Training and Development, Performance Person level / person analysis- is concerned with

Appraisal, and Career Counseling in Organization
Training - is one of the major human resource
activities of both large and small organizations in both
the private and the public (government) sectors
throughout the world. the “systematic acquisition of
skills, rules, concepts, or attitudes that result in
improved performance.
Importance of Training
how well job applicants or present employees are able
to do job tasks. In other words, it assesses the KSAO
levels of people rather than jobs.
Performance Appraisal Scores- the easiest method
of needs analysis is to use employees’ performance
appraisal scores. Consider: ratings error
• Surveys
• Interviews
• Skill and Knowledge Tests
• Critical Incidents

- training compensates for the inability to select

Objectives/Goals
desired applicants.
-The objectives of training are based on criteria and
-ultimate purpose of employee training is to increase
should include a statement of what a trainee should
an organization ’s profits.
be able to do or know after training. The training
criterion is a statement of how achievement of the
training objective can be assessed. The training
Five steps to developing on effective training program: objective of acquiring knowledge, for example, can be
assessed by seeing if trainees can meet a criterion of
1. Conduct training needs assessment achieving a cutoff score on a knowledge test.
2. Set Objectives
3. Design Training -It is important that these goals and objectives be
4. Deliver Training obtainable given the time and resources allocated to
5. Evaluate Training the training

Needs Assessment Training goals and objectives should concretely

state the following :
- first step in developing an employee training system
What learners are expected to do
-to determine the types of training, if any, that are
needed in an organization, as well as the extent to The conditions under which they are expected to do it
which training is a practical means of achieving an
organization ’s goals The level at which they are expected to do it

-a needs assessment is conducted to determine

which employees need training and what the content
Training Design
of their training should be
(Motivating Employees)

transfer of training Most organizational training is

Organization level/ Organizational analysis- is
conducted with the expectation that employees will
concerned with the objectives of the organization and
apply what they have learned on the job
how they are addressed by the performance of
employees. An analysis of the organization ’s
objectives can offer hints about the training that is
needed.

Job level / Task analysis- is concerned with the

nature of tasks involved in each job. A job analysis
can be used to identify the major tasks and then the
necessary KSAOs for each task.
Motivating Employees Spaced training- means that training sessions are
relatively short and are spread out over time.
• Providing incentives for learning
• Interest
• Feedback
Work Environment

• Just because management provide training

Training Characteristics
- individual differences among people in both ability
and motivation are important factors in learning
- not everyone is equally able to learn specific tasks,
and where one person is better able to learn cognitive
tasks, another has more ability at motor tasks.
does not mean that employees or their direct
supervisors will support its transfer to the job
Supportive environments where supervisors and other
people encourage the application of learned principles
produce employee motivation to learn and increased
transfer of training

Conducting Classroom Training

Design Factors that affect transfer of training
Initial Decisions:
Feedback- Feedback should be built into the training
as appropriate so that the trainee can tell if he or she 1. Who Will Conduct the Training?
is learning the correct material.
2. Where Will the Training Be Held?
importance of feedback : trainees can be tested on
the information with an examination. Second, trainees 3. How Long Should the Training Be?
can ask questions of the trainer.

General Principles - mean that training should teach Preparing for Classroom Training
why something is done as well as how it should be
done. -Adjusting for the Audience

-Developing the Training Curriculum

Identical Elements- responses in the training situation -Creating Handouts

are identical to those in the job situation. - the stimuli
the person perceives will be identical in both settings

Overlearning- refers to giving the trainee practice Delivering the Training Program
beyond that necessary to reach a criterion for success
-Introducing the Trainer and the Training Session -
in training.
Using Icebreakers and Energizers
automaticity, meaning that a task (e.g., driving a car or
*Goal., Length of the Training Session, Nature of the
riding a bicycle) can be done smoothly without the
Audience
person having to mentally monitor or pay attention to
how he or she is performing. -Making the Presentation

Sequencing of Training Sessions part versus

whole &massed versus spaced

Part training- refers to breaking a task into

components, which are learned one at a time.

Whole training- occurs when the entire task is taught

at one time rather than breaking it into individual
components.

Massed training- means that the training sessions are

long in duration and take place over a relatively short
period of time.
Mentoring- special kind of work relationship between
two employees where the more experienced offers
advice/coaching, counseling, and friendship and
serves as a role model

Electronic Training- E-learning is the latest trend in

both organizational training and university education.
It involves the use of electronic tools to provide
training, and several of the training methods
discussed here can be done electronically

Executive Coaching-was originally designed to assist

highlevel managers with performance problems, but it
has evolved to become a means of helping even well-
performing managers enhance their management
skills
Employee Motivation, Satisfaction and
Commitment
Self-Efficacy Theory

- states that motivation and performance are

Motivation - generally defined as an internal state that determined in part by how effective people believe
induces a person to engage in particular behaviors. they can be

- it has to do with the direction, intensity, and
persistence of behavior over time.
Direction- refers to the choice of specific behaviors
from a large number of possible behaviors
Galatea Effect – which people’s beliefs about their
own capabilities lead them to perform better, as in a
self-fulfilling prophecy.
Intrinsic Motivation

Intensity- refers to the amount of effort a person
expends at doing a task
Persistence- refers to the continuing engagement in a
behavior over time’
Self-esteem- is the extent to which a person views
himself as valuable and worthy. In the 1970s, Korman
, theorized that employees high in self-esteem are
more motivated and will perform better than
employees low in self-esteem.
When people are intrinsically motivated, they will seek
to perform well because they either enjoy performing
the actual tasks or enjoy the challenge of successfully
completing the task.
When they are extrinsically motivated, they don ’t
particularly enjoy the tasks but are motivated to
perform well to receive some type of reward or to
avoid negative consequences
Work Preference Inventory (WPI)

-According to Korman ’s consistency theory, there is a
positive correlation between self-esteem and
performance. That is, employees who feel good about
themselves are motivated to perform better at work
than employees who do not feel that they are valuable
and worthy people.
Needs for Achievement and Power
A theory developed by McClelland (1961) suggests
that employees differ in the extent to which they are
motivated by the need for achievement, affiliation, and
power.

*Chronic self-esteem need for achievement-are motivated by jobs that are

challenging and over which they have some control
*Situational self-esteem (also called self-efficacy)
need for affiliation- motivated by jobs in which they
* Socially influenced self-esteem can work with and help other people

*Self-Esteem Workshops need for power -motivated by a desire to influence

others rather than simply to be successful.
*Experience with Success

-self-fulfilling prophecy-which states that an individual

will perform as well or as poorly as he expects to
perform

- Galatea effect

*Supervisor Behavior

- Pygmalion effect-employee feels that a manager has

confidence in him, his self-esteem will increase, as
will his performance.

-Golem effect -occurs when negative expectations of

an individual cause a decrease in that individual’s
actual performance
Need Theories

Two-Factor Theory – Herzberg’s (1968) two-factor

theory states that motivation comes from the nature of
the job itself, not from external rewards or job
conditions. The human needs that work addresses
are divided into two categories- those deriving from
the animal nature of human beings, such as the
physiological needs, and those relating to the higher-
level, uniquely human ability for psychological growth.

Hygiene Factors – include pay, supervision, co-

workers, and organizational policies
Motivator Factors – include achievement, recognition,
responsibility, and the nature of the work itself.
Have the Employee ’ s Values and Expectations Been
Met?
REINFORCEMENT THEORY- describes how rewards
or reinforcements can affect behavior. The theory
does not deal with internal states such as motivation,
so in a sense it is a nonmotivational theory. It explains
behavior as a function of prior reward experiences or “
reinforcement history.” Behavior is seen as a
response to the environment.

Job Expectations - realistic job preview (RJP)

law of effect- states that the probability of a particular
Job Characteristics-employees desire jobs that has :
behavior increases if it is followed by a reward or
meaning, autonomy, feedback
reinforcement.

Do Employees Have Achievable Goals?

For goal setting to be most successful, the goals
themselves should possess certain qualities
represented by the acronym SMART: specific,
measurable, attainable, relevant, and time-bound
(Rubin, 2002).
Are Employees Rewarded for Achieving Goals?
six factors must be considered in determining the
effectiveness of incentive programs:
• timing of the incentive
• contingency of the consequences
• type of incentive used
•
Premack Principle- states that reinforcement is
relative and that a supervisor can reinforce an
employee with something that on the surface does not
appear to be a reinforcer
• use of individual-based versus group-based
incentives
• Pay for Performance and Merit pay - Profit
Sharing, Gainsharing
• use of positive incentives (rewards) versus
negative incentives (punishment)
• fairness of the reward system (equity)
JUSTICE THEORIES
- focus on norms for fair treatment of employees by
their organizations. The underlying assumption of
these theories is that people value fairness and that
they are motivated to maintain fairness in
relationships between themselves and organizations.
Equity theory (Adams, 1965)- states that people are
motivated to achieve a condition of fairness or equity
in their dealings with other people and with
organizations.
Outcomes are the rewards or everything of personal
value that an employee gets from working for an
organization, including pay, fringe benefits, good
treatment, enjoyment, and status.
Inputs are the contributions made by the employee to
the organization.
- underpayment
- overpayment
fairness theory- Rather than focusing on the fair
allocation or distribution of rewards, fairness theory
distinguishes between the distribution of rewards and
the procedures by which rewards are allocated.
Distributive justice- is similar to equity and concerns
the fairness with which rewards are found among
people
Procedural justice- is concerned with the fairness of
the reward distribution process as opposed to the
results of that distribution.
GOAL SETTING THEORY
The basic idea of this theory is that people’s behavior
is motivated by their internal intentions, objectives, or
goals
goal orientation: learning orientation performance
orientation
ERG THEORY
the three levels are existence, relatedness, and
growth—hence the name ERG theory
CONTROL THEORY
builds upon goal-setting theory by focusing on how
feedback affects motivation to maintain effort toward
goals
ACTION THEORY
This theory proposes that work motivation theories
should focus mainly on goal-oriented or volitional
(voluntary) behaviors called actions. Such actions are
the product of a conscious intent to accomplish
something, which can be as small as finishing one
piece on an assembly line or as large as achieving a
promotion at work.
WORK MOTIVATION THEORIES
Need theories- people are motivated to acquire
certain categories of things, such as food or
recognition
Two-factor theory- says that various aspects of work
address one of two categories of need. One category
concerns the nature of the job itself, and the other
concerns rewards such as pay.
Reinforcement theory- views behavior as the result of
rewards or reinforcements.
Goal-setting theory- explains how people’s goals and
intentions can result in behavior.
Expectancy theory- like reinforcement theory,
attempts to relate environmental rewards to behavior.
Self-efficacy theory- is concerned with how
people’s beliefs about their own capabilities can
affect their behavior
Action theory- was developed in Germany to explain
volitional (self-motivated and voluntary) behavior at
work.
Justice theories- are quite different from the other
theories in that they are concerned with people’s
values rather than needs, beliefs, or reinforcements.
Cognitive control theory- is also concerned with goals
but focuses attention on feedback toward goal
attainment and how discrepancies between goals and
the current situation motivate behavior.
What Causes Employees to Be Satisfied with and
Committed to Their Jobs?
three motivational facets to organizational
commitment:
Affective commitment-- is the extent to which an
employee wants to remain with the organization,
cares about the organization, and is willing to exert
effort on its behalf.
Continuance commitment- is the extent to which an
employee believes she must remain with the
organization due to the time, expense, and effort that
she has already put into it or the difficulty she would
have in finding another job.
Normative commitment- is the extent to which an
employee feels obligated to the organization and, as a
result of this obligation, must remain with the
Employee Satisfaction and Commitment
Job Satisfaction – the attitude an employee has
toward her job.
Organizational Commitment- the extent to which an
employee identifies with and is involved with an
organization.
Why should we care about employee attitudes?
*Satisfied employees tend to be committed to an
organization, and employees who are satisfied and
committed are more likely to attend work, stay with an
organization, arrive at work on time, perform well, and
engage in behaviors helpful to the organization.
*Complex jobs = stronger relationship with job
satisfaction and performance
*Employees with strong and consistent beliefs about
their level of job satisfaction (affective-cognitive
consistency) = relationship between job satisfaction
and performance is much stronger than it is for
employees whose job satisfaction attitudes are not so
well developed.
What Individual Differences affect Job Satisfaction?
1. One of the factors (antecedents) that
influence levels of job satisfaction and
commitment is our personal predisposition to
be satisfied
2. Individual Difference Theory – postulates that
some variability in job satisfaction is due to
an individual’s personal tendency across
situations to enjoy what she does
▪ Job satisfaction must be consistent across time and
situations
Genetic Predispositions
• Job satisfaction not only may be fairly stable
across jobs but also may be genetically
determined
• 30% of job satisfaction appears to be
explainable by genetic factors
• Inherited personality traits such as negative
affectivity are related to our tendency to be
satisfied with jobs
• Only hire applicants with high levels of
overall job and life satisfaction
Culture - Workers in different countries have different
levels of job satisfaction
Intelligence- Bright people have lower job satisfaction
that do less intelligent employees in jobs that are not
complex
Are coworkers outwardly unhappy?
Social Information Processing Theory (Social
Learning Theory) – employees observe the levels of
motivation and satisfaction of other employees and
then model those levels.
Social environment does have an effect on
employee’s attitudes and behaviors
Are rewards and resources given Equitably?
Equity Theory – our levels of job satisfaction and
motivation are related to how fairly we believe we are
treated in comparison with others
Distributive Justice – perceived fairness of the actual
decisions made in an organization
Procedural Justice – perceived fairness of the
methods used to arrive at decision
Interactional Justice – perceived fairness of the
interpersonal treatment employees received
Based on equity and justice theories, the best way to
keep employees satisfied would be treating them fairly
– entails to pay the most to those employees who
contributed the most.
It is difficult to implement because it is:
✓ Not practical
✓ Employee’s perception of inputs and outputs
determines equity, not the actual inputs and outputs
Is there a chance for growth and Challenge?
Job Rotation – employee is given the same number of
tasks to do at one time but the tasks change from time
to time
Job Enlargement – employee is given more tasks to
do at one time
▪ Enlarged in two ways: knowledge used and tasks
performed
▪ Employees are allowed to make more complex
decisions
▪ Satisfaction increases with knowledge enlargement
and decreases with task enlargement
Two main objectives: H. Uncontrollable absenteeism caused by unique
events – e.g. weather, location, transportation
(1) challenge employees by requiring them to learn to
operate several different machines or perform several
different tasks;
TURNOVER
(2) helps to alleviate boredom
-Quit jobs and change careers
Job Enrichment – employee assumes more
responsibility over the tasks -The cost of losing an employee is estimated at 1.5
times the employee’s salary
Job Characteristics Model – enriched jobs (allow
variety of skills to be used) are the most satisfying -Reduce turnover rate by finding out why employees
are leaving – done by surveys and interviews
Job Diagnostic Survey – measure the extent to which
these characteristics are present in a given job Turnovers due to:

1. Give workers more responsibility over their hobs A. Unavoidable reasons – school starting, job transfer
of spouse, etc.
2. Show employees that their jobs have meaning and
that they are meeting some worthwhile goal through B. Advancement – pursue promotions or better pay
their work
C. Unmet needs – must consider person/organization
3. Use Self-directed teams or quality circles fit
(employees meet as a group to discus and make
D. Escape
recommendations about work issues)
E. Unmet expectations

Consequences of Dissatisfaction and other
negative work attitudes Absenteeism
-When employees are dissatisfied or not committed to
the organization, they are more likely miss work and
leave their jobs
A. Link Attendance to Consequences
To reduce turnover:
✓ Conduct realistic job previews
✓ Select employees who have been referred by a
current employees, who have friends or family
working for the org, and who did not leave their
previous job after only a short tenure

B. Rewards for Attending ✓ Look for good person/organization fit during the
selection interview
Well Pay – paying employees for their unused sick
leave ✓ Meet employee needs

Financial Bonus – employee with perfect attendance ✓ Mediate conflicts between employees and their
receives bonus peers, supervisors, and customers
Games ✓ Provide a good work environment
Paid Time off program – paid-leave bank
✓ Provide a competitive pay and benefits package
Recognition program
✓ Provide opportunities to advance and grow
C. Discipline for not attending

D. Clear Policies and better record keeping

E. Increasing attendance by reducing Employee
stress
F. Increasing attendance by reducing illness
Embeddedness – the extent to which employees have
links to their jobs and community, the importance of
these links, and the ease with which these links could
be broken and reestablished elsewhere

G. Reducing Absenteeism by not hiring “Absence-

Prone” Employees
Counterproductive Behaviors- Either aimed at
individuals (gossips, harassment, violence, bullying)
and those aimed at the organizations (stealing)

Lack of Organizational Citizenship Behaviors

Organizational Citizenship Behaviors – motivated to

help the org and colleagues by doing little things they
are not required to do