. Leadership-desire and ability to lead
f. Intense desire to know
Topic 11
Creativity as the Highest Expression of Giftedness
Creativity ability is considered as central to the definition of giftedness. Clark (1986)

refers creativity as the highest expression of giftedness. Sternberg (1988) suggests that
creative, insightful are those who make discoveries and devise the inventions that ultimately
change society.
There is no accepted definition of creativity. In his studies on creativity, Guilford (1988)
enumerates the following dimensions of creating behavior:
 Fluency- the creative person is capable of producing many ideas per unit of time
 Flexibility- a wide variety of ideas, unusual ideas, and alternative solutions are offered
 Novelty/originality- low probability, unique words, and responses are used; the
creative person has novel ideas
 Elaboration- the ability to provide details is evidenced
 Synthesizing ability- the person has the ability to put unlikely ideas together
155
 Analyzing ability- the person has the ability to organize ideas into larger, inclusive
patterns. Symbolic structures must often be broken down before they can be reformed
into new ones.
 Ability to reorganize or redefine existing ideas- the ability to transform an existing
object into one of different design, function, or use is evident
 Complexity- the ability to manipulate many interrelated ideas at the same time is
shown
Torrance (1993) found in a 30-year longitudinal study that high-ability adults who were
judged to have achieved far beyond their peers in creative endeavors possess the following ten
most common characteristics:
 Delight in deep thinking
 Tolerance of mistakes
 Love of one’s work
 Clear purpose
 Enjoyment in one’s work
 Feeling comfortable as a minority of one
 Being different
 Not being well-rounded
 A sense of mission
 The courage to be creative
Topic 12
Assessment of Gifted and Talented Children
Similar to the screening and location and identification and assessment of exceptional
children, the following processes are employed:
1. Pre-referral intervention- exceptional children are identified as early as possible.
Teachers are asked to nominate students who may possess the characteristics of giftedness and
talent through the use of a Teacher Nomination Form.
2. Multi-factored Evaluation- information are gathered from a variety of sources using
the following materials:
 Group and individual intelligence tests
 Performance in the school-based achievement tests
 Permanent records, performance in previous grades, awards received
 Portfolios of student work
 Parent, peer, self-nomination
Topic 13
Differentiated Curriculum and Instructional Systems
A differentiated curriculum that is modified in depth and pace is used in special

education program for gifted and talented students. Curriculum compacting is the method of
modifying the regular curriculum for certain grade levels by compressing the content and skills
that high ability students are capable of learning in a shorter period of time. Enrichment of the
156
regular curriculum allows the students to study the content at a greater depth both in the
horizontal and vertical directions employing higher order thinking skills. The differentiated
curriculum goes beyond the so-called “basic learning competencies” or BLC and allows the
students access to advanced topics of interest to them. Meanwhile, acceleration modifies the
pace or length of time at which the students gain the skills and competencies in the regular
curriculum to accommodate the enrichment process.
Horizontal enrichment adds more content and increases the learning areas not found in
the regular curriculum for the grade level. The students go beyond the grade requirements and
move on to study the subjects in the higher grades.
Vertical enrichment allows the students to engage in independent study, experimentation
and investigation of topics that interest them. Social studies and “Makabayan” subjects lend
themselves well to vertical enrichment activities that will give the high-ability students
opportunities to share their ideas in solving related problems at home, the school and the
community.
Most of the special education classes in the different regions of the country utilized the
self-contained class. High ability students are enrolled in a special class that is taught by a
trained special education teacher. Mainstreaming activities are arranged so that the students
can socialize with their peers, share their knowledge and assist in peer mentoring the slow
learners.
Essay No. 7
Individual Work: Answer the question below. Give reasons for your answers and
include relevant examples based on research and from your own knowledge and
experience.Write at least 250 words
What are the outstanding achievements of the talented children and

youth? What makes them different from normal boys and girls?
Tips in Writing Your Essay:
1. Start with an introductory paragraph, with a general statement of the topic in your
own words. Include a sentence which directly answers the question.
2. The main body of your essay should consist of at least two paragraphs which
discuss both views. Each should have a topic sentence and supporting evidence.
Use specific ideas or examples to support the views from the task.
3. In the last paragraph, you should summarize the main points discussed in the body
of the essay and include a solution, prediction, result or recommendation. If
appropriate you may include your point of view in the conclusion.

 Look for references and materials on the great people of the 20 th century-the
leaders, activists, pioneers, innovators, scientists and creators.
157
 Write a brief paper about them and place that in your portfolio.
Group Work No. 7

Slogan: Quote the portion of the definition of giftedness by the authorities under
the following headings: (1/8 illustration board)
1. Creativity
2. Intelligence
3. Talent
4. Task commitment
5. Leadership role
Further Readings
How Can You Accommodate Students Who Are Gifted and Talented?
In addition to students who cannot meet typical curricular expectations, you also will have in your classroom
students who have extraordinary abilities and skills. The term used to describe these students is gifted and
talented. The federal definition for this group of students is stated in the 1988 Jacob Javits Gifted and Talented
Students Education Act (Javits Act, P.L. 100–297), which identifies children and youth who possess demonstrated
or potential high-performance capability in intellectual, creative, specific academic and leadership areas or the
performing and visual arts. The federal definition further clarifies that these students need services in school that
other students do not. However, unlike the services offered through IDEA, federal legislation does not require
specific services for gifted and talented students, and so the extent to which programs exist is determined largely
by state and local policies (Council of State Directors of Programs for the Gifted, 2007). In fact, the Javits Act is
not a funding mechanism for programs for students who are gifted and talented. Its purpose is to provide a means
of coordinating efforts to enhance schools’ ability to serve these students, and its emphasis is on identifying and
educating students who are traditionally underrepresented in programs for students who are gifted and talented
(for example, students with disabilities). Because the provision of service to students who are gifted and talented
varies across the United States, prevalence is difficult to determine. In today’s schools, approximately 6 percent
of students are served as gifted and talented (National Association for Gifted Children, 2008). The reported
prevalence of giftedness and talent is greatly affected by two factors.
First, over the past several years, researchers and writers have offered alternative definitions of giftedness
and questioned traditional criteria for identification that rely on intelligence measures (that is, IQ tests). For
example, Gardner (1993, 2006) argues that measured IQ is far too narrow a concept of intelligence and that a
person’s ability to problem solve, especially in new situations, is a more useful way of thinking about intelligence.
He has proposed that multiple intelligences describe the broad array of talents that students possess, and he
describes these eight intelligences:
1. Verbal/linguistic
2. Visual/spatial
3. Logical/mathematical
4. Bodily/kinesthetic
5. Musical
6. Intrapersonal (that is, self-understanding)
7. Interpersonal
8. Naturalist
9. Existentialist
The second factor that affects the number of students identified as gifted and talented is the notion of
potential. Although some students who are gifted and talented easily can be identified because they use their
special abilities and are willing to be recognized for them, others go unnoticed. These students mask their skills
from peers and teachers because low expectations have been set for them or their unique needs have not been
nurtured. Groups at risk for being under identified include young boys, adolescent girls, students who are so highly
158
gifted and talented as to be considered geniuses, students from racially and culturally diverse groups, and students
with disabilities.
Characteristics and Needs of Students Who Are Gifted and Talented
Students who are gifted and talented have a wide range of characteristics, and any one student considered
gifted and talented can have just a few or many of these characteristics. The following information about student
characteristics is intended to provide an overview of students who are gifted and talented and should be viewed
as a sample of what is known, not a comprehensive summary.
Intellectual Abilities and Academic Skills the area of intellectual functioning and academic skills is the most
delineated aspect of gifted education. Students who are gifted and talented generally have an extraordinary amount
of knowledge because of their insatiable curiosity, keen memory, unusual ability to concentrate, wide variety of
interests, high levels of language development and verbal ability, and ability to generate original ideas. They also
have an advanced ability to comprehend information using accelerated and flexible thought processes, a
heightened ability to recognize relationships between diverse ideas, and a strong capacity to form and use
conceptual frameworks. These students tend to be skilled problem solvers because of their extraordinary ability
to pick out relevant information and their tendency to monitor their problem-solving efforts. The intellectual
abilities of students who are gifted and talented sometimes lead them to high academic achievement, but not
always.
Social and Emotional Needs Socially and emotionally, students who are gifted and talented can be well liked
and emotionally healthy, or they can be unpopular and at risk for serious emotional problems. Affectively, they
tend to have unusual sensitivity to others’ feelings as well as highly developed emotional depth and intensity, a
keen sense of humor that can be either supportive or hostile, and a sense of justice. They often have a sense of
obligation to help others and may become involved in community service activities. Teachers sometimes assign
these students to help other students, an acceptable practice unless done so often that it interferes with advanced
learning opportunities. These students often set high expectations for themselves and others. Because some
students who are gifted have a superior ability to recognize and respond to others’ feelings, they can be extremely
popular with classmates and often sought as helpmates. However, if they tend to show off their talents or
repeatedly challenge adult authority, they may be perceived negatively by peers and teachers and have problems
developing appropriate social.
Behavior Patterns Students who are gifted and talented display the entire range of behaviors that other students
do. They can be model students who participate and seldom cause problems, often serving as class leaders. In this
capacity, students are sensitive to others’ feelings and moderate their behavior based on others’ needs. However,
because students who are gifted and talented often have an above-average capacity to understand people and
situations, their negative behavior can sometimes be magnified compared with that of other students. This
behavior can be displayed through an intense interest in a topic and refusal to change topics when requested by a
teacher. Other behavior problems displayed by some students who are gifted and talented include being bossy in
group situations, purposefully failing, and valuing and participating in counterculture activities.
Interventions for Students Who Are Gifted and Talented Although some school districts operate separate
classes and programs for students who are gifted and talented, you likely will be responsible for teaching these
students in your classroom. Four specific strategies often used to challenge students who are gifted and talented
are curriculum compacting, acceleration and enrichment, specific differentiation strategies during instruction,
and individualized interventions.
Curriculum Compacting Some students who are gifted and talented already have mastered much of the
traditional curriculum content of the public schools, and they may be bored when asked to listen to a lecture or
complete an assignment that does not challenge them. In curriculum compacting, teachers assess students’
achievement of instructional goals and then eliminate instruction on goals already met. The time gained is used to
pursue special interests, work with a mentor, or study the same topic at a more advanced level.
Acceleration In some school districts, you may learn that acceleration is part of the programming available for
students who are gifted and talented. That is, these students may skip a grade or complete the standards for two
grades in a single year. In high school, acceleration may relate to a specific subject. For example, a student with
extraordinary math skills might enroll in advanced coursework in that area while following the traditional
curriculum for English and social studies.
Enrichment Enrichment is an instructional approach that provides students with information, materials, and
assignments that enable them to elaborate on concepts being presented as part of the standard curriculum and that
159
usually require high levels of thinking. This common classroom option requires you to find related information,
prepare it for the students who need it, and create curriculum-relevant alternative activities for them. For
enrichment to be effective, you need to ensure that students have opportunities to complete assignments designed
to encourage advanced thinking and product development, that they do such assignments in lieu of other work
instead of as additional work, and that many learning resources are available to them both in and out of the
classroom.
Differentiation Perhaps one of the most practical approaches you can use for working with students in your class
who are gifted and talented is to systematically plan lessons based on differentiation, the same approach introduced
for your work with students who have disabilities. Recall that differentiation is based on the understanding that
students should have multiple ways to reach their potential. Just as you will analyze the strengths and needs of
students with disabilities and design and evaluate effective ways to teach them, you should do the same for
students who are gifted and talented.
Specialized Interventions All of the previously described approaches may be effective for students who are
gifted and talented, but students who have special circumstances—those who live in poverty, who are from
nondominant cultures or who also, have disabilities—may need even further special attention. For example, some
students may downplay their abilities because academic achievement is not valued in their immediate community
and they fear being rejected. For these students, you may want to find mentors from similar backgrounds so
students see that drawing on their talents can lead to positive outcomes.
Gifted Underachievers
Gifted underachievers may be students who do poorly on tests, do not turn in daily work, or achieve below grade
level. At the same time, they learn quickly when interested, are highly creative, and value projects they choose
themselves. The following strategies help you better match your instruction to the needs of these students.
Provide more flexibility to foster peer and social relationships among students
• Allow students to teach classmates and others.
• Organize multi-age groups across grade levels.
Assist students with successful transitions
• Develop mentor program for younger students by older students.
• Offer transition survival courses when students change grade levels/schools.
• Provide parent education programs about transitions.
Promote empowerment and autonomy for students
• Solicit student input for planning learning activities.
• Include some self-paced/mastery learning opportunities.
• Promote recognition and awards for achievement and effort.
• Provide leadership training and opportunities for students to demonstrate leadership skills.
• Involve students in evaluating school activities and providing and implementing ideas for improvement.
Improve the learning environment for students
• Expand learning beyond the classroom and into the community, including service learning.
• Create ways for students to participate in classroom and school governance.
• Use flexible instructional groups based on needs.
• Create alternative assignments that students do in lieu of traditional classwork.
• Make sure your classroom is culturally responsive, that is, respectful of students’ diverse backgrounds
and needs.
• Promote grading systems that encourage students to continue to try (for example, provide full credit for
work, even if submitted late).
• Enlist the assistance of parents in encouraging their children and helping them manage the stresses of
school.
• Encourage positive confrontation and conflict resolution.
Source: “Gifted and Talented Students at Risk,” by K. Seeley, 2004, Focus on Exceptional Children, 37 (4), pp. 1–9; and
Center for Comprehensive School Reform and Improvement. (2008). Gifted and talented students at risk for
underachievement [Issue Brief]. Washington, DC: Author.
References:
160
Part III
Module VIII
161
STUDENTS WITH EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL
DISORDERS
OUTLINE
Module 8 Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorder is the eighth module in
Professional Education 224. This module starts with a review of personality development and
the factors that contribute to adaptive or maladaptive behavior. The topics covered are
definitions, classifications etiological factors, psychological and behavioral characteristics,
assessment and special education strategies in handling children and youth with emotional and
behavioral disorders.
162

1. Explain the concept on personality development, adaptive and maladaptive behaviour.
2. Define the terms emotional and behavioral disorders and delinquency.
3. Enumerate and explain the etiological factors and potential causes.
4. Enumerate and describe the classification of emotional and behavioral disorders.
5. Enumerate and discuss the characteristics of children with emotional and behavioral
disorders.
6. Describe the assessment tools and procedures in identifying this type of children.
7. Enumerate and describe the educational approaches for this type of children.
8. Design a simple intervention program for a student with emotional and behavioral
disorder.
163
Contents:

Number
1 The Influence of the Physical and Sociocultural

Environment on Personality Development
2 Definition of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders
3 Classification of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders
4 Etiological Factors and Causes of Emotional and

Behavioral Disorders
5 Characteristics of Children and Youth with Emotional
and Behavioral Disorders
7 Educational Approaches
8 Intervention Procedures that Minimize Behavior

Problems
Quiz
Further Readings
References
Class Discussion
1. Explain how the person’s socialization experiences in the following sociocultural
environments influence personality development:
a. Home and nuclear family
b. Members of the extended family
c. School administrators, teachers and peers
d. Church, religious beliefs and practices
e. Neighborhood and community
2. Cite the definitions of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders according to:
a. Eli Bower (1957)
b. Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders (CCBD, 1989)
Compare and contrast the two definitions.
Write your own definition of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders.
3. What are the classification of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders and their significant
indicators?
4. What are the biological and environmental factors that cause Emotional and
Behavioral Disorder?
5. What are the characteristics of children with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders?
6. What are the educational approaches in teaching children with emotional and
behavioral disorders? How do they differ from the approaches and strategies used in
teaching normal children?
164
 Students will explain the concept on personality development, adaptive and maladaptive
behaviour.
 Students will define the terms emotional and behavioral disorders and delinquency.
 Students will enumerate and explain the etiological factors and potential causes.
 Students will enumerate and describe the classification of emotional and behavioral
disorders.
 Students will enumerate and discuss the characteristics of children with emotional and
behavioral disorders.
 Students will describe the assessment tools and procedures in identifying this type of
children.
 Students will enumerate and describe the educational approaches for this type of children.
 Students will design a simple intervention program for a student with emotional and
behavioral disorder.
165
Module 8: STUDENTS WITH EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL
DISORDERS
Topic 1: The Influence of the Physical and Sociocultural Environment of
Personality Development
research and study)
Introduction
There are students who make an indelible mark in school not for their good performance
in academic work but for their undesirable and unacceptable behavior that violates school rules
and regulations. These students are often sent to the guidance office for various reasons like
bad conduct that disrupts class activities, aggressive behavior and physical attack on their
classmates, stealing, lack of manners and respect towards old people as well as peers and
similar behaviors problems. They are referred to as emotionally disturbed, socially
maladjusted, with behavioral disorders or simply behavior problems.
These children find it very difficult to maintain interpersonal relationships with their
parents, siblings, school authorities, teachers and classmates. They tend to violate home and
school rules and regulations and often get into difficult situations. They find it difficult to be
around people.
Descriptions:
The variations in human behavior are influenced by the basic determinants of personality
development:
1. The person’s genetic background or heredity
2. Environmental factors
3. The general patterning of development
A person is expected to follow various social roles demanded by the society. The person
matures in a succession of roles in the life span from being a child, student, wage earner,
husband or wife, parent, parent-in-law and senior citizen. A person conforms to the role
demands if he or she receives positive reinforcement such as money, prestige, and status. On
the other hand, negative reinforcement like punishment, deprivation of status and loss or
prestige leads to nonconformist behavior.
The favorable and unfavorable elements in both the physical and sociocultural
environments strongly foster the person’s value patterns and attitudes. As a result, different
environments shape different personality characteristics. Thus, a person continuously interacts
with various groups and experiences varied interpersonal relationships. He or she participates
in the sociocultural environment in his own unique way beginning with the nuclear and
extended family members, gradually extending to peer groups, classmates, friends and other
significant others in his or her social world.
Personality development is very much influence by a person’s socialization experiences.

He or she interacts with various modes of behavior patterns that cover a wide range of both
166
positive and negative experience. His or her behavior patterns reflect much of his or her
personality traits which in turn generate positive or negative responses from the social groups.
The social reactions vary from acceptance to rejection, inclusion to exclusion and similar
reactions.
Social roles should be clear and comfortable for the person. However, social roles can be
conflicting, unclear and not understood so that the end results are misunderstanding, quarrel,
discomfort, negative feelings and unhealthy attitudes. In such cases, a person’s personality
development and adjustment patterns may be impaired.
It is important to remember that while heredity or genetic endowment provides the

potential for favorable and positive biological and psychological environment, the person’s
way of thinking, selecting options, making decisions feeling and acting are heavily influence
by the physical and sociocultural environments.
Adaptive and Maladaptive Behavior
 Adaptive behavior refers to a person’s behavior patterns that have desirable consequences
and foster his or her well- being and ultimately that of the group. The term well-being
means that the person works towards growth, fulfilment and actualization of his or her
potentials.
 Behavior is maladaptive if it results to negative and undesirable consequences and

interferes with the person’s optimal functioning and growth. The use of the term
maladaptive rather than abnormal puts the focus on the behavior rather than the person
thereby implying the possibility for improvement. Maladaptive behavior includes any
behavior that has undesirable consequences for the individual as well as for the group.
The Patterning of Personality Development
Children’s personality development is shaped differently in different sociocultural

settings. There are specific and interrelated trends in development that are universal in nature.
1. Dependence of Self-direction- the normal progression is seen in the fetus and the newly
born infant who are totally dependent on the mother and family members until the toddler
begins to explore the environment on his or her own. The child develops into the adolescent
and into the independent adult. Bound up with this growth toward independence and self-
direction is the development of a clear sense of personal identity and the acquisition of
information, competencies and values. The end goal of the individual is to be a person in his
or her own right.
2. Pleasure to reality and self-control- early behavior is governed by the pleasure

principle advanced by Sigmund Freud. The human tendency is to seek pleasure and to avoid
pain and discomfort. As the child matures, the reality principle takes over and the child realizes
167
that he or she has to perceive and face reality. This means distinguishing between fantasy and
reality, controlling impulses and desire, delaying immediate gratification in the interest of long-
range goals, and leaning to cope with the inevitable hurts, disappointments and frustrations of
living.
3. Ignorance to knowledge- the infant is born with certain reflexive and instinctive
behavior patterns. The first two years are characterized by the rapid acquisition of information
about themselves and the world. With time, this information is organized into coherent patterns
of assumptions concerning reality, possibility and value that provide a table frame of reference
for guiding behavior. The patterns of assumptions and frame of reference must be realistic,
trustworthy, flexible and relevant to the kinds of problems that the person will face.
4. Incompetence to competence- from birth onward to childhood and adolescence the

person masters the intellectual, emotional, social and other competencies essential for
adulthood. The persons acquire skills in problem solving and decision-making; learn to deal
with others and to establish satisfying relationships. Likewise, the person learns about sexual
and marital roles, occupational, parental and other roles and relationships associated with adult
life.
5. Diffuse to articulated self-identity. The core self-identity gradually emerges as the

infant differentiates himself or herself from the environment. The sex typing responses of
parents and adults produce an awareness of one’s self as a boy or a girl. The reactions and
feedback from people begin to provide the child with a sense of his or her own characteristics
from “good” to “bad.” In the process the child may suffer confusion because the input from the
external sources of information may be inconsistent. Self-defined identity must be in keeping
with the person’s “real” internal characteristics. The significant achievements on one’s self-
identity should be the establishment of a confident gender identity and a reasonable plan for
one’s future life by the end of the adolescent years. The individual who fails to achieve an
articulated self-identity, coherent self-hood and self-direction may bring in-competencies and
immaturities to his or her adulthood.
6. A moral to moral- children learn very early in life that certain forms of behavior are
right , good, correct, while others are bad, wrong and incorrect to do. As they mature, they
learn a pattern of value assumptions that operate as inner guides and controls of behavior which
Freud calls the superego or conscience in the psychoanalytic theory of behavior. Children tend
to repel the good behavior taught to them at the beginning, but soon with increasing maturity
they learn to appraise them and to work out value orientation of their own. The child’s moral
orientation emphasizes a recognition and appreciation of the rights of others and to the differing
views on the nature of reality and decency.
Individuals who are not able to gain the skills and competencies at the right stage of
development become at risk for developing behavior problems, emotional and behavioral
disorders.
168
Topic 2
Definition of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders
While a number of definitions have been proposed, psychologist and special education
experts to date have not agreed on a consistent and universal definition of emotional and
behavioral disorders for the following reasons: (Heward, 2003)
1. Disordered behavior is social construct. There is no clear agreement as to the criteria and
parameters of normal adaptive behavior and good mental health.
2. Different theories of emotional disturbance use concepts and terminology that do not
present a clear meaning of condition.
3. Measuring and interpreting disordered behavior across time and setting is a difficult, exact
and costly endeavour.
4. Cultural influence, expectations and norms across ethnic and cultural groups are often
quite different.
5. Frequency and intensity of disordered behavior is difficult to measure and control in view
of the fact that children behave inappropriately at times.
6. Disordered behavior sometimes occurs in conjunction with other disabilities such as
mental retardation and learning disabilities.
The definition that had the most impact on special education in the United States was
written by Eli Bower in 1957 (Zionts, 2002). He revised and adopted by the US Department
of Education using the term seriously emotionally disturbed. Three factors were considered in
determining if a child is emotionally disturbed: intensity, pattern and duration of behavior.
 Intensity- refers to the severity of the child’s problem. This factor is the easiest to
identify if one is guided with these questions:
 How does it get in the way of the child’s or society’s goal?
 How much does it draw attention from others?
 Pattern - means the time when the problem occurs.
 Do problems occur only during school day?
 Only during math class? Science Class?
 At home? At bedtime?
Answers to these questions may yield very helpful diagnostic and remediation
information.
 Duration- refers to the length of time the child’s problem has been present. This implies
that continuous observation has to be made.
While there is no consensus yet as to its universal definitions, those adopted in the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 1997) and the Council for Children
with Behavioral Disorders (CCBD, 1989) exert the most influence today.
IDEA Definition of Serious Emotional Disturbance (Heward, 2003)
169
IDEA, the public law on special education in America, defines serious emotional
disturbance as:
1. A condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over long period of
time (chronicity), and to a marked degree (severity), which adversely affects educational
performance (difficulty in school).
a. An inability to learn which cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory and health
factors;
b. An inability to build or maintain satisfactorily interpersonal relationships with
peers and teachers;
c. Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances;
d. A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression; or
e. A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or
school problems.
2. The term includes children who are schizophrenic (or autistic). The term does not
include children who are socially maladjusted unless it is determined that they are seriously
emotionally disturbed.
CCBD Definition of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders (Heward, 2003)
In 1989, the Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders (CCBD), the major
professional organization of special educators concerned with children with emotional and
behavioral disorders and the National Mental Health and Special Education Coalition wrote
the following definition that is now incorporated in the public law on special education or
IDEA.
Emotional and behavior disorders are a disability characterize by:

1. Behavioral or emotional responses in school programs so different from appropriate age,
cultural or ethnic norms that they adversely affect educational performance. Educational
performance includes the development and demonstration of academic, social, vocational
and personal skills.
a. More than a temporary, expected response to stressful events in the
environment;
b. Is consistently exhibited in two different settings, at least one of which is
school-related; and
c. Is unresponsive to direct intervention in general education or the child’s
condition is such that general education interventions would be difficult.
2. Emotional and behavioral disorders can co-exist with other disabilities.

3. This category may include children or youth with schizophrenic disorders, affective
disorders, anxiety disorders, or other sustained disturbances of conduct or adjustment when
they adversely affect educational performance in accordance with section 1.
The CCBD definition focuses on the characteristics and special education needs of
children and youth with emotional and behavioral disorders. All other proposed definitions
170
agree that the behavior of children with emotional and behavioral disorders differs markedly
or extremely and chronically or over time from the present social to cultural norms. Special
education teachers focus on the child’s misbehavior and the environmental events that trigger
such misbehavior.
Additional factors are considered in assessing a child who is suspected to be emotionally
disturbed. (Heward, 2003):
 Rate- refers to the frequency of occurrence of behavior per standard unit of time. (e.g.
stands up six times every ten minutes)
 Latency- refers to the time that elapses between the opportunity to respond and the
beginning of the behavior.
Topic 3
Classification of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders
Four System of Classification:

1. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) classification
published by the American Psychiatric Association (1994)
2. Quay’s Statistical Classification
3. The classification derived from direct observations
4. The classification based on the degree of the severity of the disorder
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) classification

published by the American Psychiatric Association (1994)
The DSM-IV is an elaborate clinical classification system consisting of 230 separate

diagnostic categories or labels to identify the various types of the ordered behavior as observed
by psychiatrists, psychologists, mental health personnel and other clinicians in their regular
practice. The classification system lacks reliability as shown in the way clinicians classify the
clients in different categories.
An American Psychiatrist Association, (1994) enumerates three criteria that must be met
in determining the presence of emotional and behavioral disorders, particularly among adults:
 The person experiences significant pain or distress, an inability to work or play an
increased risk of death or a loss of freedom in important areas of life.
 The source of the problem lies within the person, due to biological factors, learned
habits or mental processes and is not simply a normal response to specific life events,
such a s death of a loved one; and
 The problem is not a deliberate reaction to conditions such as poverty, prejudice,
government policy or other conflicts with society.
Quay’s Statistical Classification

Quay’s and his colleagues collected a wide range of data on hundreds of children with
emotional and behavioral disorders. They asked parents and teachers to accomplish rating
forms and questionnaires on the children’s behavior and life histories. The statistical analysis
171
of data revealed four clusters of traits and behavior among children with emotional and
behavioral disorders:
a. Conduct Disorder- is characterized by disobedience, being disruptive, getting into
fights, being bossy and temper tantrums.
b. Anxiety withdrawal/ anxiety disorder- is manifested by social withdrawal,
anxiety, depression, feelings of inferiority, guilt, shyness and unhappiness.
c. Immaturity- shows in short attention span, extreme passivity, daydreaming,
preference for younger playmates and clumsiness.
d. Socialized aggression- is marked by truancy, gang membership, theft, and a feeling
of pride and belonging to a delinquent subculture.
Derived from Direct Observations
Five Dimensions of the child’s display of the disordered behaviors are observed, measured
and analysed:
a. Frequency- indicates the rate at which the behavior occurs and how often a
particular behavior is performed.
b. Duration- is a measure of the length and amount of time a child exhibits the
disordered behavior s.
c. Topography- refers to the physical shape or form of behavior.
d. Magnitude- refers to the intensity of the displayed behavior.
e. Stimulus Control- refers to the inability to select an appropriate response to a
stimulus.
Degree of the Severity
Olson, Algozzine and Schmid (1980) indicate that emotional and behavioral disorders
can be mild and severe. The children who respond positively to therapy and intervention have
a mild level or degree of emotional and behavioral disorders. They can attend regular classes
and work successfully with the regular and special education teacher and the guidance
counselor. Those who have severe emotional and behavioral disorders require intense treatment
and intervention.
Topic 4
Etiological Factors and Causes of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders
There are two factors in the etiology or causes of emotional and behavioral disorders:
biological and environment.
Biological Factors-all children are born with a biologically determined temperament. The
inborn temperament may not directly cause a behavior problem to occur but may predispose
the child to behavior disturbances.
172
Environmental Factors
Home and Family Influences- the relationship that a child has with the parents during the
early years is critical to the way he learns to behave. Frequent parental involvement in
providing for the child’s physical and psychological needs is a significant factor in developing
a healthy self-concept. Parents who create situations in a loving and caring atmosphere to meet
those needs teach their children about norms of conduct and acceptable behavior. Attention
and reinforcement of positive behavior as well as appropriate discipline for negative behavior
in an atmosphere of love and caring help shape desirable patterns of behavior.
School Experiences- Classroom experiences can maintain and strengthen behavior problems
even though the teacher tries to control the situation. The child’s behavior pattern learned in
school is a composite of behavior and attitudes learned at home that interacts with his or her
experiences with different teachers and classmates. Teacher can help children develop
acceptable behavior without knowing the original causes of the behavior problems.
The causes of emotional and behavioral disorders are related to predisposing, precipitating
and sustaining factors in the occurrences of the said behavior.
Predisposing factors - refer to the tendencies and risks to develop emotional disturbances.
Examples:
 physical illness or disabilities
 Shyness
 Hyperactive behavior
Precipitating factor- refers to specific incidents that may trigger the display of emotional
disturbances.
Examples:
 Death in the family
 Abandonment
 Separation of parents
 Other crisis situations
The continuous presence of the predisposing and precipitating factors in the person’s
environment leads to the recurrence of the emotional disturbances. This may or may not trigger
emotional disturbances because of individual differences in the manner by which a person is
able to handle problems and crisis situations.
Topic 5
Characteristics of Children and Youth Emotional and Behavioral Disorders
Intelligence, Intellectual Characteristics and Academic Achievement

The following general outcomes describe the intellectual and academic abilities of these
children: (Heward, 2012)
 Two-thirds could not pass competency examinations for their grade level.
 They have the lowest grade point average of any group of students with disabilities.
 Forty-four percent failed one or more courses in their most recent school year.
173
 They have a higher absenteeism rate than any other disability category, missing
average of 18 days of school per year.
 Forty-eight percent drop out of high school, compared to 30% of all students with
disabilities and 24% of all high school students.
 Over 50% are not employed within 2 years of exiting school.
Social Skills and Interpersonal Relationships

Students with emotional and behavioral disorders often experience great difficulty in
developing and maintaining interpersonal relationships as early as during early childhood. The
problems in acquiring social skills and in maintaining healthy interpersonal relationships
persist through the adolescence period and adulthood.
Antisocial Behavior
These children manifest consistent and frequent disordered patterns of behavior that
violate the rules and regulations at home, the laws of the community and the country. They
show their disdain for society and its norms by engaging in activities that go against others and
property. In the classroom where students are expected to follow certain standards, these
children maintain an out-of-seat behavior, do not complete school work, run around, hit and
pick up fights, disturb their classmates, ignore, talk back to and argue with teachers and school
authorities, complain excessively and distort the truth. They steal, engage in vandalism by
destroying public and private property and keep the company of known goons and criminal
elements. Other characteristics are willingness to commit rule infractions, defiance to adult
authority, and violation of the social norms and mores of society.
Deviant behavior tendencies among secondary Filipino students revealed five

components of antisocial behavior, (Ibanez, 2003):
 Defacing school property;
 Creating assault or abuse toward students and school authorities and personnel;
 Wearing or displaying unacceptable attire and grooming;
 Engaging in activities that interfere with academic performance; and
 Violate school legal norms and policies.
Antisocial behavior patterns from the foundation for the clinical diagnosis of conduct
disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 2000) which are aggressive forms of behavior
towards people and animals, destruction of property, deceitfulness, theft, and serious violation
of rules. In school setting, antisocial behavior and conduct disorders are categorized as social
maladjustment.
Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)

Students or individuals with oppositional defiant disorder consistently go against,
oppose, defy and show hostility towards authority figures. The symptoms are: (APA, 1994)
 Often loses one’s temper
 Often argues with adult’s request or rules
 Often actively defies or refuses to comply with adult’s request or rules
174
 Often deliberately annoys people
 Often blames others for one’s mistakes or misbehavior
 Often touchy or easily annoyed by others
 Often angry and resentful
 Often spiteful and vindictive
Children who display patterns of antisocial behavior very early in life are at risk for
developing more serious and-standing behavior problems in adolescence and adulthood.
Externalizing and Internalizing Behavior Disorders

Some children with emotional and behavioral disorders display externalizing behavior
disorders that violate the rules and norms of society and annoy and disturb other people. Some
common examples are:
 Out-of-seat behavior
 Making unnecessary noise
 Truancy
 Constant talking to self and others
 Disobedience
 Inattention
 Persistent lying
 Constant blaming of others
On the other hand, too little social interaction of children with internalizing behavior
disorders creates a serious impediment to their development. They manifest withdrawn
behavior, lack social skills, often daydream, tend to be fearful of things and events without
reason and may experience serious bouts of depression
Aggressive and Violent Behavior

Aggression refers to acts that are abusive, that severely interfere with the activities of other
people or objects and events in the environment. Examples of the milder forms of aggression
are teasing, clowning around, tattling, and bullying. Severe Aggression includes threat of
physical harm, physical attack, destruction of property and cruelty.
Delinquency
The word delinquency is a legal term that refers to the criminal offenses committed by an
adolescent. Delinquency is a behavior disorder. Studies show that a pattern of antisocial
behavior early in a child’s life is a strong predictor of delinquency in adolescence. Criminal
careers start at an early age, usually by age 12. The adolescence commits more serious offenses
and continues a pattern of antisocial behavior until adulthood. Oftentimes, they are beyond the
control of their parents, family, and friends. Many offenses are brought to court, but others
remain unreported and unknown. Examples of delinquent acts and the crimes they can lead to
include:
Juvenile Offenses Crime
175
1. Breaking in and destroying private
property, attempted burglary, stealing, Robbery
shoplifting
2. Brutalit-beating up a person until he or
she is black and blue, burning a house or Attempted homicide, murder
a person, shooting a person
3. Lascivious acts, touching the private
parts of a person, attempted rape
Rape
especially of children, those with
disabilities
4. Early smoking and drinking, Committing crimes under the influence of
experimenting habituation to prohibited liquor, drugs, drug dependency, drug
drugs pushing
5. Carrying a knife, ice pick Carrying deadly weapons
6. Disorderly conduct Shooting incidents, murder
Topic 6
Assessment Procedures
Identification and Assessment
The procedures are similar to those used in other types of disabilities. Teachers, parents,
peers and other persons report cases of simple offenses like being beaten up, stealing, smoking,
sniffing rugby, and similar juvenile offenses. Screening is done to eliminate children who do
not have behavior problems. The children who show the early signs or who seem to be at risk
for developing emotional and behavioral disorders are identified.
Direct observation is done to determine the frequency, duration, topography, magnitude

and stimulus control of the behavior.
The identification of very young children with emotional and behavioral disorders is more
difficult than that of the older ones. The behavior patterns of younger children are usually
unstable due to the maturation process itself.
The Special Education Division of the Bureau of Elementary School, Department of
Education has developed assessment materials for this particular type of children. Pre-referral
intervention consists of teacher nomination, parent and peer nomination through the use of
checklists of behavior and learning characteristics at home, in school and other typical
environments. A battery of assessment materials are used in the multi-factored evaluation that
covers achievement and intelligence tests, social development and personality tests.
A number of assessment materials are locally available.
 Bautista (2003) developed a Behavior Checklist for the Identification of Pupils with
Hyperactivity from Grades I to IV. The 45- item measure the extent of hyperactive behavior
176
based on the time and frequency rates of temper outbursts, restlessness, shifting from one
task to another, bullying and teasing, fidgeting, oversensitivity, and other related behavior.
 Rigonan (2002) developed an Aggression Inventory Scale for Adolescents that measures
hostility, disobedience, destructiveness, antisocial tendencies and dominance.
 Ibanez (2003) developed the Deviant Behavior Tendencies Scale that determines the range
of deviant behavior as manifested in acts such as defacing school property, assaulting or
abusing students and school authorities, wearing or displaying unacceptable attire and
grooming, engaging in activities that interfere with academic performance, achievements
and violate legal norms and policies.
177
Topic 7
Educational Approaches
The practice of special educators, therapists and psychologists combine certain features of
the conceptual models and develop an electric approach in developing a program for particular
groups or individual students.
Applied Behavior Analysis

The regular teacher and the special education teacher work collaboratively in developing
an individualized education plan (IEP). The aim is to decrease the undesirable and maladaptive
behavior and increase the occurrence of desirable behavior. The behavioral theory and model
of personality development is applied. The theory assumes that the behavior problems have
been learned from his or her history of interactions with the environment. Applied behavior
analysis strategies are employed to help the child learn new, appropriate responses and
eliminate the inappropriate ones.
Teaching Social Skills

Stephens (1992) has developed a curriculum that covers 132 specific social skills for
school-aged children grouped into 30 subcategories under four major areas:
1. Self-related behaviors: accepting consequences, ethical behavior, expressing feelings,
positive attitude toward self.
2. Task-related behaviors: attending behavior, following directions, performing before
others, quality of work
3. Environmental behaviors: care for the environment, dealing with emergencies,
lunchroom behavior
4. Interpersonal behaviors: accepting authority, gaining attention, helping others,
making conversations.
A large number of social skills curricula and training programs are commercially available
in the United States. The skills are clustered in three age-developmental levels- preschool,
elementary and secondary levels. They focus on resolving interpersonal problems, getting
along with others, following directions, handling name, calling and teasing and offering to
help, preventing antisocial behavior, increasing self-esteem, developing competencies in
dealing with peers, family and authority figures.
Alternative Responses
Knapczyk (1992) developed the alternative responses strategy in training four students
with behavior problems to handle or defuse provocative incidents. Instructions consisted of
individualized videotape modeling and behavior rehearsals. Two male students who were
leaders in the school served as actors. One played the role of the subject, simulating his usual
reactions to provoking situations and demonstrating appropriate alternative responses. The
other actor acted out the usual the circumstances of the incidents with their special education
teacher and practiced specific alternative responses. The treatment decreased the frequency of
aggressive acts of the four students across several settings. A concurrent decrease inthe number
of provoking incidents was also noted.
178
Teaching Self-management Skills
Research finding show that children with behavior problems have low self-concept and
believe that they have little control over their lives. The only way they know to handle their
problems is to act out their disruptive behavior. The result is always a feeling of worthlessness
and frustration.
A number of programs no teaching self-concept skills have been developed by specialist
that aim to enable students with behavior problems to have some control over their own
behaviors and over their environment. The special education teacher plays the role of the
external control agent who teaches appropriate behaviors in the resource room that the student
needs to apply in appropriate settings. The student learns to observe and record his own
behavior in different setting. The records are analyzed together with the teacher so that the
student sees for himself the negative effects of his acting out behaviors. Effective ways of
handling the situations are learned and practiced. Good work is reinforced with physical and
social rewards.
Example of teaching self-management skills is seen in the work of Drabman Spitalnik
and O’ Leary (1973). Spot checks showed that the children evaluate themselves accurately
and honestly. Disruptive behavior decreased ad academic achievement increased. The greater
gain of this strategy is the fact that students with emotional and behavioral problems learned
to be responsible for their negative behaviors and they learned self-direction in managing their
social and academic work.
Topic 8
Intervention Procedures that Minimize Behavior Problems
Ecological Intervention (Culatta, et al, 2003) is built on the principle that behavior
problems exist within the child’s environment where a constant global interaction between the
child and the environment occurs. In ecological intervention, initially, the point of encounter
between the child and people or events in the environment is identified. Then the cultural source
of the problems is traced in terms of the people, the cultural practices and other influences in
the community. Finally, an intervention procedure that focuses in the person and the
environment is developed and applied to the problematic situation.
Positive Reinforcement is a universally accepted intervention designed to increase the

display of desirable behavior and to decrease or reduce the opportunity for negatively viewed
behavior to occur through a system of rewards. External reinforcers are immediately applied
when the desirable or preferred behavior is manifested. Negative reinforcement involves the
removal of a negative stimulus contingent upon the desired behavior. In extinction the
reinforcer for a behavior that has been previously reinforced is withheld. Extinction is useful
in reducing the number, intensity or duration of an undesirable behavior.
Rule Setting is an easy and effective way to manage behavior in the classroom. Positive
reinforcement is applied when the rules are followed. When a rule is broken, the teacher uses
body language to send the message by stopping the lesson, eye contact and other ways of
179
showing displeasure. The agreed upon negative reinforcement is applied as a consequence
without verbal cues.
Other educational strategies found to be effective are cognitive strategy and cognitive
model. In cognitive strategy, self-monitoring, self-instruction and self-control strategies are
utilized. The goal is to help the students develop self-awareness and self-direction by using
positive reinforcement for social development and improved academic performance. One
advantage of the self-management cognitive strategy is that it allows the students to generalize
the intervention from one setting to another. The student brings the self-monitoring sheets to
the teacher for approval. The self-evaluation sheets help the students understand what the
undesirable behavior is, when and where it had occurred and what the consequences are.
The cognitive model is also called information processing model and emphasizes
strategies for memory, storage, retrieval and metacognition. A good example is the use of
mnemonics or acronyms to remember a list of concepts thus taught. Another cognitive strategy
is learning prefixes and suffixes to assist the students of ante or before and anti or against then
the meaning of words with these prefixes like anteroom and antipoverty can be analyzed.
Essay No. 8
Individual Work: Answer the question below. Give relevant examples to support your answer.
(write at least 250 words)
Look forward to the time when you would be a teacher of children with behavior
problems. How will you make use of the knowledge that you learned from this module?
Give reasons for your answers and include relevant examples based on what
you learned and from your own knowledge and experience.

1. Start with an introductory paragraph, with a general statement of the topic in your own words. Include a sentence
which directly answers the question.
2. The main body of your essay should consist of at least two paragraphs which discuss both views. Each should
have a topic sentence and supporting evidence. Use specific ideas or examples to support the views from the task.
3. In the last paragraph, you should summarize the main points discussed in the body of the essay and include a
solution, prediction, result or recommendation. If appropriate you may include your point of view in the
conclusion.
180

 Read a research paper on Emotional and Behavioral Disorders.
 Write a brief content knowledge and insights that you have gained and place that
in your portfolio.
Group Work No. 8

1. Cite the definitions of emotional and behavioral disorders according to
A. Eli Bowel
B. CCBD
Compare and contrast the two definitions according to:
 Characteristics
 Chronicity
 Severity
 Difficulty in school
 Need for special education
Write your own definition of emotional and behavioral disorders.
Further Readings
What terminology is used to describe emotional or behavioral disorders?
• The current term in federal laws is emotionally disturbed.
• The terminology of various states and localities is varied and sometimes confusing; it includes a variety of
combinations of terms such as emotional disturbance, behavioral disorder, and social maladjustment.
What is the definition of emotional or behavioral disorder?

• Any definition generally refers to behavior that goes to an extreme, a problem that is chronic, and behavior that
is unacceptable because of social or cultural expectations.
• The current federal definition lists five characteristics, any one of which must be exhibited to a marked extent
and over a period of time and adversely affect educational performance:
• Inability to learn
• Inability to establish satisfactory relationships
• Inappropriate behavior
• Pervasive unhappiness or depression
• Physical symptoms, pains, or fears
• The major points of the definition of the National Mental Health and Special Education Coalition are that the
behavior:
• Is more than a temporary, expected response to stressful events in the environment
• Is consistently exhibited in two different settings, at least one of which is school
• Is unresponsive to direct intervention in general education, or the child’s condition is such that general
education interventions would be insufficient.
How are emotional or behavioral disorders classified?
• Psychiatric classifications are not very useful to teachers.
• The most useful and reliable classifications are based on the primary dimensions of externalizing (acting against
others) and internalizing (acting against self).
What is the prevalence of emotional or behavioral disorders?

• Most studies suggest that 5% to 10% of the child population have such disorders.
181
• Special education and mental health serve only a fraction of those needing help for serious disorders (i.e., about
1% of the child population).
What are the causes of emotional or behavioral disorders?

• Causes are multiple and complex, and seldom can a single cause be identified.
• Major causal factors include biology, family, school, and culture.
How are emotional or behavioral disorders identified?

• Teacher judgment plays the most significant role.
• Most students are below average in tested intelligence and academic achievement.
• Students exhibit externalizing (aggressive toward others) or internalizing (immature, withdrawn, depressed)
behavior or a combination of the two.
What are the major educational considerations regarding emotional or behavioral disorders?
• A balance between behavioral control and academic instruction is required.
• Integrated services are important.
• Strategies that work best include the following:
• Systematic, data-based interventions
• Continuous assessment and monitoring of progress
• Provision for practice of new skills
• Treatment matched to the problem
• Multicomponent treatment
• Programming for transfer and maintenance
• Commitment to sustained intervention
• Service delivery emphasizes inclusion when appropriate and the importance of a full continuum of alternative
placements.
• Instruction should be highly structured and relevant to the student’s life.
• Special disciplinary considerations include functional behavioral assessment (FBA) and positive behavioral
intervention and support (PBIS).
How do professionals assess the progress of students with emotional or behavioral disorders?
• Professionals may use a variety of standardized scales and observations to assess behavior; curriculum-based
measurement is recommended for assessing academic progress.
• Testing accommodations might involve alterations in scheduling, such as extended time, or presentation, such
as having directions read aloud.
What are important considerations in early intervention for learners with emotional or behavioral disorders?
• Early intervention is often suggested but seldom practiced.
What are important considerations in transition to adulthood for learners with emotional or behavioral
disorders?
• Transition is difficult but particularly important because the long-term and employment outcomes for most
students are not good.
References:
Inciong, T.G. Quijano, Y.S. , Capulong, Y.T. (2020). Introduction to Special Education. A Textbook for College Students-
First Edition
*Hallahan, Kuffman, Pullen (2017): Exceptional Learners: An Introduction to Special Education- Pearson New International
Edition 12th Edition
*Heward, W.L. (2012). Exceptional Children: An Introduction to Special Education -10th Edition
*Friend, M and Bursuck W.D. (2012). Including Students with Special Needs. A Practical Guide for Classroom Teachers-
Sixth Edition

182
183
Part III
Module IX
STUDENTS WHO ARE BLIND OR HAVE LOW

VISION
184
OUTLINE
Module 9 Students who are Blind or Have Low Vision is the ninth module in
Professional Education 224. This module takes the students to the world of persons who cannot
see or who can see only a part of the real world. Blindness changes a person’s perspectives and
concepts about the seeing world where he lives. This module covers the definitions and
concepts on blindness and low vision, causes of visual impairment, the special education
provisions for these types of students and the special adaptations that enable them to learn side
by side with their seeing classmates.

1. Describe the anatomy and physiology of the human eye and how the process of vision
takes place.
2. Define legal and educational blindness.
3. Differentiate low vision from blindness.
4. Enumerate and describe the types and causes of the problems of vision.
5. Enumerate and describe the advances in technology for blind persons.
6. Describe the educational provisions for students with visual disabilities
185
Contents:

Number
1 Definition and Classification
2 The Process of Normal Vision
3 Anatomy and Physiology of the Human Eye
4 Types and Causes of Problems of Vision
5 Psychological & Behavioral Characteristics
6 Special Adaptations, Aids and Technology for
Students Who are Blind and Low Vision
7 Educational Consideration
When a Student Who is Blind or Has Low Vision is
8
Mainstreamed in Your Class
Quiz
Further Readings
References
186
Class Discussions:
1. How do professionals define and classify learners with blindness and low vision?
• What is the prevalence of visual impairment?
• What are some basic anatomical and physiological characteristics of the eye?
• How is visual ability measured?
• What causes visual impairments?
• What are some of the psychological and behavioral characteristics of learners with visual
impairments?
2. What are some educational considerations for learners with visual impairments?
3. How do professionals assess the progress of students with visual impairments in academic
and functional skills and make testing accommodations for them?
4. What are some important considerations with respect to early intervention for learners with
visual impairments?
5. What are some important considerations with respect to transition to adulthood for learners
with visual impairments?

 Students will describe the anatomy and physiology of the human eye and how the process
of vision takes place.
 Students will define legal and educational blindness
 Students will differentiate low vision from blindness.
 Students will enumerate and describe the types and causes of the problems of vision.
 Students will enumerate and describe the advances in technology for blind persons.
 Students will describe the educational provisions for students with visual disabilities
187
Module 9: STUDENTS WHO ARE BLIND OR HAVE LOW VISION
Topic 1: DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION
research and study)
Introduction
The two most common ways of describing someone with visual impairment are the legal
and educational definitions. Laypeople and medical professionals use the former; the latter is
the one educators favor. The two major classifications are blindness and low vision.
Descriptions:
Legal Definition
The legal definition involves assessment of visual acuity and field of vision. A person who
is legally blind has visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the better eye even with correction (e.g.,
eyeglasses) or has a field of vision so narrow that its widest diameter subtends an angular
distance no greater than 20 degrees. The fraction 20/200 means that the person sees at 20 feet
what a person with normal vision sees at 200 feet. (Normal visual acuity is thus 20/20.) The
inclusion of a narrowed field of vision in the legal definition means that a person may have
20/20 vision in the central field but severely restricted peripheral vision. Legal blindness
qualifies a person for certain legal benefits, such as tax advantages and money for special
materials.
In addition to this classification of blindness, is a category referred to as low vision

(sometimes referred to as partially sighted). According to the legal classification system,
persons who have low vision have visual acuity falling between 20/70 and 20/200 in the better
eye with correction.
Educational Definition
Many professionals, particularly educators, find the legal classification scheme

inadequate. They have observed that visual acuity is not a very accurate predictor of how people
will function or use whatever remaining sight they have. Although a small percentage of
individuals who are legally blind have absolutely no vision, the majority can see to some
degree.
Many who recognize the limitations of the legal definitions of blindness and low vision
favor the educational definition, which stresses the method of reading instruction. For
educational purposes, individuals who are blind are so severely impaired they must learn to
read braille, a system of raised dots by which people who are blind read with their fingertips.
It consists of quadrangular cells containing from one to six dots whose arrangement denotes
different letters and symbols. Alternatively, they use aural methods (audiotapes and records).
188
Those who have low vision can read print, even if they need adaptations such as magnifying
devices or large-print books.
It’s important to note that even though people with low vision can read print, many
authorities believe that some of them can benefit from using braille. This is why we previously
emphasized that those who are considered blind must use braille to read. Some professionals
think that both the legal definition and the educational definition are flawed because both focus
on limitations rather than skills. Read about a skills definition of blindness in the accompanying
Focus on Concepts box.
PREVALENCE
Blindness is primarily an adult disability. Most estimates indicate that blindness is

approximately one-tenth as prevalent in school-age children as in adults. The federal
government classifies only about 0.05% of the population ranging from 6 to 17 years of age as
“visually impaired,” which includes those who are blind or who have low vision. This is
probably an underestimate because many blind children also have other disabilities, and school
systems are instructed to report only the “primary” condition. So, for example, some students
who are both blind and intellectually disabled might be reported in the just the latter category.
The fact remains, however, that visual impairment is one of the least prevalent disabilities in
children.
Topic 2
THE PROCESS OF NORMAL VISION
The sense of vision is a complex and intricate physiological system. There are three
elements necessary for good vision to take place.
 These are a pair of healthy, intact, and efficiently functioning eyes
 With complete parts,
 Well-lighted objects and images and a healthy brain.
Topic 3
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE EYE
The parts of the eye that we see on the face are only a small part of the total mechanisms
for seeing. The eye is a complex part of the human body that no organ can equal. There are five
physiological or physical systems in vision, namely:
 The protective structures
 The refractive parts
 The muscles
 the retinal and the optic nerve
 The brain where vision takes place
189
The protective structures surround the eye to protect it from harm. These are the bony eye
socket in the skull and the protruding bones in the cheeks and forehead, the lacrimation system
or tear ducts, the eyebrows, eyelids, and eyelashes.
 The eye socket- which contains the eyeball where most of the parts of the eye are found is
comparable in size to a ping-pong ball. It protects the sensitive mechanisms for vision from
trauma, together with the bones of the cheeks and forehead.
 The tear ducts or lacrimation system- protect the eye by secreting fluid or tears that clean
and keep the eye moist.
 The eyelid- moistens and cleans the cornea through blinking.
 The eyebrows and eyelashes -catch foreign bodies that may enter the eyes.
The physical object being seen becomes an electrical impulse that is sent through the optic
nerve to the visual center of the brain, the occipital lobes. Before reaching the optic nerve, light
rays reflecting off the object being seen pass through several structures within the eye.
The light rays do the following:
1. Pass through the cornea (a transparent cover in front of the iris and pupil), which
performs the major part of the bending (refraction) of the light rays so that the image
will be focused
2. Pass through the aqueous humor (a watery substance between the cornea and lens of
the eye)
3. Pass through the pupil (the contractile opening in the middle of the iris, the colored
portion of the eye that contracts or expands, depending on the amount of light striking
it)
4. Pass through the lens, which refines and changes the focus of the light rays before they
pass through the vitreous humor (a transparent gelatinous substance that fills the
eyeball between the retina and lens)
The muscle function is to coordinate and balance the movement of the eyes. They
turn, raise and lower the eyes in response to cranial or brain nerve impulses.
The retina is a multi-layered sheet of nerve tissues at the back of the eye. The retina is the
last part of the neural receptor system for vision. The retina contains some one hundred thirty-
190
seven million light receptor cells called rods and cones. The rods are responsible for night
vision or for seeing objects and images under conditions of low illumination. The most
sensitive part of the retina is the macula, at the center of which lies the fovea, that is vital to
the exact discrimination of the details of an image or object. The optic nerve is connected to
the retina and conducts visual images or object.
IDENTIFICATION OF VISUAL IMPAIRMENT
Visual acuity is most often measured with the Snellen chart, which consists of rows of
letters (for individuals who know the alphabet). For the very young and/or those who cannot
read, the chart has rows of the letter E arranged in various positions, and the person’s task is to
indicate in what direction the “legs” of the E’s face. Each row corresponds to the distance at
which a person with normal vision can discriminate the letters or the directions of the E’s.
(There are eight rows, one corresponding to each of the following distances: 15, 20, 30,
40, 50, 70, 100, and 200 feet.) People are normally tested at the 20-foot distance. If they can
distinguish the letters in the 20-foot row, they are said to have 20/20 central visual acuity for
far distances. If they can distinguish only the much larger letters in the 70-foot row, they are
said to have 20/70 central visual acuity for far distances.
Although the Snellen chart is widely used and can be very useful, it does have some
limitations. First, it’s a measure of visual acuity for distant objects, and a person’s distance and
near vision sometimes differ. Assessing near vision usually involves naming letters that range
in size from smaller to larger on a card that is at a typical reading distance from the person’s
eyes.
Second, and more important, visual acuity doesn’t always correspond with how a student
actually uses his vision in natural settings, which have variable environmental conditions (e.g.,
fluorescent lighting, windows that admit sunshine, highly reflective tile floors).
Vision teachers, therefore, usually do a functional vision assessment. A functional vision

assessment involves observing the student interacting in different environments (e.g.,
classroom, outdoors, grocery stores), under different lighting conditions to see how well the
student can identify objects and perform various tasks (Zimmerman, 2011). Teachers can
sometimes play a key role in identifying students with visual impairments. So they should be
alert to signs that children might have visual disabilities.
191
Topic 4
TYPES AND CAUSES OF PROBLEMS OF VISION
Causes Affecting Children and Adults
When considering both children and adults, the most common visual problems are the
result of errors of refraction. Refraction refers to the bending of the light rays as they pass
through the various structures of the eye. Myopia (nearsightedness), hyperopia
(farsightedness), and astigmatism (blurred vision) are examples of refraction errors that affect
central visual acuity. Although each can be serious enough to cause significant impairment
(myopia and hyperopia are the most common impairments of low vision), wearing glasses or
contact lenses usually can bring vision within normal limits.
Myopia results when the eyeball is too long. In this case, the light rays are in focus in front
of, rather than on, the retina. Myopia affects vision for distant objects, but close vision may be
unaffected. When the eyeball is too short, hyperopia (farsightedness) results. In this case, the
light rays from the object in the diagram are in focus behind, rather than on, the retina.
Hyperopia affects vision for close objects, but far vision may be unaffected. If the cornea or
lens of the eye is irregular, the person is said to have astigmatism. In this case, the light rays
from the object in the figure are blurred or distorted. Among the most serious impairments are
those caused by glaucoma, cataracts, and diabetes. These conditions occur primarily in adults,
but each, particularly the latter two, can occur in children.
Glaucoma is actually a group of eye diseases that causes damage to the optic nerve. At
one time, it was thought to be due exclusively to excessive pressure inside the eyeball; we now
know that some cases of glaucoma occur with normal pressure (Glaucoma Research
Foundation, 2008). It is referred to as the “sneak thief of sight” because it often occurs with no
symptoms. However, glaucoma can be detected through an eye exam; and because it occurs
more frequently in older people (and in African Americans), professionals recommend
increasingly frequent checkups, starting at age 35 (and even more frequently for African
Americans).
Cataracts are caused by a clouding of the lens of the eye, which results in blurred vision.
In children, the condition is called congenital cataracts, and distance and color vision are
seriously affected. Surgery can usually correct the problems caused by cataracts. Diabetes can
cause diabetic retinopathy, a condition that results from interference with the blood supply to
the retina.
Causes Primarily Affecting Children
The three most common causes of blindness in children are cortical visual impairment,
retinopathy of prematurity, and optic nerve hypoplasia. For children, cortical visual
impairment (CVI) is now the leading cause of visual impairment. CVI results from
widespread damage to parts of the brain responsible for vision. The damage or dysfunction can
192
be the result of a variety of causes, such as a head injury or infection. Although researchers are
still refining a description of CVI, a unique pattern of visual responses appears to be associated
with CVI. Some of these responses are an avoidance of looking at new visual information, a
preference for looking at near objects, non-purposeful gazing, distinct color preferences,
attraction to rapid movements, and abnormal visual reflexes.
Retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) results in abnormal growth of blood vessels in the

eye, which then causes the retina to detach. The discovery of the cause of ROP involved one
of the most dramatic medical findings of the 20th century. ROP began to appear in the 1940s
in premature infants. In the 1950s, researchers determined that excessive concentrations of
oxygen often administered to premature infants were causing blindness. The oxygen was
necessary to prevent brain damage, but it was often given at too high a level. Since then,
hospitals have been careful to monitor the amount of oxygen administered to premature infants.
Today, with medical advances, many more premature babies are surviving, but they need very
high levels of oxygen and are thus at risk for ROP. Furthermore, ROP can result from factors
other than excessive oxygen that are related to being born very prematurely (National Eye
Institute, 2010).
Optic nerve hypoplasia (ONH) involves underdevelopment of the optic nerve. The
underdevelopment is often associated with brain abnormalities, such that the child is also at
risk for problems such as speech and cognitive disabilities. The exact cause or causes of ONH
are still unknown.
Retinitis pigmentosa is a hereditary condition that results in degeneration of the retina. It

can start in infancy, early childhood, or the teenage years. Retinitis pigmentosa usually causes
the field of vision to narrow (tunnel vision) and also affects one’s ability to see in low light
(night blindness). Included in the “prenatal” category are infectious diseases that affect the
unborn child, such as syphilis and rubella.
Strabismus and nystagmus, two other conditions resulting in visual problems, are caused
by improper muscle functioning. Strabismus is a condition in which one or both eyes are
directed inward (crossed eyes) or outward. Left untreated, strabismus can result in permanent
blindness because the brain will eventually reject signals from a deviating eye. Fortunately,
most cases of strabismus can be corrected with eye exercises or surgery. Eye exercises
sometimes involve the person’s wearing a patch over the good eye for periods of time to force
use of the eye that deviates. Surgery involves tightening or loosening the muscles that control
eye movement. Nystagmus is a condition in which rapid involuntary movements of the eyes
occur, usually resulting in dizziness and nausea. Nystagmus is sometimes a sign of brain
malfunctioning and/or inner-ear problems.
193
Topic 5
PSYCHOLOGICAL AND BEHAVIORAL CHARACTERISTICS
Language Development
Most authorities believe that lack of vision does not have a very significant effect on the
ability to understand and use language. Because auditory more than visual perception is the
sensory modality through which we learn language, it’s not surprising that studies have found
that people who are blind are not impaired in language functioning. The child who is blind can
still hear language and might even be more motivated than the sighted child to use language
because it’s the main channel through which she communicates with others.
Intellectual Ability
PERFORMANCE ON STANDARDIZED INTELLIGENCE TESTS At one time, it was

popular for researchers to compare the intelligence of sighted people with that of persons with
blindness. Most authorities now believe that such comparisons are virtually impossible because
finding comparable tests is so difficult. From what is known, there is no reason to believe that
blindness results in lower intelligence.
CONCEPTUAL ABILITIES It is also very difficult to assess the performance of children with
visual impairment on laboratory-type tasks of conceptual ability. Many researchers, using
conceptual tasks originally developed by noted psychologist Jean Piaget, have concluded that
infants and very young children who are blind lag behind their sighted peers. This is usually
attributed to the fact that they rely more on touch to arrive at conceptualizations of many
objects, and touch is less efficient than sight. However, these early delays don’t last long,
especially once the children begin to use language to gather information about their. Touch,
however, remains a very critical sense throughout life for those who are blind. As one person
who is blind described it, he “sees with his fingers”.
An important difference between individuals with and without sight is that the latter need
to take much more initiative to learn what they can from their environment. Sighted infants and
children can pick up a lot of visual information incidentally. In a sense, the world comes to
them; children who are visually impaired need to extend themselves out to the world to pick
up some of the same information. Exploring the environment motorically, however, doesn’t
come easily for infants and young children with visual impairment, especially those who are
blind. Many have serious delays in motor skills, such as sitting up, crawling, and walking.
Therefore, adults should do as much as possible to encourage infants and young children who
are blind to explore their environment.
In addition to fostering a sense of exploration in children who are visually impaired, it is
critical that teachers and parents provide intensive and extensive instruction, including
repetition, in order to help them develop their conceptual abilities:
194
Orientation and Mobility Orientation and mobility skills are very important for the successful
adjustment of people with visual impairment. Orientation and mobility (O & M) skills refer
to the ability to have a sense of where one is in relation to other people, objects, and landmarks
(orientation) and to move through the environment (mobility). O & M skills depend to a great
extent on spatial ability. Authorities have identified two ways in which persons with visual
impairment process spatial information: as a sequential route or as a map depicting the general
relation of various points in the environment. The latter method, referred to as cognitive
mapping, is preferable because it offers more flexibility in navigating.
For the child with a visual impairment, constructing an inner map of this new classroom
presents a problem of synthesizing information from the integration of small, local details to
achieve a functional sense of the whole, which must then be largely memorised.
OBSTACLE SENSE Some persons who are blind, when walking along the street seem able
to sense objects in their path. This ability has come to be known as the obstacle sense— an
unfortunate term in some ways, because many laypeople have taken it to mean that people who
are blind somehow develop an extra sense. It’s easy to see why this misconception exists. Even
people who are blind have a very difficult time explaining the phenomenon. A number of
experiments have shown that with experience, people who are blind come to learn to detect
subtle changes in the pitches of high-frequency echoes as they move toward objects. Actually,
they are taking advantage of the Doppler Effect, a physical principle wherein the pitch of a
sound rises as a person moves toward its source.
THE MYTH OF SENSORY ACUTENESS Along with the myth that people with blindness
have an extra sense come the general misconception that they automatically develop better
acuity in their other senses. However, people who are blind don’t have lowered thresholds of
sensation in touch or hearing. What they can do is make better use of the sensations they obtain.
Through concentration and attention, they learn to make very fine discriminations. It’s easy to
overlook just how much information can be picked up through listening and senses other than
sight. The accompanying Personal Perspectives box gives an example of how much a person
who is blind can appreciate about his or her surroundings through nonvisual information.
Another common belief is that people who are blind automatically have superior musical
talent. Some do embark on musical careers, but this is because music is an area in which they
can achieve success.
Academic Achievement Most professionals agree that direct comparisons of the academic
achievement of students who are blind with that of sighted students must be interpreted
cautiously because the two groups must be tested under different conditions. Some
achievement tests, however, are available in braille and large-print forms.
Social Adjustment Most people with visual impairment are socially well adjusted. However,
the road to social adjustment for people with visual impairment may be a bit more difficult for
two reasons.
195
Topic 6
SPECIAL ADAPATATIONS, AIDS AND TECHNOLOGY FOR STUDENTS WHO

ARE BLIND AND LOW VISION
Lack of sight can severely limit a person’s experiences because a primary means of
obtaining information from the environment is not available. Making the situation even more
difficult, educational experiences in the typical classroom are frequently visual. Nevertheless,
most experts agree that, in many ways, students who are visually impaired should be educated
in the same general way as sighted children. However, teachers need to make some important
modifications. The most important difference is that students with visual impairment have to
rely on other sensory modalities to acquire information.
The student with little or no sight will possibly require special modifications in four major
areas:
(1) braille,
(2) use of remaining sight,
(3) listening skills, and
(4) O & M training.
The first three pertain directly to academic education, particularly reading; the last refers
to skills needed for everyday living.
Braille In 19th-century France, Louis Braille introduced a system of reading and writing for
people who, like him, were blind. Although not the first method that was developed, Braille’s
was the one that became widely used. Even his system, however, was not adopted for several
years after he invented it.
One braille code, called literary braille, is used for most everyday situations; other codes
are available for more technical reading and writing. The Nemeth Code, for example, is used
for mathematical and scientific symbols. Some authorities support adoption of Unified English
Braille, which combines these several codes into one.
The basic unit of braille is a quadrangular cell, containing from one to six dots. Different
patterns of dots represent letters, numbers, and even punctuation marks. Although there is one
braille symbol for each letter of the alphabet, braille also consists of a number of contractions
196
whereby one symbol can stand for a word or a part of a word. Using contractions leads to faster
reading and reduces the space and time required to transcribe braille.
There are variations on the two-handed method. One common way is for both hands to
read together until near the end of the line, at which time the right hand continues to read along
while the left hand slips down to the start of the next line, with the right hand then joining the
left hand to start that next line.
Two basic means of writing in braille are the Perkins Brailler and the slate and stylus.
The Perkins Brailler has six keys, one for each of the six dots of the cell. When depressed
simultaneously, the keys leave an embossed print on the paper. More portable than the Perkins
Brailler is the slate and stylus.
 The stylus—a pen-shaped instrument—is pressed through the opening of the slate,
which holds the paper between its two halves. To learn braille to lead independent lives.
Bolstering their argument is research indicating that adults who had learned braille in
childhood as their primary medium for reading were employed at almost twice the rate of
those who had used print as their primary medium.
 A way of ensuring that braille becomes more readily available is through braille bills, now
on the books in most states. Although the specific provisions of these bills vary from state
to state, the National Federation of the Blind (NFB), a major proponent of braille bills, has
drafted a model bill that specifies two important components:
1. Braille must be available for students if any members of the individualized education
program (IEP) team, including parents, indicate that it is needed.
2. Teachers of students with visual impairment need to be proficient in braille.
Federal law now reinforces the first component. The Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA) specifies that braille services and instruction are to be a part of the IEP
unless all members of the team, including parents, agree that braille should not be used.
Authorities now recommend that some students with low vision who can read large print or
print with magnification should also be taught braille. Many students with low vision will
experience deteriorating vision over the years. Learning braille at an early age prepares them
for the time when their eyesight no longer allows them to read print.
Topic 7
EDUCATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
Use of Remaining Sight
Two visual methods of aiding children with visual impairment to read print are largeprint
books and magnifying devices.
1. Large-print books are simply books printed in largersize type. The text in this book,
printed primarily for sighted readers, is printed in 10-point type. Type sizes for
readers with visual impairment may range up to 30-point type. The major
197
difficulty with large-print books is that they are bigger than usual and therefore
require a great deal of storage space.
This is an example of 10-pt. type.

2. Magnifying devices can be for close vision or distance vision. They can be
portable, such as handheld magnifiers, monocular telescopes, or binocular
telescopes that sit on eyeglass-type frames. Or they can be tabletop closed-
circuit television scanners that present enlarged images on a TV screen.
Listening Skills The importance of listening skills for children who are blind cannot be
overemphasized. Society tends to assume that listening skills will develop automatically in
children who are blind. However, authorities agree that in most cases these children must be
taught how to listen. In addition, teachers should provide a classroom environment as free from
auditory distractions as possible. Listening skills are becoming more important than ever
because of the increasing accessibility of recorded material. Listeners can play the material at
normal speed, or they can use a compressed-speech device that allows them to listen at about
250 to 275 words per minute. This method works by discarding very small segments of the
speech. Some of the more sophisticated compressed-speech devices use a computer to
eliminate those speech sounds that are least necessary for comprehension.
Orientation and Mobility Training The importance of O & M training can’t be

overemphasized. The ability of people with a visual disability to navigate their environment
determines significantly their level of independence and social integration. Societal changes
have made being a pedestrian—with or without blindness—even more challenging
Four general methods aid the O & M of people with visual impairment:
 The long cane,
 Guide dogs,
 Tactile maps, and
 Human guides.
THE LONG CANE Professionals most often recommend the long cane for those individuals
with visual impairments who need a mobility aid. It is called a long cane because it’s much
longer than the canes typically used for support or balance. The optimum length of the cane
should be about 1 1⁄2 inches above the lowest part of the sternum (the vertical bone in the
middle of the chest). Long canes can be straight, folded, or telescopic; the last two types are
more compact but not as sturdy as the straight cane. The user receives auditory and tactual
information about the environment by moving the cane along the ground. It can alert the user
198
to drop-offs such as potholes or stairs, and can help to protect the lower part of the body from
collision with objects.
GUIDE DOGS Guide dogs are not as popular an option as most people tend to think. First,
the dogs need to undergo extensive training. For example, among other things, they must learn
the following:
• Keep on a direct route, ignoring distractions such as smells, other animals, and
people.
• Maintain a steady pace, to the left and just ahead of the handler.
• Stop at all curbs until told to proceed.
• Turn left and right, moves forward and stop on command.
• Recognize and avoid obstacles that the handler won’t be able to fit through (narrow
passages and low overheads).
• Stop at the bottom and top of stairs until told to proceed.
• Bring the handler to elevator buttons.
• Lie quietly when the handler is sitting down.
• Help the handler to board and move around buses, subways, and other forms of
public transportation.
• Obey a number of verbal commands. (Harris, 2010)
Second, extensive training is required to learn how to use guide dogs properly. The
extended training—as well as the facts that guide dogs are large, walk relatively fast, and need
to be cared for—make them particularly questionable for children. Also, contrary to what most
people think, the guide dog does not “take” the person who is blind anywhere. The person
usually needs to know where he is going. The dog can be a safeguard against walking into
dangerous areas.
People who are sighted should keep in mind a few guidelines pertaining to guide dogs and
their owners (Ulrey, 1994):
1. Although it might be tempting to pet a guide dog, you should do so only after asking
the owner’s permission. Guide dogs are not just pets; they are working for their owner.
2. If someone with a guide dog appears to need help, approach on the right side (guide
dogs are almost always on the left side) to offer assistance.
3. Do not take hold of the dog’s harness, as this may confuse the dog and the owner.
TACTILE MAPS Tactile maps are embossed representations of the environment. People
who are blind can orient themselves to their surroundings by touching raised symbols
representing streets, sidewalks, buildings, and so forth. These maps can be displayed in public
places, or more portable versions can be made from a type of paper. Embossment, or raised
symbols, has also been used to help people who are blind to appreciate environments that are
considerably vaster than what are found locally.
HUMAN GUIDES Human guides undoubtedly enable people with visual impairment to have
the greatest freedom in moving about safely. The use of a human guide is warranted. Most
people who are blind who travel unaccompanied don’t need help from those around them.
199
However, if a person with visual impairment looks as though he needs assistance, you should
first ask if help is wanted. If physical guidance is required, allow the person to hold onto your
arm above the elbow and to walk a half-step behind you. Sighted people tend to grasp the arms
of people with visual impairments and to sort of push them in the direction they are heading.
Technological Aids Visual impairment is perhaps the disability area in which the most
technological advances have been made. The infusion of technology has occurred primarily in
two general areas:
(1) communication and information access and
(2) O & M. In addition, some highly experimental research has been conducted on
artificial vision.
TECHNOLOGICAL AIDS FOR COMMUNICATION AND INFORMATION

ACCESS
Computers and software are available that convert printed material into synthesized speech
or braille. One such device is the Kurzweil 1000™. The user places the material on a scanner
that reads the material with an electronic voice or renders it in braille. TheKurzweil 1000™
and other Kurzweil products can also be used by students with reading disabilities. The
machines are compatible with MP3 players and other devices, such as portable braille
notetakers.
Portable braille notetakers can serve the same function as the Perkins Brailler or slate
and stylus, but they offer additional speech-synthesizer and word-processing capabilities. The
user enters information with a braille keyboard and can transfer the information into a larger
computer, review it using a speech synthesizer or braille display, or print it in braille or text.
Millions of people now own hand-held personal data assistants (PDAs) and cell phones. Some
manufacturers have responded to the need to make these accessible for people with disabilities,
such as blindness, by developing “talking” cell phones and PDAs. Some additional features
they’ve included are voice recognition, audio cues for main functions, and keys more easily
distinguishable by touch.
Two services available for those who are visually impaired are Newsline® and Descriptive
Video Service. NFB-Newsline®, a free service available through the NFB, allows individuals
to access magazines and newspapers 24 hours a day from any touch-tone telephone.
Descriptive Video Service® inserts a narrated description of key visual features of

programs on television. It is also available in some movie theaters as well as some movies on
videotape or DVD. Great strides have been made in recent years to make computers and the
World Wide Web more accessible for people with disabilities, including those who have visual
impairments. With respect to computer software, screen readers (such as JAWS® for
Windows®) can magnify information on the screen, convert on-screen text to speech, or do
both.
200
TECHNOLOGICAL AIDS FOR ORIENTATION AND MOBILITY
Researchers have developed a number of sophisticated electronic devices for sensing

objects in the environment, including the laser cane and the Miniguide. These devices operate
on the principle that human beings can learn to locate objects by means of echoes, much as
bats do.
1. The laser cane can be used in the same way as the long cane or as a sensing device that
emits beams of infrared light, which are converted into sound after they strike objects in the
path of the traveler.
2.The Miniguide is a small (2-ounces), hand-held device. Research has shown that the
Miniguide is useful for such things as avoiding obstacles, locating doorways, avoiding park
benches and poles, and detecting overhanging obstacles. However, it doesn’t detect dropoffs
so it’s not meant to be used alone without also using some other aid such as a long cane.
Software is available that allows people who are blind to take advantage of information
obtained from the Global Positioning System (GPS). More than two dozen GPS satellites are
constantly circling the earth and sending back signals, which can be picked up by hand-held
receivers. Combining this information with an expanding data base of several million
geographic points in the United States, the GPS allows users to determine their whereabouts
with considerable accuracy. The BrailleNote GPS converts the GPS signals to braille. The
makers of the BrailleNote GPS have entered 12 million points into the device.
In addition, users can enter their own information into the device so that they can plan their
routes to and from various sites. Researchers have also made considerable progress in
developing an artificial vision system for people who are blind. Several techniques are in the
experimental stages, with different parts of the eye or brain the focus of the prosthesis, for
example, the retina, the cornea, the visual cortex of the brain (Visual Prosthesis, 2010). These
surgeries are extremely complicated, and the results are highly variable. Even when the surgery
is successful, those who have been blind since birth or from a very young age can find it
overwhelming to adjust to the flood of visual sensations. See the accompanying Personal
Perspectives feature describing the experiences of Mike May, who underwent such a surgery.
CAUTIONS ABOUT TECHNOLOGY
Words of caution are in order in considering the use of computerized and electronic
devices. Supporters of braille argue that although tape recorders, computers, and other
technological devices can contribute much to reading and acquiring information, these devices
cannot replace braille.
For example:
1. Finding a specific section of a text and “skimming” are difficult with a tape
recording, but these kinds of activities are possible when using braille.
201
2. Taking notes for class, reading a speech, and looking up words in a dictionary
are all easier when using braille than when using a tape recorder.
3. Braille proponents are especially concerned that the slate and stylus be
preserved as a viable method of taking notes.
4. They point out that just as computers have not replaced paper and pen or pencil
for people who are sighted, neither can computers take the place of the slate and
stylus for people who are blind.
Technological devices designed for orientation and mobility also have limitations. They
are best viewed as potential secondary O & M aids. They are not appropriate as substitutes for
the long cane, for example. Although technology might not be the answer to all the difficulties
faced by people who are blind, there is no doubt that technology can make their lives easier
and more productive. And as technologies develop for society in general, it is important that
those who are visually impaired be able to take advantage of them.
ASSESSMENT OF PROGRESS
Teachers of students with visual impairments are required to assess both academic and
functional skills. Academic assessments include braille skills for reading decoding and
comprehension and Nemeth Code mathematics skills. Orientation and mobility skills are
critical as part of a functional skills assessment.
Assessment of Academic Skills The use of braille is a significant aspect of academic success
for students with blindness or low vision, and IDEA requires inclusion of braille instruction in
the IEP; thus, it’s important for teachers to monitor the progress of these students in braille
skills. Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) is an effective method for measuring the
academic progress of students with visual impairments in the particular curriculum to which
they are exposed.
Assessment of Functional Skills Orientation and mobility skills are critical to the successful
adjustment of people with visual impairment, and thus should be the focus of assessment
procedures. Common procedures for assessing O & M skills traditionally have comprised
subjective checklists and self-report data. However, emerging technologies currently used for
O & M training also offer promise for advancing progress-monitoring procedures. O & M
instructors can use GPSs as a systematic way to monitor their clients’ travel proficiency. The
addition of GeoLogger to a GPS system gathers data such as travel times, travel modes, routes,
and trip duration. Evaluating these data frequently can help O & M instructors improve their
clients’ travel proficiency through data-based planning.
Testing Accommodations IDEA requires appropriate accommodations or alternate

assessments for students with disabilities who need them. Among the most common
accommodations for students with blindness and low vision are presentation accommodations
(e.g., test in braille, test in regular print with magnification, large-print test) and response
accommodations (e.g., use of brailler). Scheduling accommodations are also important to
202
students with visual impairments, given that students’ reading rate in braille is usually slower
than that of a sighted student.
EARLY INTERVENTION
This makes it easy to understand why intensive intervention should begin as early as
possible to help the infant with visual impairment begin to explore the environment. As we
noted earlier, many infants who are blind lag behind their peers in motor development.
Consequently, O & M training should be a critical component of preschool programming. At
one time, O & M teachers thought that young children were not old enough to be taught
mobility skills.
Today, more and more preschoolers are learning cane techniques. Although many people
believe that preschoolers with visual impairments should be educated in inclusive settings with
sighted children, it’s critical that teachers facilitate interactions between the children. Given
that the classmates of a student with visual impairment are almost always sighted, there is a
potential for social isolation.
Teachers must provide instruction in appropriate interactions using active engagement and
repeated opportunities for learning. Most authorities agree that it’s extremely important to
involve parents of infants with visual impairment in early intervention efforts. Parents can
become actively involved in working at home with their young children, helping them with
fundamental skills such as mobility and feeding, as well as being responsive to their infants’
vocalizations. Parents, too, sometimes need support in coping with their reactions to having a
baby with visual impairment.
TRANSITION TO ADULTHOOD
Two closely related areas are difficult for some adolescents and adults with visual
impairment: independence and employment. The level of success attained by students with
visual impairments in achieving independence and appropriate employment depends greatly
on the kind of preparation and support they receive from their teachers and families.
Independent Living With proper training, preferably starting no later than middle school, most
people who are blind can lead very independent lives. Some professionals have asserted that
the movement toward including students with visual impairment in general education and
providing them access to the general education curriculum has led to a diminished emphasis
on teaching skills necessary for independence. They say that itinerant teachers often do not
have enough time to do much direct teaching of daily living skills. Many authorities also point
out that a major reason why adolescents and adults with visual impairment might have
problems becoming independent is because of the way society treats people without sight. A
common mistake is to assume that they are helpless.
Topic 8
203
WHEN A STUDENT WHO IS BLIND OR HAS LOW VISION IS MAINSTREAMED
IN YOUR CLASS
It is important to know that children with visual impairments differ in their ability to
use their remaining vision. While they rely on their other senses like audition, touch, smell, or
taste, one may show preference for one sense over the others.
The following rules will help you make your students with visual impairment feel
comfortable in your classroom:
1. Use “look” and “see” when communicating with a blind person. Use it in expressions in
daily conversations, such as “see you later” or “look here”.
2. Instruct the seeing classmates to talk to him or her directly and not through you.
Encourage the blind child to answer his or her classmates’ questions directly too.
3. Include his or her in all class activities.
4. Extend the same opportunity to the blind child, such as being a leader in class activities.
5. He or she may not be excused from school rules and regulations because of his or her
conditions. The same disciplinary rules that apply to the rest of the class apply as well
to the child with visual impairment.
6. Encourage the blind child to move about the classroom to get the materials or to do certain
activities. You can assign a classmate to be his or her buddy in going about the class
activities.
7. Give verbal instructions or oral cues since the blind child does not see facial expression
like a nod (say yes instead), knitting of the brow (say please explain it further), or an
arm movement suggesting that he or she come over you.
8. Provide space to accommodate his or her special materials like bulky braille books and
large print books, braille typewriter, tactual aids and others.
9. Motivate the seeing classmates to become interested in topics related to vision and visual
impairment. You may integrate these topics in the different subjects.
10. Your acceptance of the child with visual impairment will serve as a positive example to
his or her seeing classmates.
11. When approaching the blind student, unless he or she knows you, always say who you
are instead of asking him or her to guess who you are . Voices are not always easy to
identify, particularly on crowds or stress situations
12. The blind student may exhibit certain mannerisms like rocking, flapping the fingers in
front of the eyes, or poking the fingers into the eye.
Essay No. 9
answer. (write at least 250 words)
How do professionals define and classify learners with blindness and low vision?
• What is the prevalence of visual impairment?
• What are some basic anatomical and physiological characteristics of the eye?
• How is visual ability measured?
204
• What causes visual impairments?
• What are some of the psychological and behavioral characteristics of learners with
visual impairments?
1. Start with an introductory paragraph, with a general statement of the topic in your own
words. Include a sentence which directly answers the question.
2. The main body of your essay should consist of at least two paragraphs which discuss
both views. Each should have a topic sentence and supporting evidence. Use specific
ideas or examples to support the views from the task.
3. In the last paragraph, you should summarize the main points discussed in the body of
the essay and include a solution, prediction, result or recommendation. If appropriate
you may include your point of view in the conclusion.
 Close your eyes tightly for a few hours. Better still; cover them with an eye shade
or a piece of dark cloth so that you cannot see anything at all. Then walk around
the house, and look for familiar things that you can use every day in the bedroom,
the bathroom, the sala and the kitchen. Do the usual activities you engage in such
as cleaning the house, cooking, changing your clothes, etc.
 Write a report on your experiences as a person without sight. How well did you do
the usual activities? How did you feel about the whole experience?
Group Work No. 9
Drawing/ Poster (White paper A4 size)
Describe how the process of vision takes place. Name and tell the functions of the parts
of the visual mechanism that enable man to see.
Further Readings
SIGNS OF POSSIBLE EYE TROUBLE IN CHILDREN
If one or more of these signs appear, take your child to an eye doctor right away.
What do your child’s eyes look like?

• eyes don’t line up, one eye appears crossed or looks out
• eyelids are red-rimmed, crusted, or swollen
• eyes are watery or red (inflamed)
How does your child act?

• Rubs eyes a lot.
• Closes or covers one eye.
• Tilts head or thrusts head forward.
205
• Has trouble reading or doing other close-up work, or holds objects close to eyes
to see blinks more than usual or seems cranky when doing close-up work
• Things are blurry or hard to see
• Squints eyes or frowns
What does your child say?
• “My eyes are itchy,” “my eyes are burning,” or “my eyes feel scratchy.”
• “I can’t see very well.”
• After doing close-up work, your child says “I feel dizzy,” “I have a headache” or “I
feel sick/nauseous.”
• “Everything looks blurry,” or “I see double.”
Remember, your child may still have an eye problem even if he or she does not complain or
has not shown any unusual signs.
How do professionals define and classify learners with blindness and low vision?
• Those using a legal definition use visual acuity and field of vision:
• Blindness is visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the better eye with correction; low
vision is 20/70 to 20/200.
• Blindness is a field of vision no greater than 20 degrees.
• Those using an educational definition use method of reading:
• Blindness is needing to use braille or aural methods.
• Low vision is being able to read print (enlarged or magnified).
• Some advocate a skills definition of visual impairment—a focus on what methods other than,
or in addition to, sight the individual needs in order to gain information or perform tasks.
What is the prevalence of visual impairment?
• Blindness is primarily an adult disability.

• Fewer than 0.05% of students from age 6 to 17 are identified as visually impaired.
What are some basic anatomical and physiological characteristics of the eye?
• Objects are seen when an electrical impulse travels from the optic nerve at the back of the
eye to the occipital lobes of the brain.
• Light rays pass through the cornea, aqueous humor, pupil, lens, vitreous humor, and retina
before reaching the optic nerve at the back of the brain.
How is visual ability measured?
• Visual acuity for far distances is most often measured by using the Snellen chart.
• Measures are also available for measuring visual acuity for near distances.
• Vision teachers can perform functional assessments to determine how students use their
vision in everyday situations.
What causes visual impairments?
• The most common visual problems result from errors of refraction:
206
• Myopia (nearsightedness)
• Hyperopia (farsightedness)
• Astigmatism (blurred vision)
Some conditions affect both adults and children:
• Glaucoma is a group of diseases causing damage to the optic nerve.

• Cataracts cause clouding of the lens of the eye.
• Diabetic retinopathy results from interference of the blood supply to the retina.
• Some conditions affect primarily children:
• The three most common causes in children are cortical visual impairment, retinopathy
of prematurity, and optic nerve hypoplasia.
• Cortical visual impairment results from brain damage or dysfunction.

• Retinopathy of prematurity can be caused by excessive concentrations of oxygen or other
factors.
• Optic nerve hypoplasia involves underdevelopment of the optic nerve
• Retinitis pigmentosa, another cause primarily in children, usually causes tunnel vision
and night blindness.
• Improper muscle functioning can cause visual problems:
• Strabismus refers to the eyes being turned inward (crossed eyes) or outward.
• Nystagmus refers to rapid involuntary movements of the eyes.
What are some of the psychological and behavioral characteristics of learners with visual
impairments?
• Language development is largely unaffected, although subtle developmental delays can

occur, especially in infancy.
• Individuals may experience early delays in conceptual development, which do not last long.
• Motor delays in infancy are common; it is important that adults encourage infants to explore
their environment to help overcome these delays.
• Orientation and mobility (O & M) skills depend on spatial abilities:
• People with visual impairment can process spatial information either
sequentially or as a cognitive map; the latter is more efficient.
• Some people with visual impairment have the obstacle sense, the ability to
detect objects by noting subtle changes in high-frequency echoes (the
Doppler Effect).
• Two myths are that people who are blind have an extra sense and that they
automatically develop better acuity in their other senses.
• Studies suggest that some students who are blind experience low academic achievement,
which is most likely due to low expectations or lack of exposure to braille.
• Phonological awareness is important for learning to read print or braille.
• Any social adjustment problems that people with visual impairment have are largely due to
sighted society’s reactions to blindness.
• Some people with visual impairment engage in stereotypic (repetitive) behaviors.
207
• Most authorities attribute stereotypic behaviors to an attempt to stabilize arousal
levels.
• Professionals disagree about whether to intervene with these behaviors.
What are some educational considerations for learners with visual impairments?
• The ability to read braille is a crucial skill.

• Many authorities believe that the use of braille has slipped to dangerously low
levels.
• Braille bills have helped to ensure that students receive instruction in braille.
• Federal law requires that braille be available if any member of the IEP team,
including parents, thinks it necessary.
• Authorities point out that many people with low vision can benefit from braille
instruction.
• The use of remaining sight is an important skill.
• Large-print books are useful, although the need for storage space is a drawback.
• Magnifying devices can be used for close or distance vision.
• Listening skills are important.
• O & M skills are of critical importance.
• Learning to use a long cane is very important.
• Unfortunately, some individuals with blindness or low vision resist using a long
cane because they think it stigmatizing.
• Preschoolers and young children can learn cane techniques.
• There is debate about whether those who are blind can be good mobility
instructors.
• Some find using a guide dog very helpful.
• Guide dogs are much more practical for adults than for children, and they and
their owner need extensive training in order to be useful.
• Guide dogs do not take people anywhere; people usually need to know where
they are going.
• Guide dogs can alert their owners to dangerous areas.
Tactile maps can be very helpful.
• Human guides, although not recommended as a primary means of mobility, can be helpful
at times.
• Technological aids are becoming increasingly important.
• Technological aids are available for communication and information access.
These include braille notetakers, personal data assistants, Newsline®, Descriptive Video
Service®, and screen readers for computers.
• Technological aids are available for O & M. These include obstacle-detection devices
and the Global Positioning System (GPS).
• Learners with visual impairments should not become so dependent on technology that
they neglect basic techniques, such as braille, the slate and stylus, and the long cane.
• Itinerant teacher service is the most common service delivery model, and compared to other
areas of disability residential placement is relatively popular.
208
How do professionals assess the progress of students with visual impairments in academic
and functional skills and make testing accommodations for them?
• Teachers can monitor progress in braille skills involved in reading and mathematics using
curriculum-based measurement (CBM).
• O & M instructors can monitor travel skills using GPS devices.
• Professionals can assess academic outcomes using braille versions of standardized academic
tests.
• Testing accommodations often include testing in braille, large-print, or extended time.
What are some important considerations with respect to early intervention for learners
with visual impairments?
• Intensive intervention should begin as early as possible.

• Inclusive settings can be beneficial, but it is important that the teacher facilitate
interactions between students with visual impairments and sighted students.
• It is important to try to involve parents.
• Many authorities now recommend that pre-schoolers be taught cane techniques
What are some important considerations with respect to transition to adulthood for
learners with visual impairments?
• Most people who are blind can lead very independent lives. The current emphasis on inclusion
needs to be viewed with caution to make sure it does not come at the expense of learning
independent living skills.
• Sighted society needs to be careful not to treat those with visual impairments as helpless.
• Explicit teaching of independent living skills is essential.
• Many working-age adults with visual impairments are unemployed or are overqualified for
the jobs they hold.
• Previous work experience is important for obtaining employment.
• Transition programming should be intensive and extensive.
• Job accommodations are essential.
References:
Inciong, T.G. Quijano, Y.S. , Capulong, Y.T. (2020). Introduction to Special Education. A
Textbook for College Students-First Edition
*Hallahan, Kuffman, Pullen (2017): Exceptional Learners: An Introduction to Special
Education- Pearson New International Edition 12th Edition
*Heward, W.L. (2012). Exceptional Children: An Introduction to Special Education -10th
Edition
*Friend, M and Bursuck W.D. (2012). Including Students with Special Needs. A Practical
Guide for Classroom Teachers- Sixth Edition
*Books/Reading Materials were uploaded in our Google Classroom with class code ypyjw7f
for your ready reference.
209
210
Part III
Module X
STUDENTS WITH HEARING IMPAIRMENT
211
OUTLINE
Module 10 Students with Hearing Impairment is the tenth module in Professional

Education 224. This module starts with the definition and classification of students with
hearing impairment. The topics also covered the normal process of hearing or audition,
etiological factors, psychological and behavioral characteristics, assessment and special
education strategies in handling children and youth with hearing impairment.

1. Define and classify individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing;
2. Determines the prevalence of hearing impairment;
3. Enumerate and describe the basic anatomical and physiological characteristics of the ear;
4. Explain how hearing impairment is identified;
5. Enumerate and describe the causes and classification of hearing impairments;
6. Explain the psychological and behavioral characteristics of learners with hearing
impairments;
7. Enumerate and describe the educational considerations for learners with hearing
impairments;
8. Enumerate and describe the assessment procedures and the progress of students with hearing
impairments;
9. Enumerate and describe the important considerations with respect to early intervention for
learners with hearing impairments; and
10. Enumerate and describe the important considerations with respect to transition to adulthood
for learners with hearing impairments.
212
Contents:

Number
1 Definition and Classification
3 Anatomy and Physiology of the Ear
4 Identification of Hearing Impairment
5 Etiology of Hearing Impairment
6 Characteristics of Persons with Hearing
Impairment
7 Psychological and Behavioral Characteristics
8 Educational Considerations
9 Identification and Assessment of Children with
Hearing Impairment
10 Educational Placement
11 Suggestions for Teaching Students with Hearing
Impairment in a Regular Class
Quiz
Further Readings
References
213
 Students will define and classify individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing.
 Students will determine the prevalence of hearing impairment.
 Students will enumerate and describe the basic anatomical and physiological
characteristics of the ear.
 Students will explain how hearing impairment is identified.
 Students will enumerate and describe the causes and classification of hearing impairments.
 Students will explain the psychological and behavioral characteristics of learners with
hearing impairments.
 Students will enumerate and describe the educational considerations for learners with
hearing impairments.
 Students will enumerate and describe the assessment procedures and the progress of
students with hearing impairments.
 Students will enumerate and describe the important considerations with respect to early
intervention for learners with hearing impairments.
 Students will enumerate and describe the important considerations with respect to
transition to adulthood for learners with hearing impairments.
214
Module 10: STUDENTS WITH HEARING IMPAIRMENT
Topic 1: Definition and Classification
research and study)
Introduction
Students with hearing impairment are either deaf or hard of hearing. Those who are deaf
do not have sufficient residual hearing to understand speech without special instruction and
training. On the other hand, students who are hard of hearing have enough residual hearing to
understand speech and learn in regular class without much difficulty.
Hearing impairment Is not simply an inability to hear or communicate through speech. The
most devastating effect of deafness is the deprivation of language. A hearing person acquires
the complex linguistic system of his or her culture as part of normal growth and development
in a spontaneous effortless and natural manner. Deafness deprives the person of the normal use
of the hearing mechanism. He or she does not acquire listening skills that provide the base for
the development of speaking, reading, writing and other communication competencies.
Descriptions:
DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION
By far the most common way of classifying hearing impairment is the distinction between
deaf and hard of hearing. Although it’s common to think that being deaf means not being able
to hear anything and that being hard of hearing means being able to hear a little bit, this is
generally not true. Most people who are deaf have some residual hearing. Complicating things
is the fact that different professionals define the two categories differently. The extreme points
of view are represented by those with a physiological orientation versus those with an
educational orientation.
People with an educational viewpoint are concerned with how much the hearing
impairment is likely to affect the child’s ability to speak and develop language. Because of the
close causal link between hearing impairment and delay in language development, these
professionals categorize primarily on the basis of spoken language abilities. Hearing
impairment is a broad term that covers individuals with impairments ranging from mild to
profound; it includes those who are deaf or hard of hearing. Following are commonly accepted,
educationally oriented definitions for deaf and hard of hearing:
• A deaf person is one whose hearing disability precludes successful processing of
linguistic information through audition, with or without a hearing aid.
• A person who is hard of hearing generally, with the use of a hearing aid, has residual
hearing sufficient to enable successful processing of linguistic information through
audition.
Hearing impairment or disability refers to the reduced functions or loss of the normal
function of the hearing mechanism. The impairment or disability limits the person’s sensitivity
215
to tasks like listening, understanding speech and speaking in the same way those persons with
normal hearing do.
Educators are extremely concerned about the age of onset of hearing impairment. Again,
the close relationship between hearing impairment and language delay is the key. The earlier
the hearing impairment occurs in life, the more difficulty the child will have developing the
language of the hearing society (e.g., English).
According to the age of onset, hearing impairment can be:
 Congenitally deaf (those who are born deaf) and
 Adventitiously deaf (those who acquire deafness at some time after birth).
Two other frequently used terms are even more specific in pinpointing language
acquisition as critical:
 Prelingual deafness refers to deafness that occurs at birth or early in life before
speech and language develop.
 Postlingual deafness is deafness that occurs after the development of speech and
language.
Experts differ about the dividing point between prelingual and postlingual deafness.
Some believe that it should be at about 18 months; others think it should be lower, at about 12
months or even 6 months.
Classification of Hearing Impairment
The affected part of the ear is one basis for classifying hearing impairment. A conductive
hearing loss occurs in the outer and middle ear thereby blocking the passage of the acoustic
energy. The blockage may be caused by abnormal growths or complications of the outer or
middle ear. Impacted cerumen results from the excessive build-up of earwax in the auditory
canal. Malformation, incomplete development or abnormal growth and improper movement of
the ossicular chains can cause conductive hearing loss. If the inner ear is intact, conductive
hearing impairment can be corrected through surgical or medical treatment.
A sensorineural hearing impairment occurs in the inner ear. The sensitive mechanisms
and auditory nerve maybe damaged. When the cochlea is impaired, the neural energy delivered
to the brain is distorted or not delivered at all. Audition does not take place and speech is not
heard. Sensorineural hearing losses may be congenital or adventitious because of illness or
traumatic incidents.
A mixed hearing impairment results from a combination of both conductive and
sensorineural hearing impairment.
Any dysfunction in the central auditory nervous system between the brain stem and the
auditory cortex in the brain results in a central hearing disorder.
Another basis for classifying hearing impairment is its being unilateral or present in one
ear only, or bilateral or present in both ears.
Sound is measured in decibels (dB) or units that describe its intensity, that is, its loudness
or softness. Those who maintain a strictly physiological viewpoint are interested primarily in
216
the measurable degree of hearing impairment. Children who can’t hear sounds at or above a
certain intensity (loudness) level are classified as deaf; others with a hearing impairment are
considered hard of hearing.
Hearing sensitivity is measured in decibels (units of relative loudness of sounds). Zero
decibels (0 dB) designate the point at which the average person with normal hearing can detect
the faintest sound. Each succeeding number of decibels that a person cannot detect indicates a
certain degree of hearing impairment. Those who maintain a physiological viewpoint generally
consider people with hearing impairments of about 90 dB or greater to be deaf and people with
impairments at lower decibel levels to be hard of hearing. For comparison purposes, 90 dB is
the approximate loudness of a lawn mower.
Some professionals find it useful to classify according to hearing threshold levels, such as:
Severity of Hearing Loss and Resulting Impairments
Degree of
Decibel Loss Resulting Impairments
Hearing Loss
Normal 0-20 dB
 Faint sounds and distant conversations are difficult to
hear.
Slight 27-40 dB
 With a hearing aid, the student can attend regular
school.
 As much as the 50% of the classroom conversations
Mild 41 to 55 dB are missed.
 Limited vocabulary and difficulties may result.
 Loud conversations can be heard
 Defective speech
Moderate 56 to 70 dB
 Language difficulties
 Limited vocabulary may result
 Hearing is limited to a radius of one foot, enough to
discriminate loud sounds
Severe 71 to 90 dB  Defective speech and language
 Severe difficulty in hearing consonant sounds may
result
 Sounds and tones cannot be perceived
91 dB and
Profound  Vision becomes the primary sense of communication
above
 Speech and language are likely to deteriorate
These levels of loss of hearing sensitivity cut across the broad classifications of deaf and
hard of hearing, which stress the degree to which speech and language are affected rather than
being directly dependent on hearing sensitivity.
Some authorities object to adhering too strictly to any of the various classification systems.
Because these definitions deal with events difficult to measure, they’re not precise. Therefore,
it is best not to form any hard-and-fast opinions about an individual’s ability to hear and speak
solely on the basis of a classification of his hearing disability.
217
In considering issues of definition, it’s important to point out the growing sentiment among
people who are deaf that deafness should not even be considered a disability. Although some
variance occurs, the following is the distinction often used by those who view deafness as a
cultural difference rather than as a disability:
The lowercase “deaf” refers to those for whom deafness is primarily an audio
logical experience. It is mainly used to describe those who lost some or all of their
hearing in early or late life, and who do not usually wish to have contact with signing
Deaf communities, preferring to try to maintain their membership in the majority
society in which they were socialized.
“Deaf” refers to those born Deaf or deafened in early (sometimes late) childhood,
for whom the sign languages, communities and cultures of the Deaf collective
represents their primary experience and allegiance, many of whom perceive their
experience akin to other language minorities.
Topic 2
INCIDENCE AND PREVALENCE
Estimates of the number of children with hearing impairment vary considerably, due to
such factors as differences in definition, populations studied, and accuracy of testing. The U.S.
Department of Education’s statistics indicate that the public schools identify about 0.14% of
the population from 6 to 17 years of age as deaf or hard of hearing. Although the Department
of Education doesn’t report separate figures for the categories of deaf versus hard of hearing,
strong evidence indicates that students who are hard of hearing are far more prevalent than
those who are deaf. Furthermore, some authorities believe that many children who are hard of
hearing who could benefit from special education are not being served.
An important statistic is that more than half of those students who receive special education
services for hearing impairment come from diverse backgrounds (Andrews, Shaw, & Lomas,
2011), with close to 29% coming from Spanish-speaking homes (Gallaudet Research Institute,
2008). In addition, relatively large numbers of other non-English-speaking immigrants are
deaf. The relatively high numbers of students who are deaf from non-English-speaking families
creates significant challenges for the schools. Deafness by itself makes spoken language
acquisition in the native language very difficult, let alone deafness plus attempting to learn a
second language.
In the Philippines, the conservative estimate is that 2% of the population has hearing
impairment and the number may increase if children below school age and person who lose
hearing sensitivity due to old age are included.
Topic 3
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE EAR
218
Audition is the act or sense of hearing. The ear is one of two lead sense organs that allow
a person to gather auditory stimuli and information from near and far sources in the
environment that come in the form of acoustical energy. Audition transforms acoustical
energy into a form called mechanical energy and finally into neural energy or nerve impulses
that can be interpreted by the brain. Neural energy is called the “language of the brain.” The
anatomy and physiology of the hearing mechanism, the parts and functions of the ear, and the
process of audition provide the base for understanding the nature of hearing impairment and
its implications to the teaching-learning process.
The ear is one of the most complex organs of the body. The many elements that make up
the hearing mechanism are divided into three major sections: the outer, middle, and inner
ear. The outer ear is the least complex and least important for hearing; the inner ear is the
most complex and most important for hearing.
The Outer Ear
The outer ear consists of the auricle and the external auditory canal. The canal ends with
the tympanic membrane (eardrum), which is the boundary between the outer and middle
ears. The auricle is the part of the ear that protrudes from the side of the head. The part that
the outer ear plays in the transmission of sound is relatively minor. Sound is collected by the
auricle and is funneled through the external auditory canal to the eardrum, which vibrates,
sending the sound waves to the middle ear.
The Middle Ear
The middle ear comprises the eardrum and three very tiny bones (ossicles) called the
malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), and stapes (stirrup), which are contained within an airfilled
space. The chain of the malleus, incus, and stapes conducts the vibrations of the eardrum along
to the oval window, which is the link between the middle and inner ears. The ossicles function
to create an efficient transfer of energy from the air-filled cavity of the middle ear to the fluid-
filled inner ear.
The Inner Ear
About the size of a pea, the inner ear is an intricate mechanism of thousands of moving
parts. Because it looks like a maze of passageways and is highly complex, this part of the ear
is often called a labyrinth. The inner ear is divided into two sections according to function:
 The vestibular mechanism - located in the upper portion of the inner ear, is
responsible for the sense of balance. It’s extremely sensitive to such things as acceleration,
head movement, and head position. Information about movement is fed to the brain through
the vestibular nerve
219
 The cochlea-by far the most important organ for hearing is the cochlea. Lying
below the vestibular mechanism, this snail-shaped organ contains the parts necessary to convert
the mechanical action of the middle ear into an electrical signal in the inner ear that is
transmitted to the brain.
Anatomy of the Human Ear
In the normally functioning ear, sound causes the malleus, incus, and stapes of the middle
ear to move. When the stapes moves, it pushes the oval window in and out, causing the fluid
in the cochlea of the inner ear to flow. The movement of the fluid in turn causes a complex
chain of events in the cochlea, ultimately resulting in excitation of the cochlear nerve. With
stimulation of the cochlear nerve, an electrical impulse is sent to the brain, and sound is heard.
Topic 4
IDENTIFICATION OF HEARING IMPAIRMENT
There are four general types of hearing tests:

 Screening Tests,
 Pure-Tone Audiometry,
 Speech Audiometry, and
 Specialized Tests for very young children.
Depending on the characteristics of the examinee and the use to which the results will be
put, the audiologist may choose to give any number of tests from any one or a combination of
these four categories.
Screening Tests
Screening tests are available for infants and for school-age children. As a result of an
initiative by the federal government, about 95% of all newborns are screened for hearing.
Ideally, a 1-3-6 rule is followed; babies are screened at the hospital by 1 month, with those who
show signs of hearing loss followed up by 3 months and entering a family intervention program
by 6 months. Unfortunately, many who are identified at 1 month slip through the cracks and
aren’t followed up and end up not receiving services until they reach school age.
220
Some of the screening tests involve computer technology to measure otoacoustic
emissions. The cochlea not only receives sounds but also emits low-intensity sound when
stimulated by auditory stimuli. These sounds emitted by the cochlea are known as otoacoustic
emissions, and they provide a measure of how well the cochlea is functioning. Many schools
have routine screening programs in the early elementary grades. These tests, especially those
that are group rather than individually administered, are less accurate than tests done in an
audiologist.
Pure-Tone Audiometry
Pure-tone audiometry is designed to establish the individual’s threshold for hearing at a

variety of different frequencies. Frequency, measured in hertz (Hz) units, has to do with the
number of vibrations per unit of time of a sound wave; the pitch is higher with more vibrations,
lower with fewer. A person’s threshold for hearing is simply the level at which she can first
detect a sound; it refers to how intense a sound must be before the person detects it. As
mentioned earlier, hearing sensitivity, or intensity, is measured in decibels.
Pure-tone audiometers present tones of varying intensities, or decibel levels, at varying

frequencies, or pitch (hertz). Audiologists are usually concerned with measuring sensitivity to
sounds ranging from 0 to about 110 dB. A person with average-normal hearing can barely hear
sounds at a sound-pressure level of 0 dB. The zero-decibel level is frequently called the zero
hearing-threshold level, or audiometric zero.
Because the decibel scale is based on ratios, each increment of 10 dB is a tenfold increase
in intensity. This means that 20 dB is 10 times more intense than 10 dB, and 30 dB is 100 times
more intense than 10 dB. Whereas a leaf fluttering in the wind registers about 0 dB, normal
conversation is about 60 dB, and, as we stated earlier, a power lawnmower is about 90 dB.
Hertz are usually measured from 125 Hz (low pitch) to 8,000 Hz (high pitch). Frequencies
in speech range from 80 to 8,000 Hz, but most speech sounds have energy in the 500- to 2,000-
Hz range. Testing each ear separately, the audiologist presents a variety of tones within the
range of 0 to about 110 dB and 125 to 8,000 Hz until she establishes the level of intensity (dB)
at which the individual can detect the tone at a number of frequencies: 125 Hz, 250 Hz, 500
Hz, 1,000 Hz, 2,000 Hz, 4,000 Hz, and 8,000 Hz. For each frequency, the audiologist records
a measure of degree of hearing impairment. A 50-dB hearing impairment at 500 Hz, for
example, means the individual can detect the 500-Hz sound when it is given at an intensity
level of 50 dB, whereas the average person would have heard it at 0 dB.
Speech Audiometry
Because the ability to understand speech is of prime importance, audiologists use speech
audiometry to test a person’s detection and understanding of speech. The speech reception
threshold (SRT) is the decibel level at which one can understand speech. One way to measure
the SRT is to present the person with a list of two-syllable words, testing each ear separately.
221
Audiologists often use the decibel level at which the person can understand half the words as
an estimate of SRT level.
Tests for Young and Hard-to-Test Children
A basic assumption for pure-tone and speech audiometry is that the individuals tested
understand what is expected of them. They must be able to comprehend the instructions and
show with a head nod or raised hand that they have heard the tone or word. None of this might
be possible for very young children (under about 4 years of
age) or for children with certain disabilities.
Audiologists use a number of different techniques to test the hearing of young and hard-
to-test children. For example, some use the otoacoustic emission testing mentioned earlier.
Others use conditioned play audiometry. Using pure tones or speech, the examiner teaches
the child to do various activities whenever he hears a signal. The activities are designed to be
attractive to the young child. For example, the child might be required to pick up a block,
squeeze a toy, or open a book. In tympanometry, a rubber-tipped probe is inserted in the ear,
sealing the ear canal, and the effects of pressure and sound are then measured to assess the
functioning of the middle ear. Still another method is brain-stem–evoked response
audiometry, which measures electrical signals from the brain stem that are in response to an
auditory stimulus, such as a click. It can be used with infants as well as young children.
Clinicians can administer it while the child is asleep or sedated.
Topic 5
ETIOLOGY OF HEARING IMPAIRMENT
Hearing impairments are attributed to genetic and heredity factors, infections,

environmental and other traumatic factors. Some hearing impairments have unknown causes:
 Genetic and hereditary types of deafness occur in one out of one thousand live births.
Causes are hereditary and chromosomal abnormalities.
 Infections such as maternal rubella, cytomegalovirus, hepatitis B virus, syphilis, mumps
and otitis media may occur during pregnancy or after birth.
 Adventitious hearing loss can be attributed to environmental factors such as excessive
and constant exposure to very loud noises.
CAUSES
Drugs and medication that can turn toxic when administered to the mother or to the child
at inappropriate times and circumstances. Traumatic factors can cause hearing impairment at
birth. Low birth weight, difficult and prolonged labor can traumatize the hearing mechanism
and cause hearing loss permanent damage to the ear. Skull fractures due to accidents, as well
as pressure changes may damage the ear. The more specific causes of conductive hearing loss
are otitis media (middle ear infection), excessive earwax (impacted cerumen) and otosclerosis
(a spongy boney growth around the stirrup which impedes its movement). Other causes are
222
viral diseases, Rh incompatibility, hereditary factors, exposure to noise, aging and ototoxic
medications.
We discuss causes with respect to the type of hearing impairment (conductive,

sensorineural, and mixed) as well as the location of the hearing impairment (outer, middle, or
inner ear).
Conductive, Sensorineural, and Mixed Hearing Impairment
Professionals classify causes of hearing impairment on the basis of the location of the
problem within the hearing mechanism. There are three major classifications:
 Conductive hearing impairment- refers to an interference with the transfer of sound

along the conductive pathway of the middle or outer ear.
 Sensorineural hearing impairment-involves problems in the inner ear.
 Mixed hearing impairment- is a combination of the two. Audiologists attempt to
determine the location of the dysfunction.
Audiologists attempt to determine the location of the dysfunction. The first clue may be
the severity of the loss. A general rule is that hearing impairments greater than 60 or 70 dB
usually involves some inner-ear problem. Audiologists use the results of pure-tone testing to
help determine the location of a hearing impairment. They then convert the results to an
audiogram—a graphic representation of the weakest (lowest-decibel) sound the individual can
hear at each of several frequency levels. The profile of the audiogram helps to determine
whether the loss is conductive, sensorineural, or mixed.
Hearing Impairment and the Outer Ear
Although problems of the outer ear are not as serious as those of the middle or inner ear,
several conditions of the outer ear can cause a person to be hard of hearing. In some children,
for example, the external auditory canal does not form, resulting in a condition known as
atresia. Children may also develop external otitis, or “swimmer’s ear,” an infection of the skin
of the external auditory canal. Tumors of the external auditory canal are another source of
hearing impairment.
Hearing Impairment and the Middle Ear
Although abnormalities of the middle ear are generally more serious than problems of the
outer ear, they, too, usually result in a classification as hard of hearing rather than deaf. Most
middle-ear hearing impairments occur because the mechanical action of the ossicles is
interfered with in some way. Unlike inner-ear problems, most middle-ear hearing impairments
are correctable with medical or surgical treatment.
223
The most common problem of the middle ear is otitis media—an infection of the middle-
ear space caused by viral or bacterial factors, among others. Otitis media is common in young
children. At least 80% of children are diagnosed with otitis media at least once before they are
10 years old. It is linked to abnormal functioning of the eustachian tubes. If the eustachian
tube malfunctions because of a respiratory viral infection, for example, it cannot do its job of
ventilating, draining, and protecting the middle ear from infection. Otitis media can result in
temporary conductive hearing impairment, and even these temporary losses can make the child
vulnerable for having language delays. If untreated, otitis media can lead to rupture of the
tympanic membrane.
Hearing Impairment and the Inner Ear
The most severe hearing impairments are associated with the inner ear. In addition to
problems with hearing sensitivity, a person with inner-ear hearing impairment can have
additional problems, such as sound distortion, balance problems, and roaring or ringing in the
ears.
Causes of inner-ear disorders can be hereditary or acquired. Genetic or hereditary factors

are a leading cause of deafness in children. In fact, over 400 different varieties of hereditary
deafness have been identified (Andrews et al., 2011). Scientists have identified mutation in the
connexin-26 gene as the most common cause of congenital deafness.
Acquired hearing impairments of the inner ear include those due to bacterial infections
(e.g., meningitis, the second most frequent cause of childhood deafness), prematurity, viral
infections (e.g., mumps and measles), anoxia (deprivation of oxygen) at birth, prenatal
infections of the mother (e.g., maternal rubella, congenital syphilis, and cytomegalovirus), Rh
incompatibility (which can now usually be prevented with proper prenatal care of the mother),
blows to the head, side effects of some antibiotics, and excessive noise levels.
Two of the preceding conditions deserve special emphasis because of their relatively high
prevalence. Congenital cytomegalovirus (CMV), a herpes virus, deserves special mention
because it’s the most frequent fetal viral infection. And although not all infants born with CMV
have a hearing loss, it’s the most common non-genetic cause of deafness in infants. CMV can
result in a variety of other conditions, such as intellectual disabilities and visual impairment. In
addition, repeated exposure to environmental factors such as loud music, gunshots, or
machinery can result in gradual or sudden hearing impairment.
Common Disorders Associated with Hearing Loss
 absence of the external ear canal
 Usually unilateral or found in both ears
 Often seen in conjunction with such syndrome as Cruzon’s,
Atresia
Treacher Collins, Pierre Collins
 Usually congenital, but can be acquired (fungal infection,
squamous cell carcinoma)
 benign, slow-growing tumor
Acoustic Neuroma
 Associated with NF-2, chromosome 22, autosomal
224
dominant
 Found in internal auditory canal
 Prevalence 1:100,000
 75% have slowly progressive sensorineural hearing loss
 Other symptoms include poor speech understanding on the
affected side, facial numbness, unsteadiness
 Hole in the rupture of the oval or round window in the inner
ear
 May leak perilymph (clear fluid) into the middle ear
 Caused by head injuries, diving, barotraumas, violent
Fistula sneezing, etc.
 Results in fluctuating and/or sudden sensorineural hearing
loss
 Can be a complication of cholesteatoma
 Dizziness can also be a symptom
 Associated with a variety of immune disorders such as
HIV/AIDS
Autoimmune
 May be accompanied by chronic otitis media , nasal
Disease
crusting, cough, iritis, etc.
 Sensorineural hearing loss occurs in 20% of the patients
 Can be caused by a wide variety of strong antibiotics such
as amino glycosides, gentamicin, kanamycin, and others as
well as chemotherapeutic agents such as cisplatin, or loop
diuretics
Ototoxicity
 Can result from exposure to various chemical agents in the
environment
 Characterized by a progressive high-frequency
sensorineural hearing loss following such exposure
 Most common congenital viral infections causing hearing
loss today occurring in 1:1000 live births
 Contracted during pregnancy, during or after birth
Cytomegalovirus  Can result in sensorineural hearing loss as well as CNS,
(CMV) cardiac, optic and growth abnormalities
 Symptoms may not be apparent at birth, with onset at about
18 months
 Progresses rapidly during the first year.
 Neonatal infections can be viral or bacterial
 Most common cause of acquired sensorineural hearing loss
 Hearing loss can range from mild to profound and may be
Meningitis
progressive
 Symptoms may include headache, neck stiffness,
photophobia and suppurrative otitis media
 Congenital chromosomal abnormality (trisomy 21)
 30% of these children have sensorineural hearing loss
Down Syndrome  Most have poor Eutachian tube function resulting in
chronic middle ear disease with associated conductive
fluctuant hearing loss
 Maybe acquired or congenital
Choleasteatoma  A benign growth of slow growing skin tissue in the middle
ear
225
 Usually caused by recurring otitis media and negative
middle ear pressure
 Associated hearing loss is usually conductive but may be
sensorineural hearing loss depending on the location of the
growth
 Congenital abnormality of the external and middle ear
 Inherited autosomal dominant disorder
 “frog face” appearance
Cruzon’s
 One-third of these children have bilateral conductive
Syndrome
hearing loss
 Pinnas may be low set and rotated with atresia
 Often have middle ear deformities
 Autosomal hereditary dominant disorder
 20% have white forelock , 99% have increased distance
between the eyes, 45% have irises of different colors
Waardenburg  Depigmentation of the skin and eyebrows that meet over the
Syndrome bridge of the nose area is the common feature of this
syndrome
 50% have mild to severe sensorineural hearing loss, which
can be unilateral or bilateral that is progressive
 Autosomal recessive disorder
 Occurs in 6-12% of congenitally deaf children and 3 in 100,
000 of the general population
Usher Syndrome
 Involves retinitis pigmentosa and progressive moderate to
severe sensorineural hearing loss
 Can vary greatly in age of onset, severity and progression
 Autosomal dominant congenital abnormality of the external
and middle ear
 Facial anomalies such as depressed, cheekbones,
malformed pinna, receding chin, large fishlike mouth, and
Treacher Collins
dental abnormalities
Syndrome
 Poorly developed middle ear space with ossicles frequently
absent or deformed
 Can be associated with conductive and/or sensorineural
hearing loss
 Congenital abnormality of the inner ear
 Recessive endocrine-metabolic disorder occurring in 1 of
100,000 newborns
 Associated with profound sensorineural hearing loss, which
Pendred’s
may develop during the 1st ten years of life
Syndrome
 Also associated with a thyroid defect, resulting in a goiter
during the second or third decade of life
 40% have vestibular problems
 Often seen with a Mondini- like cochlear abnormality.
 Acquired disorder
 Caused by tick-borne spirochete
 Leading cause of facial paralysis in children
Lime Disease
 Symptoms include rash, headache, hearing loss, stiff neck,
artralgia and fatigue
 Hearing loss usually improves with antibiotic therapy
226
 Aberration of sex chromosomes, X chromosomes is absent
 Associated with abnormalities of the external and middle
Turner’s
ear, including low set ears, auricle defect, middle ear
Syndrome
abnormalities and a Mondini-like cochlea
 Can result in conductive and /or sensorineural hearing loss
 Autosomal dominant inheritance
 Congenital abnormality of external and middle ear
Pierre Robin
 Cleft palate and glossoptosis
Syndrome
 Low set cupped ears, facial nerve abnormalities
 Conductive hearing loss
227
Topic 6
CHARACTERISTICS OF PERSONS WITH HEARING IMPAIRMENT
Hearing impairment can have profound consequences for some aspects of a person’s
behavior and little or no effect on other characteristics. Consider this question: If you were
forced to choose, which would you rather be—blind or deaf? On first impulse, most of us would
choose deafness, probably because we rely on sight for mobility and because many of the
beauties of nature are visual. But in terms of functioning in an English language oriented
society, the person who is deaf is at a much greater disadvantage than is someone who is blind.
Some of the observable behavioral and learning characteristics of a child with impairment
are as follows:
 Cups hand behind the ear, cocks ear/tilt head at an angle to catch sound
 Has strained or blank facial expression when listening or talked to
 Pays attention to vibration and vibrating objects
 Moves closer to speaker, watches face especially the mouth and the lips of the speaker
when talked to
 Less responsive to noise, voice, music and other sources of sounds
 Uses more natural gestures, signs and movements to express self
 Shows marked initiativeness at work and play
 Often fails to respond to oral questions
 Often asks for repetition of questions and statements
 Often unable to follow oral directions and instructions
 Has difficulty in associating concrete with abstract ideas
 Has poor general learning performance.
Topic 7
PSYCHOLOGICAL AND BEHAVIORAL CHARACTERISTICS
Spoken Language and Speech Development
By far the most severely affected areas of development in the person with a hearing
impairment are the comprehension and production of the language. People who are hearing
impaired are generally deficient in the language used by most people of the hearing society in
which they live. The distinction is important, because people who are hearing impaired can be
expert in their own form of language: sign language. Nevertheless, it’s an undeniable fact that
individuals with hearing impairment are at a distinct disadvantage. This is true in terms of
language comprehension, language production, and speech.
Speech intelligibility is linked to:

(1) degree of hearing impairment and
(2) the age of onset of the hearing impairment.
228
Even after intensive speech therapy, it’s rare for children with prelingual profound
deafness to develop intelligible speech. Infants who can hear their own sounds and those of
adults before becoming deaf have an advantage over those born deaf. Children who are deaf
are handicapped in learning to associate the sensations they feel when they move their jaws,
mouths, and tongues with the auditory sounds these movements produce. In addition, these
children have difficulty hearing adult speech, which nonimpaired children can hear and imitate.
Sign Language
Although children who are deaf face extraordinary challenges in learning a spoken
language, with exposure they can easily learn sign language. However, historically, sign
language has suffered from several misconceptions, including the belief that it is not a true
language. The notion that sign language is simply a primitive, visual representation of oral
language similar to mime was first challenged by the pioneering work of William Stokoe at
Gallaudet University. A linguist, Stokoe submitted that, analogous to the phonemes of spoken
English, each sign in ASL consists of three parts:
 handshape,
 location, and
 movement .
For many years, Stokoe’s colleagues scoffed at him, but research in several areas has
proved that he was correct in asserting that sign language is a true language.
Grammatical Complexity of Sign Language. Researchers have continued to refine Stokoe’s

(1960) work on sign language grammar, confirming its complexity. For example, like spoken
language, sign language has grammatical structure at the sentence level (syntax) as well as the
word or sign level. Handshapes, location, and movement are combined to create a grammar
every bit as complex as that of spoken language.
Nonuniversality of Sign Language Contrary to popular opinion, no single, universal sign

language exists. Just as geographical or cultural separations result in different spoken
languages, they also result in different sign languages. For example, people who are deaf in
France communicate in French Sign Language, and those in the United States use American
Sign Language (ASL). A person who is deaf visiting a foreign country has difficulties
communicating with others who are deaf, much as a hearing person does. This is because sign
languages, like spoken languages, evolve over time through common usage. In other words,
sign language was not invented by any one person or a committee of people. The 18th-century
French clergyman Charles-Michel de l’Eppe is often referred to as the “father of sign
language.” On hearing this, some people assume that de l’Eppe invented sign language.
However, he did promote the usage of French Sign Language, which already existed within the
Deaf community. This is not to diminish his profound impact on advocating for using sign
language in educating students with hearing impairments.
229
Developmental Milestones of Sign Language. Considerable evidence indicates that children
who are deaf reach the same language development milestones in sign that children who can
hear reach in spoken language, and do so at about the same time. For example, they manually
“babble” at about the same time as infants who can hear verbally babble. And infants who are
deaf sign their first words and two word phrases at about the same time that hearing infants
verbalize their first words and two-word phrases.
Neurological Foundations of Sign Language. Further evidence that sign language is a true
language comes from studies showing that sign language has the same eurological
underpinnings as does spoken language. Earlier we noted that areas within the left cerebral
hemisphere of the brain are primarily responsible for language. However, we were referring to
spoken language. Interestingly, using neuroimaging techniques, substantial evidence shows
that the left hemisphere of the brain is also the primary site responsible for sign language
acquisition and use. Also, stroke patients who are deaf are more likely to have deficits in
signing if the stroke is to the left hemisphere than if the right hemisphere is damaged.
Intellectual Ability
For many years, professionals believed that the spoken language of individuals who are
deaf was a sign that they also had intellectual deficiencies. As was noted earlier, however, we
now know that they might not have a spoken language such as English, but if they use American
Sign Language, they are using a true language with its own rules of grammar.
Any intelligence testing of people who are hearing impaired must take their English
language deficiency into account. Performance tests, rather than verbal tests, especially if they
are administered in sign, offer a much fairer assessment of the IQ of a person with a hearing
impairment. When these tests are used, there is no difference in IQ between those who are deaf
and those who are hearing.
Academic Achievement
Unfortunately, most children who are deaf have large deficits in academic achievement.
Reading ability, which relies heavily on English language skills and is probably the most
important area of academic achievement, is most affected. For example, the average 15-year
old student who is hearing impaired has a deficit of at least 5 years in reading. Even in math,
their best academic subject, students with hearing impairment trail their hearing peers by
substantial margins.
Several studies have demonstrated that children who are deaf who have parents who are
deaf have higher reading achievement and better language skills than do those who have
hearing parents. Researchers do not agree about the cause. However, many authorities
speculate that the positive influence of sign language is the cause. Parents who are deaf might
be able to communicate better with their children through the use of ASL, providing the
children with needed support. In addition, children who have parents who are deaf are more
230
likely to be proficient in ASL, and ASL can aid these children in learning written English and
reading.
Social Adjustment
Social development and personality development in the hearing population depend heavily
on communication, and the situation is no different for those who are deaf. People who can
hear have little difficulty finding people with whom to communicate. People who are deaf,
however, can face problems in finding others with whom they can converse. Studies have
demonstrated that many students who are deaf are at risk for loneliness.
Two factors are important in considering the possible isolation of students who are deaf:
 Inclusion and
 Hearing status of the parents.
The Deaf Culture In the past, most professionals viewed isolation from the hearing community
on the part of many people who are deaf as a sign of social pathology. Now most professionals
agree with the many people who are deaf who believe in the value of having their own Deaf
culture. They view this culture as a natural condition emanating from the common bond of sign
language.
The unifying influence of sign language is the first of six factors noted by Reagan (1990)
as demarcating the Deaf community as a true culture:
1. Linguistic differentiation is at the heart of Deaf culture; many within the Deaf community
view themselves as bilingual, with individuals possessing varying degrees of fluency in ASL
and English. People who are deaf continually shift between ASL and English as well as
between the Deaf culture and that of the hearing.
2. Attitudinal deafness refers to whether a person thinks of himself as deaf. It might not have
anything to do with a person’s hearing acuity. For example, a person with a relatively mild
hearing impairment might think of herself as deaf more readily than does someone with a
profound hearing impairment.
3. Behavioral norms within the Deaf community differ from those in hearing society. A few
examples of these norms, according to Lane, Hoffmeister, and Bahan (1996), are that people
who are deaf value informality and physical contact in their interactions with one another, often
giving each other hugs when greeting and departing, and their leave-takings often take much
longer than those of hearing society. Also, they are likely to be frank in their discussions, not
hesitating to get directly to the point of what they want to communicate.
4. Endogamous marriage patterns are evident from surveys showing rates of in-group
marriage as high as 90%. The Deaf community tends to frown on “mixed marriages” between
people who are deaf and those who are hearing.
231
5. Historical awareness of significant people and events pertaining to people who are deaf
permeates the Deaf community. They are often deferential to elders and value their wisdom
and knowledge pertaining to Deaf traditions.
6. Voluntary organizational networks are abundant in the Deaf community. Some examples
are the National Association of the Deaf, the World Games for the Deaf (Deaf Olympics),
and the National Theatre of the Deaf.
Concern for the Erosion of Deaf Culture Many within the Deaf community and some
professionals are concerned that the cultural status of children who are deaf is in peril. They
believe that the increase in inclusion is eroding the cultural values of the Deaf culture. In the
past, much of Deaf culture was passed down from generation to generation through contacts
made at residential schools, but if they attend local schools, today’s children who are deaf may
have little contact with other children who are deaf. Many authorities now recommend that
schools involve members of the Deaf community in developing classes in Deaf history and
culture for students who are deaf who attend local schools.
Deaf Activism: The Gallaudet Experience Considering all groups with exceptionalities, those
who are deaf have been one of the most, if not the most, outspoken about their rights. Even
though some might think that the Deaf community is in peril of losing its identity, it’s still very
active in advocating a variety of social, educational, and medical policies.
Two good examples of this activism are:

 Gallaudet’s Deaf President Now and
 Unity for Gallaudet Movements and the debate over cochlear implants.
The Cochlear Implant Debate Deaf activists have also been aggressive in attacking what they
consider an oppressive medical and educational establishment. An example of just how much
this segment of the Deaf community is at odds with many professionals is its opposition to the
medical procedure of cochlear implantation. This procedure involves surgically implanting
electronic elements under the skin behind the ear and in the inner ear. A small microphone
worn behind the ear picks up sounds and sends them to a small computerized speech processor
worn by the person. The speech processor sends coded signals to an external coil worn behind
the ear, which sends them through the skin to the implanted internal coil. The internal coil then
sends the signals to electrodes implanted in the inner ear, and these signals are sent on to the
auditory nerve. Generally, it is recommended for those who have a severe to profound
sensorineural loss in both ears.
The Genetic Engineering Debate Ironically, deaf activists can also put scientific discoveries
to use to help sustain the Deaf culture but not without facing thorny ethical concerns. Earlier,
we noted the discovery of the mutation of the connexin-26 gene as the leading cause of deafness
in children. Parents could use such information to increase their chances of having a baby who
is deaf. For example, they could use in vitro fertilization, a procedure that is usually used to
232
help infertile couples, whereby egg cells from the mother are fertilized in the laboratory and
then placed in the mother’s uterus. Parents who are deaf could choose to retain only fertilized
eggs that have the connexin-26 mutation. Another option that actually has been used by deaf
couples is artificial insemination by a donor who has a high probability of carrying genes
leading to deafness.
Topic 8
EDUCATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
Formidable problems face the educator who works with students who are deaf or hard of
hearing. One major problem is of course communication. Dating back to the 16th century,
debate has raged about how individuals who are deaf should converse (Lane, 1984). This
controversy is sometimes referred to as the oralism–manualism debate, to represent two very
different points of view: oralism favors teaching people who are deaf to speak; manualism
advocates the use of some kind of manual communication. Manualism was the preferred
method until the middle of the 19th century, when oralism began to gain predominance.
Currently, most professionals recommend both oral and manual methods in what is referred to
as a total communication or simultaneous communication approach. However, many within
the Deaf community believe that even the total communication approach is inadequate, and
they advocate for a bicultural bilingual approach, which promotes ASL as a first language
and promotes instruction in the Deaf culture.
We first discuss the major techniques that make up the oral approach and the oral portion
of the total communication approach; then we explore total communication, followed by a
discussion of the bicultural-bilingual approach.
Oral Approaches: The Auditory-Verbal Approach and the Auditory-Oral Approach
The Auditory-Verbal Approach The auditory-verbal approach focuses exclusively on

using audition to improve speech and language development. It assumes that most children
with hearing impairment have some residual hearing that they can use to their benefit. It relies
heavily on amplification technology, such as hearing aids and cochlear implants, and stresses
that this amplification technology should be instituted at as young an age as possible. This
approach also places a heavy emphasis on speech training. Because children with hearing
impairments have problems hearing their own speech or that of others and often hear speech in
a distorted fashion, they must be explicitly instructed in how to produce speech sounds.
The Auditory-Oral Approach. The auditory-oral approach is similar to the auditory verbal
approach, but it also stresses the use of visual cues, such as speechreading and cued speech.
Sometimes inappropriately called lipreading, speechreading involves teaching children to use
visual information to understand what is being said to them.
 Speechreading is a more accurate term than lipreading because the goal is to teach
students to attend to a variety of stimuli in addition to specific movements of the lips. For
233
example, proficient speechreaders read contextual stimuli so that they can anticipate
certain types of messages in certain types of situations. They use facial expressions to help
them interpret what is being said to them. Even the ability to discriminate the various
speech sounds that flow from a person’s mouth involves attending to visual cues from the
tongue and jaw as well as the lips. For example, to learn to discriminate among vowels,
the speechreader concentrates on cues related to the degree of jaw opening and lip shaping.
 Cued speech is a way of augmenting speechreading. In cued speech, the individual uses
handshapes to represent specific sounds while speaking. Eight handshapes are cues for
certain consonants, and four serve as cues for vowels. Cued speech helps the speechreader
differentiate between sounds that look alike on the lips. Although it has some devoted
advocates, cued speech is not used widely in the United States.
Criticisms of the Oral Approach. Several authorities have been critical of using an
exclusively oral approach with students who have hearing impairment. In particular, they
object to the deemphasis of sign language in this approach, especially for children who are
deaf. These critics assert that it’s unreasonable to assume that many children with severe or
profound degrees of hearing impairment have enough hearing to be of use. Therefore, denying
these children access to ASL is denying them access to a language to communicate.
Critics of the oral approach also point out that speechreading is extremely difficult and that
good speechreaders are rare (Andrews et al., 2004). It’s easy to overlook some of the factors
that make speechreading difficult. For instance, speakers produce many sounds with little
obvious movement of the mouth. Another issue is that the English language has many
homophenes—different sounds that are visually identical when spoken. For example, a
speechreader cannot distinguish among the pronunciations of p, b, and m. Speakers also vary
in how they produce sounds. Finally, factors such as poor lighting, rapid speaking, and talking
with one’s head turned are further reasons why good speechreading is a rare skill.
Total Communication/Simultaneous Communication A combination of oral and manual

methods. Total communication involves the simultaneous use of speech with one of the
signing English systems. These signing systems are approaches that professionals have
devised for teaching people who are deaf to communicate. Fingerspelling, the representation
of letters of the English alphabet by finger positions, is also used occasionally to spell out
certain words. Dissatisfaction with total communication has been growing among some
professionals and many within the Deaf community. The focus of the criticism has been on the
use of signing English systems rather than ASL. Unlike ASL, signing English systems maintain
the same word order as spoken English, thereby making it possible to speak and sign at the
same time. Defenders of signing English systems state that the correspondence in word order
between signing English systems and English helps students to learn English better. Advocates
of ASL assert that the use of signing English systems is too slow and awkward to be of much
benefit in learning English. They argue that word order is not the critical element in teaching a
person to use and comprehend English.
234
The Bicultural-Bilingual Approach
Although several variations of the bicultural-bilingual approach exist, most contain these
three features (Schirmer, 2001):
1. ASL is considered the primary language, and English is considered the secondary
language.
2. People who are deaf play an important role in the development of the program and its
curriculum.
3. The curriculum includes instruction in Deaf culture.
Bilingual education for students who are deaf can be structured so that ASL is learned first,
followed by English, or the two can be taught simultaneously. Research directly bearing on the
efficacy of bicultural-bilingual programs is in its infancy. Research comparing ASL, signing
English systems, and the various approaches has been insufficient to conclude that only one
approach should be used. Rather, it is probably safest to conclude that No fail-safe, success-
guaranteed method exists for educating deaf children, though periodically through the history
of deaf education various methods have been proposed as the pedagogical solution. In the
1960s and 1970s, total communication was considered to be the answer. In the 1980s and
1990s, bilingual education was touted as the solution. With the increase in cochlear implants,
greater numbers of children are being educated orally/aurally . . . and oral/ aural approaches
have seen renewed interest. Ultimately, the profession may recognize that only a range of
approaches can meet the needs of a range of deaf children.
Technological Advances A number of technological advances have made it easier for persons
with hearing impairment to communicate with and/or have access to information from the
hearing world. This technological explosion has primarily involved five areas: hearing aids,
captioning, telephones, computer-assisted instruction, and the Internet. The accompanying
Responsive Instruction feature describes one way of using assistive technology to enhance
literacy skills of children who are deaf or hard-of-hearing.
Hearing Aids. There are three main types of hearing aids: those worn behind the ear, those
worn in the ear, and those worn farther down in the canal of the ear. The behind-the-ear
hearing aid is the most powerful and is therefore used by those with the most severe hearing
impairment. It’s also the one that children most often use because it can be used with FM
systems that are available in some classrooms. With an FM system, the teacher wears a wireless
lapel microphone, and the student wears an FM receiver (about the size of a cell phone). The
student hears the amplified sound either through a hearing aid that comes attached to the FM
receiver or by attaching a behind-the-ear hearing aid to the FM receiver. Whether a student will
be able to benefit from a hearing aid by itself depends a great deal on the acoustic qualities of
the classroom.
Television, Video, and Movie Captioning. At one time, viewers needed a special decoder to
access captioned programs. Federal law now requires that TVs over 13 inches screen size must
contain a chip to allow one to view captions without a decoder—and also stipulates that
235
virtually all new programming must be captioned. However, advocates such as the National
Association of the Deaf continue to press for more and better captioning. One need only watch
a live news show on TV to see how inaccurate some of the captions can be. Many videotapes
and DVDs available from rental stores are captioned as well. The most recent innovation in
captioning is the Rear Window captioning system, which displays captions on transparent
acrylic panels that movie patrons can attach to the cup holders on their seats. The captions are
actually displayed in reverse at the rear of the theater, and viewers see them reflected on their
acrylic screen.
Telephone Adaptations. At one time, people with hearing impairments had problems using
telephones, either because their hearing impairment was too great or because of acoustic
feedback (noise caused by closeness of the telephone receiver to their hearing aids). However,
ironically, text messaging with mobile phones has now become a very useful way for those
with hearing impairments to communicate. Also, another primary means for communication
are text telephones (TT), sometimes referred to as TTYs (teletypes) or TDDs
(telecommunication devices for the deaf). People can use a TT connected to a telephone to
type a message to anyone else who has a TT. A special phone adaptation allows people without
a TT to use the pushbuttons on their phone to “type” messages to people with a TT. The federal
government now requires each state to have a relay service that allows a person with a TT to
communicate with anyone through an operator, who conveys the message to a person who does
not have a TT. The TT user can carry on a conversation with the non-TT user, or the TT user
can leave a message.
Another expanding technology is video relay service (VRS). VRS enables people who
are deaf to communicate with people who hear through a sign language interpreter serving as
an intermediary. For example, the person who is deaf can communicate in sign over television
or video camera over the Internet to the interpreter, who then speaks to the hearing caller and
also signs the response back to the person who is deaf.
Computer-Assisted Instruction. The explosion of microcomputer and related technology

(e.g., DVDs, CD-ROMs) is expanding learning capabilities for people who are deaf and their
families. For example, visual displays of speech patterns on a computer screen can help
someone with hearing impairment to learn speech. DVD programs showing people signing are
also available for use in learning ASL.
Another example of computer-based technology is C-Print. With C-Print, a person who

hears uses an abbreviation system that reduces keystrokes to transcribe on a computer what is
being said by, for example, someone lecturing. Students who are deaf can read a real-time text
display on their computers as well as receive a printout of the text at a later time.
The Internet. The information superhighway has opened up a variety of communication

possibilities for people who are deaf. Besides e-mail, blogs, and instant messaging, which have
been around for a while, the flow of new social networking sites, such as Facebook, Twitter,
and so forth, seems constant. All of these can serve as vehicles for the Deaf community to stay
236
connected and for people with and without hearing impairments to communicate with each
other.
Service Delivery Models Students who are deaf or hard of hearing can be found in settings
ranging from general education classrooms to residential institutions. Since the mid-1970s,
more and more of these students have been attending local schools in self-contained classes,
resource rooms, and general education classes. Currently, about 86% of students with hearing
impairments between the ages of 6 and 21 attend classes in local schools, and 52% spend the
vast majority of their time in the general education classroom (Individuals With Disabilities
Data Accountability Center, 2010). Even though students with hearing impairment are now
included to a very high degree in general education classrooms, they are still served in special
schools or residential settings more than most other disability categories, with about 9% in the
former and 4% in the latter type of placement.
237
Topic 9
IDENTIFICATION AND ASSESSMENT OF CHILDREN WITH HEARING
IMPAIRMENT
Early identification of a hearing impairment increases the chances for the child to receive
early treatment and special education intervention. The assessment program includes
audiological evaluation, test of mental ability, and test of communication ability:
1) Audiological Evaluation is done by the audiologist through the use of sophisticated
instruments and techniques. The audiometer is an electronic device that generates sound at
different levels of intensity and frequency. The purpose of audiological evaluation is to
determine frequencies of sound that a particular person hears. Another audiometric test is
speech audiometry which uses speech instead of pure tones. Here, the person’s detection of
speech at the minimum audible level is measured. The understanding of speech sound and the
ability to discriminate different speech sounds under sufficient loudness are also determined.
Informal Hearing Tests:

a. Whisper Test- Sit the child comfortably, asks him or her to stick the tip of the
forefinger in one ear. The tester sits behind the child where the uncovered
ear is. After a deep breath, whisper some unfamiliar words that contain high
pitch and low pitch tones right behind the unblocked ear. The child must be
able to repeat the words correctly.
b. Conversational Live Voice Test- keeping the same position but facing the child,
ask him or her to repeat words that contain high and low pitch consonants.
Start with a whisper and increase intensity up to 20 dB moving away from
the child little by little. If the child hears at a distance of 3 to 6 meters,
hearing is normal. If the child can repeat the words but speech in unclear,
he or she might be hard of hearing.
c. Ball pen click test - use a retractable ball pen and place it one inch away from the
ear. While the other ear is blocked by a finger, press the button of the ball
pen down and release it. Do it only once. The child indicates that he or she
hears the click by either raising one hand or acknowledging it with a yes or
a nod.
2) Cognitive Assessment -the assessment tools that measures intellectual capacity of

children with hearing impairment do not rely primarily on verbal abilities.
3) Assessment of Communication Abilities- assessment of speech and language abilities

includes an analysis of the development of the form, content and use of language. Articulation,
pitch, frequency and quality of voice are examined.
4) Social and Behavioral Assessment- hearing impairment brings about significant

effects on social-emotional personality development as a result of restrictions in interactive
238
experiences and communication activities with their age group. Linguistic difficulties
oftentimes show in low self-concept and social emotional maladjustment.
ASSESSMENT OF PROGRESS
Many students who are deaf or hard of hearing are educated in inclusive settings with their
peers who do not have a disability. As we noted earlier, however, these students
characteristically underachieve in academic areas. To ensure that they receive appropriate
instruction, it’s critical to assess their progress and outcomes in academic subject areas.
Additionally, students who are deaf or hard of hearing are often included in state- and district-
wide assessments. Teachers should understand appropriate accommodations and alternate
assessments specific to this population of students.
Assessing Academic Skills
Assessment of academic skills for students who are deaf or hard of hearing includes
measures to monitor student progress and evaluate student outcomes. Progress monitoring
measures are similar to those used to assess students who hear. Research suggests that the
technical adequacy of various methods of curriculum-based measurement (CBM) is
appropriate for students who are deaf or hard of hearing. Based on this research, teachers can
feel confident in administering CBM probes to monitor progress in reading fluency and
comprehension as well as written expression and math.
Performance on measures documenting academic outcomes has significant implications

for students; these assessments, however, may not be technically appropriate for students who
are deaf or hard of hearing. Unfortunately, most standardized assessments are biased toward
the majority culture. Educators must consider these biases carefully when making decisions as
a result of students’ outcomes. Despite these concerns, it’s important to have methods to
evaluate students’ academic achievement.
Testing Accommodations
As students who are deaf or hard of hearing are being included in standardized assessments
at higher rates, states are developing guidelines for the use of accommodations. The most
common presentation accommodations for these students are sign interpretation for directions
and for test questions, extended time, and small group or individual administration. Students
who are deaf or hard of hearing also receive response accommodations such as signing
responses to an interpreter.
239
Topic 10
EDUCATIONAL PLACEMENT
The degree and classification of hearing loss are important factors in deciding the most
appropriate special education program for children with hearing impairment.
Sign Language Alphabet
1. Educational Placement- in the Philippines students with hearing impairment like other
students with disabilities are mainstreamed in regular classes either on full-time or part-time
basis . A special education teacher assists the regular teacher in seeing to it that the students
receives as much instruction as their hearing classmates. Some special education programs
employs an interpreter in the regular class who translate the verbal activities into signs and
gestures to enable the student to follow the lesson. The special education teacher gives special
instruction in the resource room or in the special education center on oral or total
communication, manual communication that includes finger spelling and different signed
systems, auditory-verbal training and cued speech.
2. Support services- communication accessibility is provided by sign language and oral

interpreters inside and outside of the classrooms. Computer-aided instructions (CAI) reinforces
the knowledge and skills learned in the different subject areas. The special learning areas like
speech, auditory training and language are taught effectively through computer aided
instruction.
EARLY INTERVENTION
Education for infants and preschoolers with hearing impairments is of critical importance.
Such programs not only can help facilitate the development of the children but also may be
beneficial in reducing parents’ stress levels. Because language development is such an issue
for children who are hearing impaired and because early childhood is such an important time
for the development of language, it’s not surprising that many of the most controversial issues
surrounding early intervention in the area of deafness focus on language. As indicated in our
earlier discussion of oralism, children who are deaf who have hearing parents. For example, in
infancy, they develop ASL at a rate similar to the rate at which hearing infants of hearing
parents develop English.
But infants who are deaf who have hearing parents don’t develop either English or ASL at
as fast a rate. This may be because day-to-day interactions between mothers and infants are
240
more facilitative and natural when both the infant and parents are deaf than when the infant is
deaf and the parents are hearing.
In addition to facility with ASL, parents who are deaf also have the advantage of being
better prepared to cope with their infant’s deafness. Most parents who are hearing are
unprepared for the birth of a child with hearing impairment, whereas parents who are deaf can
draw on their own experiences in order to offer helpful support to their child who is deaf.
Hearing parents, especially if they want to teach their infants sign language, may need help
in understanding the importance of the visual modality in communicating with their infants.
Hearing parents need to understand, for example, that the eye gaze of the infant who is deaf is
extremely important because it’s her way of expressing interest and motivation.
Hearing parents of children who are deaf face a quandary over how to provide their
children with appropriate sign language models. Both signed English and ASL, especially the
latter, are difficult to learn to a high degree of fluency in a relatively short time. And like any
language, ASL is harder to acquire as an adult and can rarely be learned to the same degree of
fluency as that possessed by a native ASL signer.
TRANSITION TO ADULTHOOD
Unemployment and underemployment (being overqualified for a job) have been persistent
problems for persons with a hearing impairment, especially women. Some evidence indicates,
however, that this bleak picture is slowly beginning to change. The primary reason for this
change has been the expansion of postsecondary programming for students with hearing
impairment. A 15-year follow-up of graduates with hearing impairment from 2- and 4-year
colleges found that a college education made a substantial difference in having a satisfying
career and life. The reasons for the difficulty experienced by individuals with hearing
impairments in finding appropriate and satisfying employment have a lot to do with a poor
understanding among the members of the population who do not have hearing impairments of
what it means to have a hearing impairment and of possible accommodations in the workplace.
Postsecondary Education
Before the mid-1960s, the only institution established specifically for the postsecondary
education of students with hearing impairment was Gallaudet College (now Gallaudet
University). Except for this one institution, these students were left with no choice but to attend
traditional colleges and universities. However, traditional postsecondary schools were
generally not equipped to handle the special needs of students with hearing impairment. It’s
little wonder, then, that a study by Quigley, Jenne, and Phillips (1968) identified only 224
people with hearing impairment who were graduates of regular colleges and universities in the
United States between 1910 and 1965.
Findings such as these led to the expansion of postsecondary programs. The federal
government has funded a wide variety of postsecondary programs for students with hearing
impairment. The two best-known ones are Gallaudet University and the National Technical
241
Institute for the Deaf (NTID) at the Rochester Institute of technology. The NTID program,
emphasizing training in technical fields, complements the liberal arts orientation of Gallaudet
University. At NTID, some students with hearing impairment also attend classes at the
Rochester Institute of Technology with students who hear. Sign language interpreter is one of
the best accommodations, it’s important to keep in mind that this is a far cry from leveling the
academic playing field for students with hearing impairments. First, there is a national shortage
of adequately trained interpreters
Family Issues
With regard to raising a family, people who are deaf often face unique challenges. National
statistics indicate that 95% of adults who are deaf choose deaf spouses, and 90% of the
offspring of these marriages have normal hearing (Buchino, 1993). These hearing children
often serve as interpreters for their parents. Being called on to interpret for one’s parents can
help to develop self-confidence around adult authority figures (e.g., doctors, lawyers, insurance
agents), but it can also force one to face some unpleasant biases.
Topic 11
Suggestions for Teaching Students with Hearing Impairment in a Regular Class
1. Promote the acceptance of the student with hearing impairment in the regular class.
 Welcome the student in your class.
 Explain the student’s condition to the entire class. Emphasize that he or she can learn
together with the hearing student.
 Make modifications in teaching as natural as possible.
 Accept the student as an individual with abilities and limitations.
 Discuss the students’ condition with him or her.
2. Be sure that prescribed hearing aids and other amplification devices are used.
 Understand and explain to the class that the hearing aid makes sound louder but not
necessarily clearer.
 See to it that the special education teacher checks the student’s hearing aid or other
devices and that they are working properly.
 Encourage the students to take care of his or her hearing aid and to tell the teacher
when it’s not functioning properly.
 Be sure your student has a spare battery at school.
 Tell the special education teacher or the parents if the student‘s hearing aid not
working properly.
3. Provide preferential seating.
 Sit the student near the spot where you typically stay when seating.
 Sit the student where he or she can easily watch your face without straining to look
up.
 Sit the student away from the sources of noise.
242
 Sit the student where light is on your face and not in the student’s eyes.
 Sit the student so he or she can use the better ear.
 Allow the student to transfer to other seats when necessary.
4. Increase visual information.
 Remember that your student reads your lips and must see your face in to do so.
 Try to stay in one place while talking to the class so the student does not have to lip-
read a “moving target.”
 Avoid talking when your back is turned to the class such as when you writing on the
chalkboard.
 Avoid covering your mouth or face when talking.
 When reading in front of the class, be sure that the student can lip-read you.
 Avoid standing in front of windows where the glare will make it difficult to see your
face.
 Use visual aids, such as pictures and illustrations whenever possible.
 Demonstrate what you want the student to understand whenever possible.
 Use the chalkboard as much as possible.
5. Minimize classroom noise.
 Seat the student away from noisy parts of the classroom.
 Wait for the class to be quiet before talking to the students.
6. Modify teaching procedures.
 Be sure the student is watching and listening when you are talking.
 Be sure the student understands what is said by asking him or her to repeat
information or answer questions.
 Rephrase rather than repeat questions and instructions whenever necessary.
 Write keywords, new words and other needed information on the chalkboard.
 Repeat or rephrase things said by other students during classroom discussion.
 Ask the student to repeat if you cannot understand him or her.
 Assign a student as “buddy” to alert the deaf students to listen and to be sure that he
or she understands the lessons correctly.
7. Have realistic expectations.
 Remember that the student cannot understand and grasp everything all of the time,
no matter how hard he/she tries.
 Be patient when the student asks for repetition.
 Give a student a break from listening when he or she shows signs of fatigue.
 Expect the student to follow classroom routine.
 Expect the student to abide by all the school rules such as attendance, proper
behavior, homework, and dependability as other students are required to do.
 Be alert for fluctuations of hearing. Report any observations to the special education
teacher.
Essay No. 10
What are the advantages of having intact sensory modalities especially visions and
audition? What do you do to preserver your vision and audition? What advice can
243
you offer young adults like you to preserve their sensory modalities?

 Visit a special education class for students with hearing impairment. Talk to one of
them by asking questions about their studies, things and activities they like and
similar topics. Share your experience with your classmates. What characteristics
dis you observe about the student?
Group Work No. 10
1. Study the sign language alphabet with you group mates, communicates with them
and discusses why is early identification of hearing loss important.
2. What inconveniences did you experience?
3. How did you feel when you could not understand what the actor/actress was
saying?
Further Readings
How do professionals define and classify individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing?
• Professionals with a physiological perspective use a decibel loss of 90 dB or greater as the cutoff for deafness.
• Those with an educational perspective classify individuals as deaf if they can’t process linguistic information,
with or without a hearing aid; they classify individuals as hard of hearing if they can process this information with
the help of a hearing aid.
• Congenital versus adventitious deafness refers to being born deaf versus acquiring deafness after birth; prelingual
deafness versus postlingual deafness refers to deafness occurring before versus after speech and language
development.
• Sentiment is growing in the Deaf community that those who are deaf should be considered as a cultural/linguistic
minority rather than disabled.
What is the prevalence of hearing impairment?
• About 0.14% of students from 6 to 17 years of age are identified as hearing impaired; those classified as hard of
hearing are more prevalent than those identified as deaf.
• More than half of students identified as hearing impaired are minorities, and close to 29% come from Spanish-
speaking homes.
What are some basic anatomical and physiological characteristics of the ear?
• The outer ear consists of the auricle and external auditory canal.
• The middle ear consists of the eardrum and three tiny bones (ossicles): the malleus, incus, and stapes.
• The inner ear consists of the vestibular mechanism and the cochlea; the former monitors balance, and the latter
is the most important for hearing because it is responsible for sending electrical impulses to the brain via the
cochlear nerve.
How is hearing impairment identified?
244
• Screening tests for infants often measure otoacoustic emissions, low-intensity sound emitted from the cochlea
when stimulated.
• Pure-tone audiometry assesses decibel (intensity) and hertz (frequency) levels.
• Speech audiometry assesses the ability to detect and understand speech. Specialized tests for young children and
children who are hard to test include conditioned play audiometry, tympanometry, and brain-stem–evoked
response audiometry.
What causes hearing impairments?
• Conductive hearing impairments involve the middle or outer ear, sensorineural hearing impairments involve the
inner ear, mixed hearing impairments involve both.
• The causes of impairments of the outer ear include infections of the external canal or tumors.
• Impairments of the middle ear are often due to malfunctioning of the ossicles; otitis media is a common cause
of temporary middle-ear hearing problems.
• Impairments of the inner ear usually result in greater hearing impairment than do those of the middle or outer
ear; impairments of the inner ear can be hereditary or acquired, but the former are much more common. Genetic
or hereditary factors are the leading cause of deafness in children, with mutation of the connexin-26 gene now
considered the most common cause of congenital deafness.
What are some psychological and behavioral characteristics of learners with hearing
impairments?
• The most severely affected area is comprehension and production of English.

• Sign language is the primary language of most people in the Deaf community.
• Each sign consists of three parts: handshape, location, and movement.
• Sign language is a true language, as evidenced by the facts that sign language is as grammatically complex as
spoken language, there is no universal sign language, children who are deaf reach the same language milestones
and at the same times as do those who can hear, and the neurological underpinnings of sign are the same as those
for spoken language.
• Deafness doesn’t affect intelligence.
• Most students who are deaf have extreme deficits in academics, especially reading.
• Students who are deaf who have parents who are deaf do better academically.
• A supportive home environment is associated with higher achievement.
• Students who are deaf might face limited opportunities for social interaction.
• The inclusion movement can result in students who are deaf not having peers who are deaf with
whom to communicate.
• About 90% of children who are deaf have hearing parents, most of whom are not proficient in sign
language.
• Many authorities recognize the Deaf culture as a means of healthy social communication. There is
concern that the Deaf culture might be eroding owing to inclusionary programming. Deaf activists
have raised issues with respect to cochlear implants and genetic engineering.
What are some educational considerations for learners with hearing impairments?
• The oral approach consists of the following:

• The auditory-verbal approach, which focuses on using audition to improve speech and language
development.
• The auditory-oral approach, which is like the auditory verbal approach with the addition of using visual
cues such as speechreading and cued speech.
• The manual approach stresses sign language.
• Most educational programs use a total communication (simultaneous communication) approach, a blend of oral
and manual techniques, the latter being a type of signing English system in which the English word order is
preserved.
• Some advocate for a bicultural-bilingual approach, which consists of three features: ASL is considered the
primary language, people who are deaf are involved in the development of the program and curriculum, and the
curriculum involves instruction in Deaf culture.
• Educational placement of students who are deaf includes the full continuum, but more inclusive settings are
becoming more and more popular, with about 86% of students who are deaf attending classes in regular schools
245
and 52% spending the vast majority of their time in general education classrooms. Many within the Deaf
community are concerned that the inclusion movement results in the absence of a “critical mass” of students who
are deaf, which can result in social isolation.
• Numerous technological advances are occurring in hearing aids; television, video, and movie captioning; text
telephone technology; computer-assisted instruction; and the Internet.
How do professionals assess the progress of students with hearing impairments?
• Using sign language, professionals can implement CBM to monitor progress in academics, such as reading
fluency, reading comprehension, writing, and math.
• The most common accommodations for standardized assessments include sign interpretation for directions and
for test questions, extended time, and small-group or individual administration.
What are some important considerations with respect to early intervention for learners with
hearing impairments?
• Families of children who are deaf who have hearing parents might be in greater need of early intervention
programming than families in which the parents are deaf.
• Because it is difficult for hearing parents to become fluent in sign language, native signers are a part of some
intervention programs.
What are some important considerations with respect to transition to adulthood for
learners with hearing impairments?
• In addition to Gallaudet University and the National Technical Institute for the Deaf, several postsecondary
programs are now available for students with hearing impairment.
• A common accommodation in college is the use of sign language interpreters. Transliteration involves
maintaining the same word order as English, whereas ASL does not.
• Ninety percent of the children of two parents who are deaf have normal hearing. These children often face
challenges of negotiating between the Deaf community and hearing society.
• There has been a long tradition of preparing many students who are deaf for manual trades; however, these trades
are disappearing.
• Expanded transition programming, postsecondary education, and public awareness promise a brighter outlook
for adults who are deaf.
References:
*Hallahan, Kuffman, Pullen (2017): Exceptional Learners: An Introduction to Special Education- Pearson
New International Edition 12th Edition
*Friend, M and Bursuck W.D. (2012). Including Students with Special Needs. A Practical Guide for
Classroom Teachers- Sixth Edition
246
Part III
Module XI
STUDENTS WITH SPEECH AND LANGUAGE

DISORDERS
247
OUTLINE
Module 11 STUDENTS WITH SPEECH AND LANGUAGE DISORDERS is the

eleventh module in Professional Education 224. This module starts with the basic concepts on
communication, speech and language. The milestones in normal language development will be
helpful to know how children acquire language as they mature. The topics covered speech
and language disorders that result from hearing impairment, etiological factors, incidence and
prevalence, learning and behavioral characteristics, assessment and educational programs for
children and youth with speech and language disorders.

1. Define the terms communication, speech and language and explain how they relate to
each other.
2. Enumerate and define processes involved in speech production.
3. Enumerate and define the elements of language.
4. Enumerate and describe the milestones in language development.
5. Enumerate and describe voice disorders, articulation disorders and fluency disorders.
6. Enumerate, define and give examples of the components of language.
7. Enumerate and define types of language disorders.
8. Identify and describe the criteria for a communication disorder.
9. Name and describe the causes of communication disorders.
10. Describe the assessment procedures in determining the presence of speech and language
disorders.
11. Describe the classroom management techniques to maximize learning of children with
speech and language disorders in a regular classroom.
248
Contents:

Number
1 Basic Concepts on Communication, Speech and

Language
2 Milestones in Language Development
3 Speech and Language Disorders
4 Speech and Language Disorders that result from

Hearing Impairment
5 Etiology of Speech and Language Disorders
7 Learning and Behavior Characteristics
Quiz
Further Readings
References
249
Class Discussion
1. What are the two categories of communication disorders? Speech disorders?
2. What are the five rules that must be learned for a successful language acquisition?
3. What is /are the ideal placement for a child with communication disorder?
4. What is/are importance of the family’s participation in the educational program of a
child with a communication disorder?
 Students will define the terms communication, speech and language and explain how they
relate to each other.
 Students will enumerate and define processes involved in speech production.
 Students will enumerate and define the elements of language.
 Students will enumerate and describe the milestones in language development.
 Students will enumerate and describe voice disorders, articulation disorders and fluency
disorders.
 Students will enumerate, define and give examples of the components of language.
 Students will enumerate and define types of language disorders.
 Students will identify and describe the criteria for a communication disorder.
 Students will name and describe the causes of communication disorders.
 Students will describe the assessment procedures in determining the presence of speech
and language disorders.
 Students will describe the classroom management techniques to maximize learning of
children with speech and language disorders in a regular classroom.
250
Module 11: STUDENTS WITH SPEECH AND LANGAUGE DISORDERS
Topic 1: BASIC CONCEPTS ON COMMUNICATION, SPEECH AND
LANGAUGE
Introduction
Teachers and students communities their thoughts and ideas with one another when
discussing lessons, eliciting answers to questions, expressing one’s thinking and feeling about
the topics or sharing personal experiences. Students know that their responses are correct when
the teacher nods, smiles, thumbs up or put a satisfied facial expression. The process of
communication takes place every minute of our waking time.
Every day at home, at school, at work and in other places where we interact with people
the communication process functions as a means of informing, explaining and expressing our
ideas. Spoken and written words are the basic means of communication. Often they are used
together with paralinguistic behaviors and non-linguistic cues.
The concept of communication, speech and language are interrelated. Speech and language
are the key components of communication. Basically, communication takes place when both
the sender and the receiver of the message use common speech patterns and language.
Difficulties in speech production and lack of language skills interfere with effective
communication.
Communication
Communication is the exchange of information, ideas, needs and desires between two or
more persons. It is an interactive process where there is
1) The intention to send a message
2) A sender who encodes and expresses the message
3) A receiver who decodes and responds to the message
4) A shared means of communication.
Speech
Speech is the actual behavior of producing a language code by making appropriate vocal
sound patterns. It is the neuromuscular act of producing sounds that are used in language. While
the eye ids the specific organ for vision and the ear for audition, there is not one specific organ
for speech. Instead the parts of the speech organs are “borrowed from the respiratory system
and the digestive system.
251
The Normal Speech Organs
Speech is the most effective and efficient method of expressing language. It is also the
most complex and difficult human activity. The other ways of expressing language are gestures,
manual signing, pictures and written symbols.
There are four separate but related processes in the production of speech sounds namely:
 Respiration- or breathing provides the air or power supply for speech sounds to be audible
 Phonation- is the production of sounds as the vocal bands or folds of the larynx are drawn
together by the contraction of specific muscles causing the air to oscillate.
 Resonation- refers to the sound quality of the oscillating air that is shaped as it passes
through the throat or pharyngeal, oral or mouth and nasal cavities.
 Articulation- is the formation of specific, recognizable speech sounds by the tongue, lips,
teeth and mouth.
Language
Language is a “code whereby ideas about the world are expressed through a conventional
system of arbitrary signals for communication. Language has five dimensions, namely:
 Phonology- refers to the linguistic rules governing a language’s sound system.
Phonemes are represented by letters or other symbols between slashes. Example: the
phoneme /n/ represents the “ng” sound in “sing”
 Morphology- refers to the way basic units of meaning are combined into words. A
morpheme is the smallest element of a language that carries meaning. Example: the
word “basket” and “ball”have one morpheme and. The word “basketball” has two
morphemes.
 Syntax- is the system of rules governing the meaningful arrangement of words into
sentences. the rules specify relations among the subject, verb and object.
 Semantics- is a system of rules that relate phonology and syntax to meaning.
Semantics describe how people use language to convey meaning. The language model
refers to semantics as the content of the language that allows its expression and
understanding.
 Pragmatics- is a set of rules governing how language is used.there are three kinds of
pragmatic skills:
(1) using language to achieve various communication functions and goals;
252
(2) Using information from the conversational context, for example,
modifying one’s message according to listener reaction; and
(3) Knowing how to use conversational skills effectively, for example,
starting and ending a conversation, turn taking.
Topic 2
Milestones in Language Development
It is helpful to know how infants, toddlers and children acquire language as they mature.
Birth to 6 months
 First form of communication is crying.
 Babies make sounds of comfort, such as coos and gurgles.
 Babbling soon follows as a form of communication.
 Vowel sounds are produced.
 No meaning is attached to the words heard from others.
6 to 12 months
 The baby’s voice begins to rise and fall while making sounds.
 Child begins to understand certain words.
 Child may respond appropriately to the word “no”
 Child may perform an action when asked.
 Child may repeat words said by others.
12 to 18 months
 Child has learned to say several words with appropriate meaning.
 Child is able to tell what he or she wants by pointing.
 Child responds to simple commands.
18 to 24 months
 There is a great spurt in the acquisition and use of speech at this age.
 Child begins to combine words.
 Child begins to form words into short sentences.
2 to 3 years
 At this stage, the child talks.
 Child asks questions.
 Child has vocabulary of about 900 words.
 Child participates in conversation.
 Child can identify colors.
 Child can use plurals.
 Child can tell simple stories.
 Child begins to use consonant sounds
3 to 4 years
 Child begins to speak rapidly.
 Child begins to ask questions to obtain information.
 Sentences are longer and more varied.
 Child can complete simple analogies.
4 to 5years
 Child has an average vocabulary of over 1, 500 words.
253
 Child’s sentences average 5 words in length.
 Child is able to define words
 Child is able to modify speech.
 Child can use conjunctions.
 Child can recite poems and sing songs from memory.
People who are deaf communicate through sign language. The American Sign Language
(ASL) is a language because it meets the criteria for a language. ASL communicates thoughts,
ideas, and messages through the manual method. ASL has shared code, a unique grammatical
structure, and arbitrary symbols composed of signed letters of the alphabet, word, phrases,
gestures, facial expressions and body movements. Finally, ASL is generative; it allows an
infinite number of sentences to be constructed to express one’s ideas. ASL is creative, original
stories, poetry, and other forms of written work can be expressed in sign language.
Topic 3
Speech and Language Disorders
Types of Speech and Language Disorders
Communication
Disorders
Speech Disorders Language Disorders Hearing Disorders
Voice Disorders Delayed Language Conductive Hearing Loss
Articulation Disorders Sensorineural Hearing Loss

Aphasia &
Related
Disorders
Auditory Nerve & Central Auditory
Fluency Nervous System Hearing Loss
Disorders
Functional Hearing Loss
254
These are the disorders in speech, language and those that result from hearing disorders.
The disorders in speech are voice or phonation and resonance disorders. The language
disorders come in the form of delayed language, aphasia and related disorders. While the
communicative disorders that result from damages to the hearing mechanisms are caused
by conductive hearing loss, sensorineural hearing loss, auditory nerve and central
auditory nervous system hearing loss and functional hearing loss.
The following criteria must be present to indicate the presence of a communication

disorder:
 The transmission and/or perception of message are faulty.
 The person is placed at an economic disadvantage.
 The person is placed at a learning disadvantage.
 The person is placed at a social disadvantage.
 There is a negative impact on the person’s emotional growth.
 The problem causes physical damage or endangers the health of the person.
The common speech and language disorders are characterized by difficulty in

understanding language and limited ability in choosing appropriate words and combining into
correct sentences. Speech and language disorders affect cognitive development and learning
Speech Disorders
 Speech is abnormal when it deviates so far from the speech of other people that it calls
attention to itself, interferes with communication, or causes the speaker or his listener to
feel distressed.
 Speech impairment as “unintelligible, abuses the speech mechanism, or culturally or
personally unsatisfactorily.”
 Any deviation in the condition of the breathing and voice producing mechanisms including
the integrity of the mouth and oral cavity can cause speech disorders.
There are related problems that cause ineffective communication like problems in voice,
articulation, and fluency.
1. Voice Disorders- are deviations in phonation such as in pitch (too high or too low),
frequency (too loud or too soft) and quality (pleasant or irritating to the ears).
2. Articulation Disorders- are errors in the formation of speech sounds. Any deviations from
the process of correct articulation results to errors in pronouncing sounds and words.
255
Four basic errors of articulation:
 Omission- see for seen
 Substitution- wip for lip
 Distortion- talt for salt
 Addition of extra sounds - buhrown for brown
Articulation Disorders Degree of Severity:
 Mild- the child may mispronounce certain sounds or use immature speech, but
the speech can be understood. Usually disappears as child matures.
 Moderate-just like in mild cases, but if it persists for a long period of time,
referral to a speech specialist should be made.
 Severe- many speech sounds is produced incorrectly that speech becomes
unintelligible most of the time. The speech specialist complements the work of the special
education teacher.
3. Fluency Disorders-interrupt the natural flow of speech with inappropriate pauses,

hesitations or repetitions. It is characterized by unnatural variations in speed, stress and pauses.
Examples of Fluency Disorders:
 Cluttering- speech is very fast with extra sounds and mispronounced sounds that
make speech garbled and unintelligible.
 Stuttering- “rapid-fire repetitions of consonants or vowel sounds especially at the
beginning of the words and complete verbal blocks.
Language Disorders
 Abnormal acquisition, comprehension or expression of spoken or written language.
 The disorder may involve one, some or all of the phonologic, morphologic, semantic,
syntactic or pragmatic components of the linguistic system.
 Have problems in sentence processing and retrieving information from short and long
term memory.
 Children with language disorders manifest delays or lags in language development.
 They lack appropriate language comprehension or receptive and expressive abilities
in the basic facets of communication, namely, listening, speaking, reading, and
writing.
 Language delay implies that a child is slow to develop linguistic skills but may acquire
them in the same sequence as normal children.
 A language disorder is present when there is a disruption in the usual rate and sequence
of the milestones in language development.
The following factors can contribute to language disorders in children:

 Cognitive limitations or mental retardation
 Environmental deprivation
 Hearing impairments
 Emotional deprivation or behavioral disorders
 Structural abnormalities of the speech mechanism
256
Problems connected with the form, content and use of language may occur
 Form problems- cover phonology, morphology, and syntax problems that range from
difficulty of decoding spoken language, abnormal use of prefixes to abnormal
structure of words and wrong use of tenses.
 Content problems- include semantic disorders manifested in poor vocabulary
development, inappropriate use of words, and poor comprehension of the meaning of
words.
 Use or pragmatic problems- cover the inability to comprehend or use language in
context or conversation on various situations.
Some examples of language disorders are discussed below:

 Central auditory processing disorder - is a problem in processing sounds
attributed to hearing loss or intellectual capacity.
 Apashia - is a language disorder that results from damage to parts of the brain
responsible for language.
 Apraxia- also known as verbal apraxia or dyspraxia in a condition where the
child has trouble saying what he or she wants to say correctly and
consistently.
 Dysarthria - is the speech condition where the weakening of the muscles
mouth, face, and respiratory system affects the production of oral language.
Topic 4
Speech and Language Disorders that Result from Hearing Impairment
The most devastating effects of deafness and other forms of hearing impairment is on
language development. Persons who are deaf or hard of hearing manifest speech and language
disorders as a result of conductive, sensorineural, auditory, nerve, central auditory nervous
system and functional hearing losses.
Deafness restricts the perception of the sound elements of a language and other sounds in
the environment with or without hearing aid. While deaf persons can develop their
communication skills manually through sign language and arbitrary gestures and movements,
or orally through speech reading and auditory training,these adaptations cannot approximate
normal speech and language development.
257
Topic 5
Etiology of Speech and Language Disorders
The causes of speech and language disorders are complex. The can be functional like
environmental stress and can also be organic in the case of cleft palate. The causes can be
congenital when the disorder is present at birth or they can be adventitious or acquired after
birth, in infancy, and early childhood and in the later years.
Etiological factors are traced to:

 Brain damaged
 Secondary to mental retardation
 Hearing loss
 ADHD
 Learning disabilities
 Autism
 Schizophrenia
 Cerebral palsy
 Cleft palate
 Vocal and cord injury
 Disorders of palate
 Gilles de la Tourette syndrome
 Injury, accidents
 Diseases and trauma
 Meningitis
Topic 6
Incidence and Prevalence
 Language and speech disorder is a high incidence disorder.

 There is a strong relationship between communication disorders and learning disabilities
and the primary disability should be identified.
 In the US, approximately 20%of children receiving special education services are with
speech and language disorders , excluding cases that are secondary to these conditions.
 The estimate for speech and language disorders is agreed to be at least 5% of school aged
children. 3% of this has voice disorders and stuttering, 1%.
 The incidence of school children who manifest articulation is 2% to 3% but this percentage
decreases steadily with age.
258
Topic 7
Learning and Behavior Characteristics
Children with speech and language disorders have problems in receptive and expressive
language. They have difficulties in understanding what is meant by spoken communication as
shown in the inability to follow directions, improper use of words, and difficulty in expressing
ideas in oral, signed or written forms, inappropriate grammatical patterns, and minimal
vocabulary.
Children with receptive language deficits- have difficulty in communicating their ideas
as shown in the inability to express or verbalize their thoughts, respond to questions, retain and
retrieve or recall information and difficulties in activities that require abstraction.
The areas of deficit in expressive language include difficulties in:
 grammar,
 syntax,
 fluency and
 vocabulary.
Delays in language development show when the child is behind his or her peers in the
acquisition of speech and language skills. Speech and language disorders are secondary to
disabilities such as ADHD, learning disabilities, autism, schizophrenia, cerebral palsy, cleft
palate and other disorders of the palate, vocal cord injury and the Guiles dela Tourette
syndrome.
Speech and language disorders negatively affect:

 Cognitive functioning- low academic performances as a result of concomitant
difficulties in organizing ideas, following directions, recognizing phonemes,
producing sounds and finding the right words for things.
 Social interaction - reluctant to participate in school activities, inattentive, reluctant
to interact with peers
 Behavior- perceived exclusion or rejection, feeling of frustration, withdraw from
social groups.
Topic 8
The following steps are prescribed by the Special Education Division, Bureau of
Elementary Education of the Department of Education:
1. Pre-referral Intervention
Teachers in regular class, parents, classmates and other people who communicate with the
child regularly report the student who is suspected to have speech and language disorders to
the school principal. The special education teacher conducts the screening process by using a
“Checklist of Characteristics of Children with speech and Language Disorders,” by observing
the child’s communication skills in formal and classroom setting, and informally at home, in
259
the playground, canteen and similar places. The pupil and the parents or caregivers are
interviewed to validate the results of the nomination form and checklist. The findings are
compared to the normal characteristics of speech and language development indicated in the
“Milestone on Language Development” to determine delays tentatively.
2. Multifactored Evaluation
By comparing the child’s receptive and expressive language levels to his or her mental
age, differentiation between a language problem and a development delay can be made. Formal
evaluation by a speech pathologist is arranged.
Some widely used speech and language test in the United States are the:
 Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test
 Auditory Comprehension of Language
 Boehm Test of Basic Concepts
 Comprehensive Receptive and Expressive Vocabulary Test
 Kaufmann’s Test on Early Academic and Language Skills.
Topic 9
Educational Programs
The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association offers some suggestions for the

regular teacher in an inclusive class and for the special education teacher as well:
1. Introduce changes in the home and school setting especially if the child has central
auditory processing problems. To help the child focus and maintain attention, give
him or her seat that is away from auditory and visual distractions. A seat close to the
teacher and the blackboard and away from the window or door may be helpful.
2. Reduce external visual and auditory distractions. A large display of posters or
cluttered bulletin boards can be distracting. Provide the child with a study carrel. Ear
plugs may be useful to block distracting noises. Check with an audiologist to find out
if the ear plugs are appropriate and which kind to use.
3. To improve the listening environment, the following rues may be helpful:
 Gain the child’s attention before giving direction.
 Speak slowly and clearly, but do not over exaggerate speech
 Use simple, brief directions.
 Give directions in a logical, time-ordered sequence. Use words that make the
sequence clear, such as first, next, finally.
 Use visual aids and write obstructions to supplement spoken information.
 Emphasize key words when speaking or writing, especially when presenting new
information. Preliminary instruction with emphasis on the main ideas to be
presented may be effective.
 Use gestures that clarify information.
 Vary loudness to increase attention.
260
 Check comprehension by asking the child questions or asking for a brief summary
after key ideas have been presented.
 Paraphrase instructions an information to shorter and simpler sentences rather
than just repeating them.
 Encourage the child to ask questions for further clarification.
 Make instructional transitions clear
 Review previously learned material.
 Recognize periods of fatigue and give breaks as necessary
 Avoid showing frustrations when the child misunderstands a message.
 Avoid asking the child to listen an write at the same time. For children with severe
central auditory processing problems, ask a buddy to take notes, or ask the teacher
to provide notes. Tape recording classes is another effective strategy.
Essay No. 11
Justify the importance of the family’s participation in the educational

program of a child with a communication disorder.

 Think of people you know who have speech and language disorders. Try to explain
their communication problems by referring to the parts in the chapter.
Group Work No. 11
1. Interview your grandparents and other old people regarding certain beliefs on how
to cure sore throat, hoarse voice and similar ailments. Compare them to the effects
of medicines that are advertised on TV. Make a stand on the wisdom of the cure
versus what the present advertisements claim.
Further Readings
What is the difference between communicative differences and disorders?
• Differences include dialects, regional differences, language of ethnic minority groups, and nondominant languages.
261
• An individual with a difference that is not a disorder is an effective communicator in her language community, whereas
someone with a disorder has impaired communication in all language environments.
What are the major disorders of language?

• There are many different theories of language development and the disorders of language.
• Language disorders may be primary (no known cause) or secondary (attributable to another condition or disability).
• Primary language disorders include specific language impairment (SLI), early expressive language delay (EELD), and
language-based reading impairment.
• Secondary language disorders include those related to emotional or behavioral disorders or any other disability, such as
intellectual disabilities or autistic spectrum disorder.
What are the major disorders of speech?

• Speech disorders are a very heterogeneous group of problems related to the production of oral language, including the
following:
• Phonological disorders—problems in understanding the sound system of language
• Articulation disorders—problems in producing correct speech sounds
• Voice disorders—problems in producing voice with appropriate pitch, loudness, or quality
• Fluency disorders—problems in maintaining speech flow
• Motor-speech—problems in speaking due to neuromotor damage, including the following:
• Dysarthria—problems in controlling the production of speech sounds
• Apraxia—problems in planning and coordinating speech
What are the main educational considerations for communication disorders?

• The classroom teacher needs to work with others in three main areas:
• Facilitating the social uses of language
• Question asking
• Teaching literacy: Reading and written language
What are the major features of assessment of progress for students with communication disorders?
• A primary purpose of language assessment is to inform instruction.
• Assessment for intervention requires attention to the following:
• What the child talks about and should be taught to talk about
• How the child talks about things and how he could be taught to speak of those things more intelligibly
• How the child functions in the context of his linguistic community
• How the child uses language and how his or her use of it could be made to serve the purposes of communication and
socialization more effectively
• Progress monitoring assessments are dynamic and should follow a cycle of teaching, testing, and reteaching.
• Progress monitoring assessments include curriculum based language assessment (CBLA).
• Assessment of student outcomes should be implemented to confirm that learning has occurred.
What are the major aspects of early intervention for communication disorders?
• Early intervention is based on early language development.
• Early intervention usually involves working with delayed language.
• Early intervention requires working with families.
What do educators emphasize in transition for students with communication disorders?

• Transition involves helping students use the language demanded for successful employment.
References:
*Hallahan, Kuffman, Pullen (2017): Exceptional Learners: An Introduction to Special Education- Pearson
New International Edition 12th Edition
*Friend, M and Bursuck W.D. (2012). Including Students with Special Needs. A Practical Guide for
Classroom Teachers- Sixth Edition
262
263
Part III
Module XII
STUDENTS WITH PHYSICAL DISABILITIES,

HEALTH IMPAIRMENTS AND SEVERE
DISABILITIES
264
OUTLINE
Module 12 Students with Physical Disabilities, Health Impairments and Severe

Disabilities is the twelfth module in Professional Education 224. This module starts with a
review of human body’s skeletal and muscle system. The topics covered are types and
classification of Physical Disabilities, the characteristics of children with health impairments
and severe and multiple disabilities. The educational programs and support services for
children and youth with Physical Disabilities, Health Impairments and Severe Disabilities are
also included.

1. Define, compare, and contrast the terms physical disabilities, health impairment and severe
disabilities.
2. Describe the skeletal and the muscle systems of the human body.
3. Define and differentiate orthopaedics from neurological impairments.
4. Enumerate and describe the types and classification of physical disabilities.
5. Identify and discuss the chronic illnesses and health related conditions.
6. Enumerate and describe the severe and multiple disabilities.
7. Enumerate and describe the educational programs and support services for students with
physical disabilities, health impairments and severe disabilities.
Contents:

Number
1 Human Body’s Skeletal and Muscle Systems
2 Types of Physical Disabilities
3 Health Impairments
4 Severe and Multiple Disabilities
5 Characteristics
6 Prevalence and Incidence Trends
8 Educational Support Services
9 Environmental Modification
10 Assistive Technology
Quiz
Further Readings
References
265
Class Discussion
1. What is the importance of keeping the bones and muscles healthy?
2. What are the differences between orthopedic and neurological impairments?
3. Describe the common types of Physical Disabilities, Health Impairments and Severe
Disabilities.
 Students will define, compare, and contrast the terms physical disabilities, health
impairment and severe disabilities.
 Students will describe the skeletal and the muscle systems of the human body.
 Students will define and differentiate orthopaedics from neurological impairments.
 Students will enumerate and describe the types and classification of physical disabilities.
 Students will identify and discuss the chronic illnesses and health related conditions.
 Students will enumerate and describe the severe and multiple disabilities.
 Students will enumerate and describe the educational programs and support services for
students with physical disabilities, health impairments and severe disabilities.
266
Module 12: STUDENTS WITH PHYSICAL DISABILITIES, HEALTH
IMPAIRMENTS AND SEVERE DISABILITIES.
Topic 1: Human Body’s Skeletal and Muscle Systems
research and study)
Introduction
There are students in regular schools who walk with a limp as a result of poliomyelitis
when they were young. Some students are crippled due to amputation of the legs or arms as a
result of disease, fractures or accidents. There are other diseases that affect the normal
development and functions of the skeleton and muscles. Students with crippling conditions
walk with crutches, braces or move around in a wheelchair. Thus students with physical
disabilities are very visible in the school and the community as they ambulate with the use of
assistive device.
There are students who have health impairments and acute health problems caused by
asthma, heart diseases, rheumatic fever and other diseases. Certain cases of health impairments
affect the child’s strength and vitality and may require hospitalization and long absences from
school.
There are children who have cerebral palsy, a severe impairment that disables them from
maintaining normal posture and balance to perform normal movements and skills. Children
with epilepsy experience seizures caused by abnormal and excessive electrical discharges
within the brain.
Crippling conditions, cerebral palsy and epilepsy are only a few of the many physical
disabilities, health impairments and severe disabilities that children and youth suffer from.
These disabilities restrict their movements and activities and their intellectual functioning as
well. The children may have normal mental ability but their conditions limit their participation
in class activities. Thus, special education services are extended to them like the other
categories of exceptionalities discussed in other modules.
Descriptions:
Human Body’s Skeletal and Muscle Systems
The Skeleton and Muscle- physical disabilities attack the bodies skeletal and muscle systems,
the nervous system, the bones, joints and limbs.
267
The Skeleton
The adult skeleton provides the body’s internal scaffolding; it is made up of 206 bones and
accounts for one-fifth of the body’s total weight. There are four classes of bones:
 Long bones or limbs
 Short bones in the wrists and ankles
 Flat bones in the skull
 Irregular bones in the face and vertebrae
The bones of the hands and feet constitute half the total number of bones in the body. The
206 bones are found in the different parts of the body.
Skull 22 Pectoral girdle 4

Ears 6 Hip bones 2
Vertebrae 24 Arms (2x30) 60
Sternum 3 Legs (2x29) 58
Throat 1
An adult’s spine consists of 26 bones called vertebrae. It is divided into four sections:
 Cervical vertebrae- the top seven bones of the spine in the neck
 Thoracic vertebrae- the 12 vertebrae attached to the ribs
 Lumbar vertebrae- the five vertebrae below the ribs
 Sacrum and coccyx- the sacrum is made of five vertebrae and the coccyx of four. In
adult the vertebrae are fused together
The skeleton support the body protects the internal organs and allows a wide variety of
movement. Most bones are connected together by ligaments to form flexible joints.
 The skull is formed from 22 different bones. The bones that form the braincase
(cranium) are separate at birth but gradually fuse together through childhood.
 The collarbone or clavicle supports the upper arm and allows it to move in a
range of direction.
 The shoulder blade
 The humerus
 The ribs protect internal organs and the chest cavity
 The breastbone or sternum is a bony plate that connects the ribs
 The radius
 The ulna
 There are eight wrist bones or carpals in each wrist.
 The metacarpal bones are the five long bones of the hand that lead to the fingers
and thumb.
 The hip or ilium is the outer part of the pelvic girdle.
268
 The kneecap or patella is the small bone that sits inside the cord-like tendon
joining the thigh and muscles.
 The thigh bone or femur is the longest and strongest bone in the body.
 The shinbone or tibia is the major load-bearing bone of the lower leg.
 The fibula is the smaller of the two lower leg bones.
Cartilage
 Is a type of connective tissue that forms shock absorbing discs between vertebrae,
 Gives elasticity and strength to the knee joint and
 Surrounds the end or every long bone where it meets other bones to form a joint.
 It also joins the ribs to the breastbone.
Muscles
 Control movement through the body including automatic actions such as heartbeat
 Movement of the gut and blinking
 Make up over half of the body’s total weight.
Three Kinds of Muscles
1. Striped muscle so called because of its striated appearance under the microscope, makes up
the majority. It contracts in response to messages from the brain.
2. Smooth muscle is not under conscious control. It controls the digestive, urinary,
reproductive and circulatory systems and such unconscious responses as adjusting
the iris in the eye.
3. Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart and is unique in being able to contract
rhythmically and continuously.
Muscles produce movement by contracting and are arranged in opposing pairs or groups.
To raise the forearm, the biceps at the front of the upper arm contract and shorten while the
triceps at the back relax and lengthen. To lower the forearm the actions of these muscles are
reversed. The biceps are stronger than the triceps because raising the arm works against the
pull of gravity.
 Trapezius is a large, diamond-shaped muscle in the upper back. It holds the head
straight and contracts to pull it backwards.
 Shoulder deltoid raises the arms outwards from the body.
 Triceps contract to straighten the arm.
 Pectoral muscle
 Biceps
 External obliques contract the twist the torso.
 Lattissimus dorsi is the large back muscle that holds the body upright.
 Trunk deltoids contract to bend the body forward.
269
 Thigh muscles or quadriceps is the large muscle that pulls the lower leg forward when
walking and holds the leg straight when standing.
 Gluteus maximus is the largest muscle in the body located in the buttocks.
 Hamstring muscles contract to bend the leg at the knee.
 Calf muscle contracts to pull the heel upwards and lift the back of the foot off the
ground.
 Achilles tendon is a tough cord that links the bottom of the calf muscle to the heel and
pulls the heel upward when the calf muscle contracts.
The Skeletal and Muscle Systems
270
Topic 2
TYPES OF PHYSICAL DISABILITIES
Physical disabilities refer to impairments that are temporary or permanent that:

 Affects the bones and muscles systems and make mobility and manual
dexterity difficult and/or impossible;
 Cause deformities and/or absence of body organs and systems necessary for
mobility;
 Affect the nervous system making mobility awkward and uncoordinated.
Orthopedic and Neurological Impairments
The two distinct and separate types of physical disabilities are Orthopedic and
Neurological Impairments.
An Orthopedic impairment affects the bones, joints limbs, and associated muscles of the
skeletal system. Examples of orthopedic impairments are:
1. Poliomyelitis also known as infantile paralysis.

2. Osteomyelitis or tuberculosis of the bones and spine.
3. Bone fracture or breakage in the community of the bone results from falls and
accidents.
4. Muscular dystrophy is a group of long-term diseases that progressively weakens,
deteriorates and wastes away the muscles of the body.
5. Osteogenesis imperfecta is a rare inherited condition marked by extremely brittle
bones. The skeletal system does not grow normally and the bones are easily fractured.
6. Limb-deficiency refers to the absence or partial loss of an arm or leg. The Greek word
“plegia” which means “to strike” is used in combination with the affected limb, that is,
arm or leg, to describe the condition.
 Quadriplegia- all four (quadri) limbs, both arms and legs are affected. Movement
of the trunk and face may also be impaired.
 Paraplegia- motor impairment of the legs only.
 Hemiplegia- only one (hemi) side of the body is affected, for example, the left
arm and the left leg may be impaired.
 Diplegia- major involvement of the legs with less severe involvement of the arms.
 Monoplegia- only one (mono) limb is affected.
 Triplegia - three limbs are affected.
 Double hemiplegia- major involvement of the arms with less severe involvement
of the legs.
7. Crippling Condition- that are congenital or present at birth include:
 Clubfoot- the child is born with one or both feet deformed usually with the feet
and toes turned inward, outward or upward often accompanied by webbed toes.
 Clubhand- the same as clubfoot but this time hands and fingers are deformed.
 Polydactylism- the child is born with extra toes or fingers.
271
 Syndactylism- the fingers or toes or both are webbed like those of fowls, ducks
and hens.
A neurological impairment involves the nervous system and affects the ability to move,
use, feel or control certain parts of the body.
Types of Neurological Impairment

1. Cerebral Palsy
2. Spina Bifida
3. Spinal Cord Injuries
4. Traumatic Brain Injury
Cerebral Palsy
 Characterized by disturbances of voluntary motor functions that may include

paralysis, extreme weakness, lacks of coordination, involuntary convulsions and other
motor disorders.
 Long term condition resulting from a lesion to the brain or the abnormality of brain
growth.
 It can be treated but not cured.
 It’s not fatal.it does not get worse as the child ages.
 It is not contagious, and in most cases not inherited.
 Often been attributed to the occurrence of injuries, accidents or illnesses that are
prenatal, perinatal or postnatal.
 No or have little control over the arms, legs, or speech depending on the type or degree
of impairment.
 They may have impaired vision or hearing.
 Perception and sensory difficulties, learning difficulties and intellectual impairments
may accompany cerebral palsy.
Types of Cerebral Palsy
a. Hypertonia- commonly called spasticity. This is characterized by tense, contracted

muscles and the movements may be jerky, exaggerated and poorly coordinated.
Deformities of the spine, hip, discoloration and contractures of the hand, elbow, foot
and knee are common. This result in inability to grasp objects with the fingers and if
able to walk, it maybe with a scissors gait, standing on toes with knees bent and
pointed inward.
b. Hypotonia- or weak floppy muscles particularly in the neck and trunk. The child with
hypotonia has low level of motor activity, slow to make balancing responses and may
not walk until 30 months of age.
c. Athetosis- is a condition characterized by slow, worm-like involuntary, uncontrollable
and purposeless movements. A child with this condition may not be able to control
the muscles of the tongue, throat and may drool so there is difficulty in expressive
oral language.
272
d. Ataxia - is a disturbance of balance and equilibrium resulting in a gait like that of a
drunken person when walking and may fall easily if not supported.
e. Rigidity- it is characterized by the marked resistance of the muscles to passive motion
and display extremes stiffness in the affected limbs.
f. Tremor- is marked by rhythmic, uncontrollable movements or trembling of the body
or limbs.
g. Mixed type- this is characterized by the presence of traits mentioned in the preceding
categories.
Spina Bifida
Spina Bifida is a congenital defect in the vertebrae that encloses the spinal cord. As a result
a portion of the spinal cord and the nerves that normally control muscles and feeling in the
lower part of the body fail to develop normally. The condition ranges from mild to severe. The
mildest form is not visible and does not usually cause any loss of function for the child. In most
serious condition, the spinal lining, spinal cord and nerve roots all protrude and are usually
tucked back into the spinal cord shortly after birth. This carries a high risk of paralysis and
infection. About 80-90% of children born with spina bifida develop hydrocephalus, the
accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid in tissues surroundings the brain.
Spinal Cord Injuries
Spinal Cord Injuries are results of accidents. Injury to the spinal column is generally described
by letters and numbers indicating the site of damage. For example C5-6 means the damage has
occurred at the level of the fifth and sixth cervical vertebrae, a flexible area of the neck
susceptible to injury from whiplash and driving. In general, paralysis and loss of sensation
occur below the level of injury. The higher the injury on the spine and the more the injury
(lesion) cut through the entire cord, the greater the paralysis.
Traumatic Brain Injury
Traumatic Brain Injury is commonly caused by injuries to the head as a result from automobile,
motorcycle and bicycle accidents, falls, assaults, gunshot wounds and child abuse. Severe head
trauma often causes coma or abnormal deep stupor from which it may be impossible to arouse
the affected individual by external stimuli for an extended period of time. Temporary or lasting
symptoms may include cognitive and language deficits, memory loss, seizures and perceptual
disorders. Children may have difficulty in paying attention and may display inappropriate or
exaggerated behavior ranging from extreme aggressiveness to apathy.
Topic 3
Health Impairments
 Health Impairments of children are due to chronic or acute health problems that
adversely affect their educational performance. These problems are present over long
273
periods and tend to get better or disappear. Children with these health problems are not
usually confined in hospitals except during attacks or flare ups of their diseases. In many
instances, health impairments could result to poor school performance and social
acceptance and their effects to the child is great; hence, it is important for teachers to be
aware of these problems.
Among the chronic illnesses and other related conditions are the following:
 Asthma
 Diabetes
 Epilepsy
 Hemophilia
 Burns
Asthma
 Is a chronic lung disease characterized by episodic bouts of wheezing, coughing and
difficulty in breathing due to the inflammation of the airways in the lungs.
 It is usually triggered by allergens (certain foods, pets, and pollen), irritants (smog,
cigarette smoke), exercise or emotional stress.
 The child may experience only a period of mild coughing or extreme difficulty in
breathing that requires emergency treatment.
 Viral infection of the respiratory system.
Diabetes
 is a disorder of metabolism that affects the way the body absorbs and breaks down
sugars and starches in food.
 Children with diabetes have insufficient insulin, a hormone normally produced by
the pancreas necessary for proper metabolism and digestion of food.
 Early symptoms include thirst, headache, weight loss (despite of good appetite),
frequent urination and cuts that are slow to heal.
 The child lacks energy and important parts of the body particularly the eyes and the
kidneys can be affected by untreated diabetes.
Epilepsy
 Is a convulsive disorder commonly known as seizure, a disturbance of movement,
sensation, behavior and/or consciousness caused by abnormal electrical activity in the
brain.
 It is believe that people become seizure-prone when a particular area on the brain
becomes electrically unstable.
 Many children experience a warning sensation, known as aura, a short sensation
before seizure. The aura takes different forms in different people: distinctive feelings,
sights, sounds, tastes, and even smells.
Types of Seizures:
274
1. Generalized tonic-clonic seizure
 Formerly called grand mal is the most conspicuous and serious type.
 The affected child has little or no warning that a seizure is about to occur;
 The muscles become stiff, the child losses consciousness and falls to the floor.
 Then the entire body shakes violently as the muscles alternately contract and relax.
 Saliva may be forced out of the mouth; legs and arms may jerk; and the bladder and
bowels may be emptied.
 After about 2 t 5 minutes, the contractions diminish; the child either goes to sleep or
regains consciousness in a confused or drowsy state.

2. Absence Seizure
 Previously known as petit mal is far less severe than the generalized tonic-clonic
seizure but may occur more frequently, as often as 100 times per day in some children.
 Usually there is a brief loss of consciousness, lasting for a few seconds to half a
minute.
 The child may stare blanky, flutter or blink his/her eyes, grow pale. Or drop whatever
he/she is holding.
 The child may not be aware of the seizure and no special first aid is necessary.
3. Partial Seizure- Which could be complex or simple

 Complex partial seizure:
 A complex partial seizure also called psycho-motor seizure may appear as a
brief period of inappropriate or purposeless activity.
 The child may smack his/her lips, walk around aimlessly or shout.
 She may appear conscious but is not actually aware of the behavior.
 It could last from 2 to 5 minutes, after which the child has amnesia about the
entire episode.
 The simple partial seizure:
 Is characterized by sudden jerking motions with no loss of consciousness.
 It may occur weekly, monthly or only once or twice a year.
When a child experiences a seizure especially the generalized tonic-clonic seizure, the
teacher should follow these procedures:
i. Keep calm. Reassure the student that the student will be fine in a minute.
ii. Ease the child to the floor and clear the area around him/her or anything harmful.
iii. Put something flat and soft under the head so it will not bang on the floor when the
body jerks.
iv. You cannot stop the seizure. Let it run its course. Do not try to revive the child and
do not interfere with the movements;
v. Turn the body gently to the side to keep the airways clear and allow saliva to drain
way. Do not try to force his mouth open. Do not try to hold the tongue. Do not put
anything in the mouth.
vi. When the jerking movements stop, let the child rest until he/she regains
consciousness; and
275
vii. Breathing may be swallow during the seizure, and may even stop briefly. In the
unlikely event that the breathing does not begin again, check the child’s airway for
obstruction and give artificial respiration.
(Source from Epilepsy School Alert, the Epilepsy Foundation of America, 1987,
Washigton. D.C.)
Hemophilia
 Is a rare hereditary disorder in which the blood does not clot as quickly as it should.
 Internal bleeding can cause swelling, pain and permanent damage to joints, tissues and
internal organs may necessitate hospitalization for blood transfusion.
Burns
 Burns result from household accidents but sometimes caused by child abuse.
 Children with serious burns usually experience pain, scarring, limitations of motion,
lengthy hospitalization and repeated surgery.
 Serious burns can cause complications in other organs, long-term physical limitations
and psychological difficulties.
Other health problems include a heart condition, leukemia or severe anemia, rheumatic
fever, nephritis and lead poisoning.
Topic 4
Severe and Multiple Disabilities
This category includes children who exhibit two or more disabilities, with the exception
of the deaf-blind. Usually the combinations are mental retardation, learning disabilities, autism,
Down Syndrome, speech disorders, physical disabilities, visual and hearing impairments,
emotional and behavioral disorders and others.
These children have a wide range of characteristics brought about by the combination and
severity of the disabilities and age of onset. Some traits are shared like limited speech or
communication, difficulty in basic physical mobility, problems in generalizing skills from one
situation to another, restrictions in relating or attending to others, tendency to forget skills
through disuse and need for intensive and pervasive support in major life activities.
Topic 5
Characteristics
 The disabilities affect the development of cognitive, social, emotional and adaptive
skills.
 The condition limits interaction with other children, adults and restricts normal
activities.
276
 Difficulties with adaptive behavior and in coping with the natural and social
demands of the environment.
 Display age-inappropriate and socially unacceptable behaviors brought about by
the inability to recognize situations when and where certain acts may be improper
or permissible. (Examples: undressing in public, self-stimulatory behavior like
touching parts of the body, self-injurious behavior like head banging, poking the
eyes and self-stimulation)
 Completely out of touch with reality and may not show normal human emotions.
Many of these children need intensive and pervasive support under constant supervision
since they are often unable to care for their basic needs, such as dressing, eating, toileting and
maintaining personal hygiene.
Topic 6
Prevalence and Incidence Trends
The 1997 UNICEF report on Situation Analysis of Children and Women in the Philippines
indicates that 25.9%are without one or both arms or hands while 16.4% are without one or both
legs or feet in the projected 80 million populations. No other local data on prevalence or
incidence estimates are available for those with health impairment and severe or multiple
disabilities.
The special education enrolment data of school year 2004-2005 show that 10%of students
with disabilities have orthopedic impairments while 2%are those with health problems. No
enrolment data are available for children with severe disabilities.
The growing public awareness on disabilities has partly reduced the incidence of numerous
childhood diseases and disabilities. Some of the initiatives are the law on newborn screening
that detects and treats congenital disabilities, prenatal care made available in government health
center, immunization programs, along with early intervention, physical therapy, medication
and the application of assistive technology.
Topic 7
Educational Programs
Administration of Special Education

Four administrative models are appropriate for this group of children:
1. Inclusion in the regular class
2. Special Class
3. Hospital-bound instruction
4. Homebound or home-based instruction
Inclusion in the Regular Class
277
The special education teacher helps the regular teacher in dealing with the special needs
of the children. Ideally, there should be access to the services of an interdisciplinary team
composed of physical therapists, occupational therapists, speech therapists, physicians, nurses
and other specialists, psychologists and guidance counselors.
The amount of support that maybe required by these children varies greatly according to
the condition, needs and level of functioning. Children with physical disabilities, health
impairments and severe disabilities who can develop their full potentials in this setting are those
who:
 Have mild to moderate disabilities that are correctible with assistive devices, need for
support is intermittent or periodic;
 Have borderline or average mental ability, i.e., slow learner or with mild mental
retardation, with mild learning disabilities;
 Require only minor modifications in facilities such as ramps, altered seating
arrangement and simple assistive equipment like braces, crutches and wheelchairs;
and
 Require no drastic curriculum revisions with respect to content, type of educational
experiences, length of time spent in schooling, or ultimate goals.
An effective inclusive education program develops self-direction and independence as

the students with disabilities attend to their schoolwork. Peer relationships and social
development are enhanced by the cooperative class activities that allow the non-disabled
students to recognize the abilities of their classmates with handicapping conditions. Research
data show that, with adequate support services and class modifications made available,
attending the same school and participating in the same activities with their non-disabled
classmates greatly contribute to the social development of these children.
Special Class
 The special class is composed of children with disabilities who do not meet the criteria
for inclusion in the regular class.
 The special education teacher handles the class, partial mainstreaming in regular
classes may be worked-out.
 There may be more than one grade level in a special class.
 The class may be located in the special education center or special education resource
room in the regular schools or in special schools.
Hospital-bound Instruction
 The special education program of the hospital admits children with physical
disabilities or chronic illnesses who cannot study in regular schools.
 The National Orthopedic Hospital (NOH) located in Quezon City has a school for
Crippled Children that offers educational services from the elementary to the
secondary level.
 The Philippine General Hospital in Manila has a ward known as “Silahis ng
Kalusugan” that caters to children who are suffering from chronic illness and diseases.
278
Homebound or Home-based Instruction
 Children who have severe or multiple disabilities, mobility problems, or chronic
illnesses are regularly visited by itinerant special education teachers in their home
who provide instruction based on their needs and capabilities.
 In case the SPED teacher is not available, the parents can provide direct instruction
or hire a teacher to provide regular instruction.
 The knowledge and skills learned at home or in the hospital can be accredited through
the Philippine Educational Placement Test (PEPT) of the Department of Education.
Instructional Models
 Modifications and adaptation in the curriculum and strategies in teaching and evaluation
of learning are introduced to suit the needs and conditions of children with physical
disabilities, health impairments and severe disabilities.
1. Individualized instruction model

 The Individualized Education Plan (IEP) identifies the annual goals, short-term
objectives and weekly or daily instruction plans for specific children.
 Self-management skills are taught for self-regulation and competence in the adaptive
skills.
 A structured curriculum is used and the academic subjects are learned through
diagnostic and prescriptive teaching, task analysis, close monitoring of progress and
reinforcement through immediate feedback mechanisms.
2. Resource Room Model
 Children who are mainstreamed in regular classes go to the resource room for special
instructions, tutorial and mentoring activities.
 The resource room is the repository for instructional materials and references that
the children use in doing their homework and projects to comply with the
requirements in the regular class.
 The resource room is used for meetings with regular teachers, administrators, parents
and others.
3. Curriculum Modification Model
 The functional curriculum includes training o gross and fine motor skills, maximum
use of vision, hearing, touch and other working sensory modalities, receptive and
expressive communication skills, functional academics and social skills.
 Active rather than passive learning is employed.
4. Instructional Variations Model
 Choices of instructional strategies are based on successful previous preferences of
the students, motivation level, individual learning style and learning rate.
Topic 8
Educational Support Services
279
Students with physical disabilities, health impairments and severe disabilities need the
services of an interdisciplinary team composed of the special and regular teachers and school
administrators, parents, physical and occupational therapists, medical personnel, specialists,
psychologists and guidance counselors. The team addresses the medical, educational,
therapeutic, vocational and social needs of the children. The job descriptions of the
interdisciplinary team members are presented below:
1. Physical Therapists (PT)-

 Concerned with the planning and implementation of the program to development
and maintain correct bodily posture and mobility.
 Assist the child in the use of muscles and locomotor functions to reduce pain,
discomfort or long-term physical damage.
2. Occupational therapists (OT)
 Focuses on child’s participation in activities that are useful in self-care,
communication, recreation, employment and other daily living skills.
3. The Speech therapists (ST)
 Deals with the remediation of all forms of speech, voice, hearing and language
problems caused by physical, mental or psychological disorders.
4. Physician, Nurses and Specialists- appraise the current health status and the disability
itself, provide treatment and recommend therapy services when needed.
5. The Prosthetist- designs and fits artificial limbs
6. The Orthotist- designs and fit braces and other assistive devices.
7. The Biomedical Engineer- develops or adapts assistive technology
8. The Social Worker-assist students and families in their adjustment to the disabilities
9. The Psychologist- conducts psycho-diagnostic and educational assessment for use as
basis in school program planning and intervention.
10. The Guidance Counselor- offers individual counseling, guidance service and family
therapy to those who need these services.
Topic 9
Environmental Modifications
The most visible type of environmental modifications is seen in buildings, offices,
restaurants, hotels and other service-oriented places that have been made accessible to persons
with disabilities. Batas Pambansa Bilang 344, otherwise known as the Accessibility Law
enacted in 1983 and Republic Act 7277 or the Magna Carta for Disabled Persons direct schools
and institutions to provide barrier-free architecture which includes but not limited to sidewalks,
ramps, handrails, parking spaces, toilet and restroom facilities for persons with disabilities. The
law provides that classes that have students with physical disabilities should be held in the
ground floor as much as possible.
Within the classroom, the problems of students with physical disabilities may be solved
by simple procedures that require little or no cost at all like the following:
1. Modifying school furniture by:
 Changing desk and table tops to appropriate heights for students who are very
short or who use wheelchairs;
280
 Adjusting seats to turn to either side so that the child with braces can sit easily;
 Providing food rest;
 Adding hinged extension to the desk with a cut-off for the child who has poor
sitting balance;
 Eliminating protruding parts over which the child might trip.
2. Providing need-based assistance like:
 Taping paper to the desk;
 Devising some means of keeping pencils, crayons, and other materials from
rolling on the floor;
 Providing backracks or mechanical page turners;
 Providing wooden pointer to indicate responses on the board;
 Installing paper cup dispenser near water fountains for wheelchair users; and
 Placing rubber mats over the slippery sections of the floor.
Topic 10
Assistive Technology
The United State Congress defines assistive technology as any item, piece of equipment
or product system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified or customized that
is used to increase, maintain or improve the functional capabilities of individuals with
disabilities. For students with disabilities, use either high technology assistive equipment or
low technology adaptive devices or both. These are used to increase mobility, perform daily
life skills, improve environmental manipulation and control, facilitate better communication,
access computers and enhance learning.
Several companies and universities are currently producing technology products that meet
the needs of students with disabilities. The categorization of these products is as follows:
1. Mobility Aids- are assistive technology devices that help people perform movements
in a variety of environments. This includes manual and electric wheelchairs, canes,
scooters, walkers, vans modified for travel, electronic direction-finding/mobility aids
and other adaptations and devices.
2. Seating and Positioning Aids- are used to position the disabled persons in the best
posture to participate in a particular activity. Specific body features are considered in
order to adapt the devices for maximum efficiency and comfort. Examples of these
aids are adapted seating, standing table, seat belt, braces, transfer aids, cushions and
wedges to maintain posture, and devices for trunk alignment that assist the students
in maintaining body alignment and control so they can perform a range of daily tasks.
3. Aids for daily living- are devices used to increase independence. They assist an
individual in performing functional living skills or self-help activities such as
cooking, eating, bathing, toileting, dressing, and home maintenance. Examples of
these are spoons and forks with custom-designed handles or straps, mugs with lids
281
and handles, utensils hand clip, color coded measuring cups and spoon set, long
handled hairbrushes, dressing stick , tube squeezer, zoom mirror, zipper pull, nail
clipper with magnifying lens and others.
4. Communication Aids- include devices such as speech synthesizers, text-to-speech

software and telecommunication for the deaf. These augmentive and alternative
communication or “aug com” devices assist students who may have speech
difficulties, are nonverbal, or have difficulty in communicating with other people.
5. Sensory Aids- are assistive technology devices for students who have primary
disabilities as hearing impairment and visual impairment. These devices may include
hearing aids, FM systems, auditory trainers, eyeglasses, low vison aids or magnifying
glasses, Braille and speak, Perkins brailler, braille printers, pocket slates, large print
cards, reading devices, tactile and visual globe, telecommunication for the deaf, feel
and hear activity box, magnetic blocks, story time rhymes musical storybook and
many more.
6. Instructional Aids- refers to the devices and adaptations to materials that help facilitate
an individual’s learning. These include instructional technology that is used in the
education of a person such as overhead transparencies and projectors, audiotape
players, multimedia software and tools, internet technology for watching real-time
activities and computer software and hardware including computers with adaptive
switches or adapted keyboards.
Essay No. 12
Describe the skeletal and muscle systems of the human body. What is the importance
of keeping the bones and muscles healthy?
282
 Find children with severe disabilities in the community or visit an institution for
this type of children. Gather information on the causes of the disability , their
characteristics and how the parents or teachers/caregivers train them to become
independent and self-reliant.
Group Work No. 12

1. What are the differences between orthopedic and neurological impairments?
2. Enumerate the common types of Physical Disabilities, Health Impairments and
Severe Disabilities. Describe each of them.
Further Readings
FIRST AID FOR EPILEPTIC SEIZURES
First aid for epilepsy is basically very simple. It keeps the person safe until the seizure stops naturally by itself. It
is important for the public to know how to respond to all seizures, including the most noticeable kind—the
generalized tonic clonic seizure, or convulsions. When providing seizure first aid for generalized tonic clonic
(grand mal) seizures, these are the key things to remember:
 Keep calm and reassure other people who may be nearby.

 Don’t hold the person down or try to stop his movements.
 Time the seizure with your watch.
 Clear the area around the person of anything hard or sharp.
 Loosen ties or anything around the neck that may make breathing difficult.
 Put something flat and soft, like a folded jacket, under the head.
 Turn him or her gently onto one side. This will help keep the airway clear. Do not try to force the mouth
open with any hard implement or with fingers. It is not true that a person having a seizure can swallow his
tongue. Efforts to hold the tongue down can injure teeth or jaw.
 Don’t attempt artificial respiration except in the unlikely event that a person does not start breathing again
after the seizure has stopped.
 Stay with the person until the seizure ends naturally.
 Be friendly and reassuring as consciousness returns.
 Offer to call a taxi, friend or relative to help the person get home if he seems confused or unable to get home
by himself.
Source: From http://www.epilepsyfoundation.org/answerplace/Medical/firstaid/
How are physical disabilities defined and classified?
• Physical disabilities are physical limitations or health problems that interfere with school attendance or learning
to such an extent that special services, training, equipment, materials, or facilities are required.
• May be congenital or acquired.
• May be acute or chronic, episodic or progressive.
• May be accompanied by other disabilities, such as intellectual disability and emotional or behavioral disorders,
or special gifts or talents.
• Major categories are neuromotor impairments, orthopedic or musculoskeletal disorders, and other conditions
that affect health or physical abilities.
What is the prevalence of physical disabilities, and what is the need for special education?
• About 1% of the child population has a physical disability or health impairment.

• About a fifth of these have multiple disabilities.
• About one-tenth of these have orthopedic problems.
• About 80% of these have chronic health problems.
What are some major neuromotor impairments?
283
• All involve damage to the brain before, during, or soon after birth or damage to the spinal cord.
• Cerebral palsy, characterized by paralysis, weakness, uncoordination, and/or other motor dysfunction,
sometimes by intellectual disability or other disabilities
• Seizure disorder, an abnormal electrical discharge in the brain
• Spina bifida, the failure of the spinal column to close during fetal development
What are some major orthopedic and musculoskeletal disorders?
• Muscular dystrophy, a degenerative disease causing a progressive weakening and wasting away of muscle
• Juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, acute inflammation around the joints that may cause chronic pain and other
complications
What other conditions affect health or physical ability?

• Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), now one of the most common causes of malformation and intellectual
disability, caused by the mother’s abuse of alcohol during pregnancy
• AIDS, a life-threatening viral infection that often involves neurological complications such as intellectual
disability, seizures, cerebral palsy, and emotional or behavioral disorders
• Accidents
How can physical disabilities be prevented?
• Safety precautions, better health care, prevention of pregnancy in early teens, prevention of child abuse,
prevention of conditions that cause brain or spinal injury
What are the psychological and behavioral characteristics of individuals with physical disabilities?
• No generalizations are possible.

• Much depends on the reactions of family and the public.
What are prosthetics, orthotics, and adaptive devices?
• Prosthetics are artificial body parts.

• Orthotics enhance the function of a body part.
• Adaptive devices aid daily activity.
What are the major educational considerations for students with physical disabilities?
• Education must make the most of the student’s assets.

• Education should be as normal as possible and equip the student for daily living as well as employment or further
education.
Why is early intervention important, and on what should it focus?
• Early intervention is important in preventing further disability and maximizing the child’s development.
• Early intervention should focus on communication, handling, positioning, and social skills.
What are the major issues in transition for students with physical disabilities?
• Transition may involve movement from one setting to another as well as preparation for adulthood.
• Choice of and preparation for a career are important issues.
• Sociosexuality is another critical issue.
References:
Inciong, T.G. Quijano, Y.S. , Capulong, Y.T. (2020). Introduction to Special Education. A Textbook for College Students-First Edition
*Hallahan, Kuffman, Pullen (2017): Exceptional Learners: An Introduction to Special Education- Pearson New International Edition 12th
Edition
*Friend, M and Bursuck W.D. (2012). Including Students with Special Needs. A Practical Guide for Classroom Teachers- Sixth Edition
*Books/Reading Materials were uploaded in our Google Classroom with class
284
code ypyjw7f for your ready reference.
285

PROFED8 Foundation of Special and Inclusive Education

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

PROFED8 Foundation of Special and Inclusive Education

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

PROFED8 Foundation of Special and Inclusive Education

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

A Self-Paced Learning Module for College Students

2 Part I Special Education in the Philippines: Special Education

3 Part II The Essential Concepts of Special Education: Meaning of

4 Part II The Essential Concepts of Special Education: The Biological

SPECIAL EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

VISION, POLICY, GOAL and OBJECTIVES OF

At the end of this module, the students shall be able to:

Topic 1: Vision for Children with Special Needs

The professionalization of special education continues to be pursued through teacher and

What will students learn in this topic?

Policy of Special Education

Goal of Special Education

Topic 3 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES

Article 356 and 259 of Commomwealth Act No. 3203

June 21, 1963

Practical Activity No. 1

2. Enumerate the laws that pertain to:

SPECIAL EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

SPECIAL EDUCATION PROGRAMS AND SERVICES

Module 2 Special Education in the Philippines: Special Education programs and

 What is the meaning of prevalence?

What will students learn in this topic?

Figure 1. Philippine Population 80M

What is inclusive education?

1. Medical and Clinical Specialist

1. Clinical Psychologist, School For Psychological testing

3. Ophthalmologist For all children especially those with

Individual Work No. 2

a. Special education c. Education

a. God-fearing person c. Literate person

a. Exclusively available c. Available and accessible to all

a. True b. False c. Sometimes d. None of the choices

a. Special Education c. Inclusive Education

a. Mr. Fred Atkinson c. Mr. Robert Atkinson

a. Welfareville Children’s Village c. University of the Philippines

a. Bantay Bata Philippines c. Elsie Gatches Village

a. R.A. No. 3562 b. R.A. No. 7277

a. DECS Order no. 11 s. 2000 c. DECS Order no. 5 s. 1998

a. R.A. No. 3566 c. R.A. No. 3562

a. Special Education Act of 2010 c, Special Education Act of 2012

a. DPWH b. DepEd c. DECS d. CHED

2. Professionalization of special education continues to be pursued through teacher and

1. General Education Teachers

2. Special Education Teachers

5. Intervention Specialists (ISs)

Related Service Providers and Other Specialists

*Farell, M. Wiley-Blackwel (2009): Foundations of Special Education An Introduction

THE ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS OF SPECIAL

MEANING OF SPECIAL EDUCATION AND

Module 3 The Essential Concepts of Special Education: Meaning of Special Education

At the end of this module, the students shall be able to:

What will students learn in this topic?

What is Special Education?

Current literature defines special education as individually planned, systematically

Systematically Implemented and Evaluated Instructions- each type of children with

 Special Education is a legislatively governed enterprise.

The State shall:

 Special Education is a part of country’s educational system.