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Best Fit Topol Last of Last All Lo1, 2,3 For 2010
Best Fit Topol Last of Last All Lo1, 2,3 For 2010
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Title: Determine Best Fit Topology G1
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Ethiopian TVET-System
LEARNING GUIDE # 1
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Sharing information
Data sharing enables different users to work on a certain file concurrently. Few examples of information
sharing are like through database, E-mail, Chat, forums, video conferencing etc.
In a networked banking system, different bank branches can have access to the central account
database. This enables bank clients to carry their transactions on any branch bank office.
It saves the time which is wasted in copying a file from one system to another, by using a secondary
storage device.
Sharing Hardware
Computer networks enable us to share hardware resource among several computers like printer, CD-ROM,
Fax machines, modems, Hard disk etc.
A typical example of shared resource is printer. Sharing printer avoids the need to have separate printer for
each computer.
Sharing hardware reduce purchasing ,maintenance cost etc
Sharing Software
Application (software) sharing occurs when several users at different locations run application
programs that are installed centrally in one location (application server).
Software (applications) that are installed centrally can be managed and upgraded centrally. Such
systems are mostly common in financial (i.e bank) system.
In short sharing programs on a network
Saves disk space
Reduces maintenance
Reduce licensing cost
Reduce installation, upgrade time and effort.
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printer, CD-ROM, Fax machines, modems, Hard disk , Zip drives etc.
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In a typical LAN configuration, one computer is designated as the server( stores the hardware and
software that controls the network and shared on the network).
WANs
Wide area networks are networks that cover very large geographical area such as a country or the whole
world. Typical WANs are the telephone networks operated by most long distance telephone companies.
Large companies(i.e banks) having offices scattered around the world use WAN to connect their
computers.
When data communication is necessary or desired beyond the reach of a LAN , a wide area
network (WAN) is established.
Institutions transferring large amounts of data between offices often decide to lease dedicated
transmission lines from public carriers, in what is termed an enterprise-wide private network.
NB: WAN is not managed and installed by a single organization so it is a public network.
WAN usually use combination of several types of communication media such as cables,
satellites, microwaves, and fiber-optics.
Probably the ultimate /largest WAN is called Internet (network of networks),it is made
of many connected LANs.
Figure2. A Wide Area Network
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Type of business.
Level of administrative support available.
Amount of network traffic.
Needs of the network users.
Network budget.
Peer-to-Peer Network/P2P or workgroups
In a peer-to-peer network, there are no dedicated servers, and there is no hierarchy among the
computers. All the computers are equal and therefore are known as peers.
Each computer functions as both a client and a server, and there is no administrator
responsible for the entire network.
Each computer functions as both a client and a server, and there is no administrator responsible
for the entire network
The user at each computer determines what data on that computer is shared on the
network.
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5.There is no dependency b/n computers for functioning ,if one or more computers fail other can
communicate/ the network does not halt/stop totally.
As networks increase in size (as the number of connected computers, and the physical distance and
traffic between them, grows), more than one server is usually needed to handle the additional load.
Spreading the networking tasks among several servers ensures that each task will be performed as
efficiently as possible.
Specialized Servers
Servers must perform varied and complex tasks. Servers for large networks have become
specialized to accommodate the expanding needs of users.
Servers can be non-dedicated/non specialized(used for more than one tasks like used as file, print
etc server)or specialized servers(used for one/special task).
Examples of specialized servers:-
File Servers
File servers offer services that allow network users to share files. This type of service is probably
the most important reason companies invest in a network.
Set By :Emamu Abdela Page 8 of 67
Document No.
General Wingate Polytechnic College
Institution Name: 05
GW/201-
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Print Servers
Allow users to share an d manage printers on network
Application Servers
Application servers make the server side of client/server applications, as well as the data, available
to clients. An application server differs from a file and print server. With a file and print server, the
data or file is downloaded to the computer making the request. With an application server, the
database stays on the server and only the results of a request are downloaded to the computer
making the request.
Mail Servers
Used to manage message on the network
Web Servers
Manage Web based services.
Fax Servers
Fax servers manage fax traffic into and out of the network
Proxy Server
A Proxy Server implements Internet connectivity and network security for an entire organization.
is a server which services the requests of its clients by forwarding requests to other servers on
behalf of the client.
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Network Topology
Generally, there are two types of topologies: Physical and Logical.
The physical topology of a network refers to the layout/arrangement of cables, computers and
other peripherals.
you will find several other terms that are used to define a network's design: physical layout /Design
Diagram / network Map
Try to imagine yourself in a room with a small network, you can see network cables coming out of
every computer that is part of the network, then those cables plug into a hub or switch.
What you're looking at is the physical topology of that network
Logical topology:- refers the method used to pass/transfer the information between the computers.
In other words, looking at that same room, if you were to try to see how the network works with
all the computers talking (think of the computers generating traffic and packets of data going
everywhere on the network) you would be looking at the logical part of the network.
The physical topology describes the layout of the network, just like a map shows the layout of
various roads, and the logical topology describes how the data is sent across the network or how
the cars are able to travel (the direction and speed) at every road on the map.
The choice of physical topology is dependent upon :-
type and number of equipment being used
planned applications and rate of data transfers
required response times
cost /money
Length of cable needed. The linear bus network uses shorter length of cable.
Future growth. With a star topology, expanding a network is easily done by adding
another concentrator.
Cable type. The most common cable in schools is unshielded twisted pair, which is most
often used with star topologies.
The most common types of standard physical topologies, which we are going to analyze, are:-
Bus, Star and Ring and Mesh
Bus Topology
is fairly oldest and you probably won't be seeing much of modern office .
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In Bus topology All Nodes are connected directly to the main cable/backbone that carries the
data. This works well in a small network of 2-5 computers, but as the numbers of computers
increases so will the network traffic.
The cable is terminated at each end.
When the main cable fail the entire network will halt/stop.
NB: A node can be any device connected to a computer network. Nodes can be
computers(server/client), cell phones, switches, modems,routers or various other networked
devices.
Because only one computer at a time can send data on a bus network, the number of computers
attached to the bus will affect network performance. The more computers there are on a bus, the
more computers will be waiting to put data on the bus and, consequently, the slower the network
will be.
Signal Bounce: Because the data, or electronic signal, is sent to the entire network, it travels from
one end of the cable to the other.
If the signal is allowed to continue uninterrupted, it will keep bouncing back and forth along
the cable and prevent other computers from sending signals(it is called Signal Bounce).
Therefore, the signal must be stopped after it has had a chance to reach the proper
destination address.
Terminator: To stop the signal from bouncing, a component called a terminator is placed at each
end of the cable to absorb free signals. Absorbing the signal clears the cable so that other
computers can send data.
Star Topology
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The Star topology is one of the most common network topologies found in most offices and home
networks. It has become very popular in contrast to the bus type, because of ease of
troubleshooting.
In the star topology, cable from each computer are connected to a centralized component or
device called a Hub/Switch. Signals are transmitted from the sending computer through the hub to all
computers on the network.
each computer is connected to a central point, this topology requires a great deal of cable in a
large network installation. Also, if the central point /hub fails, the entire network goes
down/Halt.
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Title: Determine Best Fit Topology G1
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Hybrid Topology
With the hybrid topology, two or more standard topologies are combined to form a complete
network. For example, a hybrid topology could be the combination of a star and bus or ring
topology.
Common hybrid topology are:-
A.Star-Bus
In a star-bus topology, several star topology networks are linked to a bus connection. In this
topology, if a computer fails, it will not affect the rest of the network. However, if the central
component, or hub, that attaches all computers in a star, fails, then you have big problems since no
computer will be able to communicate.
B.Star-Ring
In the Star-Ring topology, the computers are connected to a central component as in a star
network. These components, however, are wired to form a ring network.
Like the star-bus topology, if a single computer fails, it will not affect the rest of the network.
P
Set By :Emamu Abdela Page 13 of 67
Document No.
General Wingate Polytechnic College
Institution Name: 05
GW/201-
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isolate/easy to troubleshoot
Peer-to-Peer network OS
Allow users to share resources and files located on their computers and to access shared resources found on
other computers. However, they do not have application server, file server or a centralized management
source .
Eg. Windows for Workgroups like Windows 98, 2000 professional /Xp , windows 7 etc are examples
of as peer-to-peer network operating systems.
Client/Server Network OS
Are very powerful OS that allows to manage users, groups, resources and the whole network centrally and
securely.
Client/Server Network OS are very powerful than Peer-to-peer network OS.
Eg. Novell Netware and Windows 2000 /2008 Server are examples of client/server network operating
systems.
B. Hardware Requirements for Network
Network hardware components includes different devices like Computers(Client/Server), Network
Interface Card ,Peripherals (i.e printer), Hub, Router ,Switch, Bridge, repeater, Cables,
Wireless media etc
A. Servers
server stands at the heart of most networks. It is a very fast computer with multiple processors .with a
large amount of RAM and storage space, along with a fast network interface card. The network
operating system software resides on this computer, along with any software applications, hardwares and
data files that need to be shared.
A server, like any computer, consists of two parts, the hardware and the software.
B. Network Interface Cards/NIC or Network Adapter Card
The network interface card (NIC) provides the physical connection between the network media/cable
and the computer.
Set By :Emamu Abdela Page 15 of 67
Document No.
General Wingate Polytechnic College
Institution Name: 05
GW/201-
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Issue No.
Title: Determine Best Fit Topology G1
MODULE CODE: ICT HNS3 TTLM 02 1110
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It used for moving data from the computer to the cable or network and vice versa.
Figure15. Modem Converting Digital Signal into Analog and Analog back to Digital.
NB: there are also network connectivity hardware components such as Hub, Router ,Switch,
Bridge, repeater etc we will discuss them later.
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The speed or rate at which data transmitted over a communication channel/media is called
Bandwidth.
Transmission media can be two types:-
A. Cable/Wired transmission media
B. Wireless transmission media
Cable/Wired /Guided Transmission Media
In Cable Transmission Media Data transmission is through solid medium (wired system)
Many cable types are available to meet the varying needs and sizes of networks, from small to
large. Generally, three major groups of cabling connect the majority of networks:
Twisted-pair cable
Coaxial cable
Fiber-optic cable
Twisted-Pair Cable
Twisted-pair cable consists of two insulated strands of copper wire twisted around each other.
The cables are twisted to reduce interference and crosstalk (a phenomena where one wire causes
interference on another ,twisting cancels out electrical noise or EMI/ElectroMagnetic Interference/
from adjacent pairs)
The oldest, least expensive, and most commonly used media
Highly susceptible to electrical noise, interference, and ‘tapping’ of the signal as
compared to the other guided media
Arrangement of twisted pairs into group used for high-speed (10-100 Mbps) LAN
Most commonly used for LANs, Telephone system or voice communication.
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UTP
STP
Figure 16. UTP and STP cable
There are 7 standard categories/Types of UTP cables:
Category 1(Cat-1) This refers to traditional UTP telephone cable that can carry only
voice information not used for other data transmissions unlike other category. It contains
2 twisted pairs/4wires
Category 2 This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up to 4 megabits per
second (Mbps). It consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire/8 wires.
Category 3 This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up to 16 Mbps. It
consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire.
Category 4 This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up to 20 Mbps. It
consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire.
Category 5 This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up to 100 Mbps. It
consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire.
Category 5e Improved version of cat 5 category. The bandwidth is 1000MBPS
Category 6 Similar to CAT5 wire, but contains a physical separator between the 4 pairs to
further reduce electromagnetic interference
Set By :Emamu Abdela Page 18 of 67
Document No.
General Wingate Polytechnic College
Institution Name: 05
GW/201-
Page No.
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Title: Determine Best Fit Topology G1
MODULE CODE: ICT HNS3 TTLM 02 1110
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NB: The most common types of UTP are Cat-5e and Cat-6
Cat-6 has high bandwidth and expensive than Cat-5
As category increase the bandwidth and cost also increase.
Figure 17. Crosstalk occurs when signals from one line bleed into another line
Twisted-pair cable uses RJ-45 (Registered Jack-45) connectors(used like for Cat-3,5 with
8wires) to connect to a computer, and RJ-11 connectors(used to connect Cat-1
cable/Telephone cable with 4wires).
The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is an RJ-45 connector.
A device called crimper is used to attach RJ-45 connectors to the twisted cables by the
process called crimping
RJ-45 Connector
Figure 18.RJ-45 connector and jack
Twisted-Pair advantages/disadvantages
UTP advantages
It has a large installed base and is a familiar technology.
It is relatively cheaper than STP.
Most LAN systems are readily capable of running over UTP/it is common.
It does not require bonding and grounding.
Easy to install and flexible.
UTP disadvantages
High-quality UTP systems require specialized installation procedures.
UTP is potentially more sensitive to external electromagnetic interference, crosstalk,
and attenuation than other media.
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NB: attenuation is the loss of signal strength that begins to occur as the signal travels
farther along a copper cable.
Not recommended for LAN that requires a high level of security and you must be
absolutely sure of data integrity.
Not suitable for transmitting data over long distances at high speeds.
Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) Cable
STP cable uses a woven copper-braid jacket that is more protective and of a higher quality than the
jacket used by UTP.
It allows to support higher transmission rates over longer distances than UTP but
expensive, not flexible and not common.
Coaxial Cable
In its simplest form, coaxial cable consists of a core of copper wire surrounded by insulation, a
braided metal shielding, and an outer cover.
better shielding than twisted pair Ü can span longer distances at higher
speeds
bandwidth dependent on cable quality, length, … - close to 1 GHz for
modern cables
The core of a coaxial cable carries the electronic signals that make up the data.
It used commonly for TV- System
Coaxial cable has more resistant to interference and attenuation than twisted-pair cabling.
Types of Coaxial Cable
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Figure 20. Thicknet cable has a thicker core than thinnet cable
The thicker the copper core, the farther the cable can carry signals. This means that thicknet
can carry signals farther than thinnet cable. Thicknet cable can carry a signal for 500 meters
(about 1640 feet). Therefore, because of thicknet's ability to support data transfer over longer
distances.
Thinnet vs. Thicknet: As a general rule, the thicker the cable, the more difficult it is to work with.
Thinnet cable is flexible, easy to install, and relatively inexpensive.
Thick cable does not bend easily and is, therefore, harder to install. Thick cable is more
expensive than thin cable, but will carry a signal farther.
Coaxial-Cable Connection Hardware
Both thinnet and thicknet cable use a connection component, known as a BNC/British Naval
connector or Bayone-Neill-Concelman, to make the connections between the cable and the
computers.
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Optical fiber cable is very thin like hair contains glass (or in some cases, plastic) fibers rather
than copper wire. Signals are transmitted across these fibers in the form of light pulses rather
than electrical pulses this eliminate the problem of Electrical interference.
o Has Extremely high bandwidth: capable of >=2Gbps
o Very high noise immunity, resistant to electromagnetic interference
o Does not radiate energy/cause interference
o Very difficult to tap (secure cable)
o Better security than copper based cables b/c it don’t carry electrical impulses
That means fiber cable can’t be tapped ,and so the data can’t be stolen.
NB: use it if you need to transmit data at higher speed over long distance in very secured
manner.
Don’t use it if you don’t have enough budget and expert available to properly install and
connect devices to it.
Optical fiber advantages
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Optical signals through glass encounter less loss than electrical signals through copper. This
translates into lower attenuation and higher bandwidth than copper, allowing transmission
to occur over longer distances and/or at greater speeds.
High level of immunity to electromagnetic interference since signal is sent as light and
not as electricity.
It is reliable and secure media.
It can be used in hazardous condition like in highly flammable condition.
Optical fiber disadvantage
Due to the required conversions between light and electricity, more expensive electronics
are required than with copper-based systems.
Requires specialized installation procedures
Hard and complex to install.
Less flexible than other media.
Usable cable 185 meters 500 meters UTP and STP: 2 kilometers
length 100 meters
Transmission 4-100 Mbps 4-100 Mbps UTP: 4-100 Mbps 100 Mbps or more ( >
rates STP: 16-500 1Gbps)
Mbps
Flexibility Fairly flexible Less flexible than UTP: Most flexible Less flexible than thicknet
thinnet STP: Less flexible
than UTP
Ease of Easy to install Moderately easy UTP: Very easy; Difficult to install
installation to install often preinstalled
STP: Moderately
easy
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Title: Determine Best Fit Topology G1
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In wireless system their is no physical connection b/n the transmitter and sender ,they use air as a
medium.
In unguided media transmission and reception are achieved by means of an antenna.
The inherent difficulty of setting up cable networks is a factor that will continue to push wireless
environments toward greater acceptance.
Wireless connectivity can be especially useful for networking:
Busy locations, such as lobbies and reception areas.
Users who are constantly on the move, such as doctors and nurses in hospitals.
Isolated areas and buildings.
Departments in which the physical setting changes frequently and unpredictably.
Structures, such as historic buildings, for which cabling presents challenges.
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The primary difference between these categories lies in the transmission facilities. Wireless LANs
and extended LANs use transmitters and receivers owned by the company in which the network
operates. Mobile computing uses public carriers, such as long distance telephone companies, along
with local telephone companies and their public services, to transmit and receive signals.
Satellite Microwave
Uses satellite in geostationary (geosynchronous) around 36,000 km above the earth
Source transmits signal to satellite which amplifies or repeats it, and retransmits down to
destinations
Optimum transmission in 1 - 10 GHz range;
It has good band width like 100’sMHz
because of The huge distances covered by the signal result in propagation delays of up to 5
seconds.
The costs of launching and maintaining a satellite are enormous, and consequently
customers usually lease the services from a provider.
VSAT ( Very small Aperture Terminal) :- High speed data transmission using satellite
It used to transmit data all over the world with little cost.
It very important media it used like for TV, Telephone and other network
transmission from the earth to the satellite is called uplink; from the satellite to
the earth is called downlink
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Infrared Transmission
Infrared systems carry data between devices using infrared light
Used For short-range communication like
o Remote controls for TVs
o Indoor wireless LANs
Do not pass through solid walls
o Better security and no interference (with a similar system in adjacent rooms)
No government license is needed
Cannot be used outdoors (due to the sunshine)
provides high bandwidths of up to 100MBps
The uses of infrared include military, such as: target acquisition, short-ranged wireless
communication etc
Radio Transmission
It has a frequency range between 1KHz to 1GHz
can travel long distances, penetrate buildings unlike Infrared (can be used indoors and
outdoors)
Wireless system advantage
Can be used in situations where it is difficult or impossible to install cable.
Can be used in hazardous condition
Mobility(portability) and elimination of unsightly cables(beauty).
Installation speed and simplicity: installing a wireless system can be fast and easy and can
eliminate the need to pull cable through walls and ceilings.
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More Flexibility: wireless networks offer more flexibility and adapt easily to changes in the
configuration of the network.
Can be used to transfer data in long distance like Communication satellite
Wireless disadvantages
Typically, such systems are not able to meet the performance demands of large or busy
networks.
Transmission can only occur over limited distances like infrared and at limited bandwidth.
The most obvious difference between wired and wireless networking is speed. Wired
network has high speed than wirless.
The potential for radio interference due to weather, other wireless devices, or obstructions
like walls (like in Remote Control).
Review Questions
1. What is the use of network transmission media?
2. compare and contrast the cable transmission media
3. list the cable connecter type for each cables
4. explain about wireless networking
5. compare and contrast the wireless transmission media
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Only when a computer "senses" that the cable is free and that there is no traffic on the cable can it send
data. Once the computer has transmitted data on the cable, no other computer can transmit data until the
original data has reached its destination and the cable is free again.
Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) Access Method
Carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) is the least popular of the three major
access methods. In CSMA/CA, each computer signals its target to transmit before it actually transmits
data. In this way, computers sense when a collision might occur; this allows them to avoid transmission
collisions. Unfortunately, broadcasting the intent to transmit data increases the amount of traffic on the
cable and slows down network performance.
Token-Passing Access Method
In the access method known as token passing, a special type of packet, called a token, circulates around a
cable ring from computer to computer. When any computer on the ring needs to send data across the
network, it must wait for a free token. When a free token is detected, the computer will take control of it
if the computer has data to send.
The computer can now transmit data. Data is transmitted in frames, and additional information, such as
addressing, is attached to the frame in the form of headers and trailers.
Demand Priority Access Method
Demand priority is a relatively new access method designed for the 100-Mbps Ethernet standard .
In a demand-priority network, computers can receive and transmit at the same time because of the cabling
scheme defined for this access method.
Demand-Priority Considerations
In a demand-priority network, there is communication only between the sending computer, the hub, and
the destination computer. This is more efficient than CSMA/CD, which broadcasts transmissions to the
entire network. In demand priority, each hub knows only about the end nodes and repeaters directly
connected to it, whereas in a CSMA/CD environment, each hub knows the address of every node in the
network.
Ethernet
Is a most popular computer networking technologies (include cables, protocols, NICs etc)commonly used
in LAN and WAN.
Problems related to using Ethernet hardware products from different hardware manufacturers in a single
network are nearly nonexistent.
Ethernet is a network protocol that controls how data is transmitted over a network.
It is most likely that the network in your office, at labs, bank and even at home is an Ethernet LAN.
Besides, most desktop and laptop computers come with integrated an Ethernet card(NIC) inside so that it is
ready to be connected to an Ethernet LAN.
The most commonly installed Ethernet systems are called 100 BASE-T (the "BASE-T" part means
the systems use twisted-pair cabling) and provide transmission speeds up to 100 megabits per second
(Mbps).
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Gigabit Ethernet provides speeds of 1000 Mbps (1 gigabit) and 10 GbE, or 10-Gigabit Ethernet,
provides up to 10 Gbps, and so on. Higher speeds are constantly under development for standardization
10BASE5 (also known as thick Ethernet or thicknet) was the first commercially available variant
of Ethernet. 10BASE5 uses a thick and stiff coaxial cable up to 500 metres in length with 10Mbs.
10BASE-T and its successors 100BASE-TX, 1000BASE-T( useUTP cat5e or cat6 with maximum
length of 100 meters) and 10GBASE-T, supporting speeds of 10, 100 Mbit/s and 1 and
10 Gbit/s respectively.
1000BASE-LX is a fiber optic gigabit Ethernet standard with 1 gigabit per second .
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Ethiopian TVET-System
INFORMATION SHEET # 2
Unit of Competence: Determine Best Fit Topology
Sender Receiver
Circuit Switching
Switching describes how data finds a path from its source to its destination.
Circuit switching was designed in 1878 in order to send telephone calls down a dedicated channel.
It defines a static/dedicated path from one point to another; so long as the two points are
connected, all data traveling between those two points will take the same path.
The link between caller and receiver is created, then a dedicated communications link between the two
points (hence the term circuit) is created. The circuit cannot be broken, meaning no one else can use the
line.
In a data communications environment, however, this is a disadvantage because the data often originates
from various sources
Thus, it's unnecessary to include addressing information in the packet with the data. Because there's only
one path, the data can't get lost.
A channel is dedicated to the connection. In circuit switching:-
o Dedicated communications path established for the duration of the conversation
o Data are transmitted along the dedicated path.
o At each node, incoming data are switched to the appropriated outgoing channel without
delay.
o Common example of circuit switch is telephone network.
o Establishing circuit Switched network consists of 3 phases:
1) circuit establishment
2) data transfer
3) circuit disconnect
Characteristics of circuit switching:-
There is Call setup/circuit establishment
It is Inefficient: the path is permanently reserved even if there is no data to send.
Guaranteed connection
No delay for path calculation, however, busy when connected.
A packet-switching network has no permanent/dedicated physical path determining how data moves
from point to point. Instead, the addressing information in the packet helps route the data to its
destination. You could think of a circuit-switching network as a complex of moving pipes, each
disconnected from the others and a packet-switching network as a complex of connected pipes, through
which data travels, choosing its path based on variables like traffic conditions.
manufactured by different vendors, they are still able to communicate with each other since they follow a
common set of rules defined by the OSI model
The OSI model was intended to help vendors create interoperable network devices and software in the
form of protocols so that different vendor networks could work with each other.
As networks and suppliers of networking products have spread across the world, the need for
standardization has increased.
Communication requires a common language Standards specify how things are done to
the smallest detail.
One form of network standards is protocols
NB: Protocols are a language spoken/standards between computers to exchange information or are a
formal description of message formats and the rules that two computers must follow in order to exchange
those messages.
Advantages of Reference Models
1. Divides the network communication process into smaller and simpler components, thus aiding
component development, design, and troubleshooting.
2. Allows multiple-vendor development through standardization of network components.
3. Allows various types of network hardware and software to communicate.
4. Prevents changes in one layer from affecting other layers, so it does not hamper development.
Network activity involves sending data from one computer to another. This complex process can
be broken into discrete, sequential tasks.
The OSI reference model architecture divides network communication into seven layers. Each
layer covers different network activities, equipment, or protocols. (Layering specifies different
functions and services as data moves from one computer through the network cabling to another
computer.)
The seven layers of the OSI reference model from highest to lowest layers are Application layer,
Presentation layer, Session layer, Transport layer, Network layer, Data link layer, Application
layer.
Each layer provides some service or action that prepares the data for delivery over the network to
another computer. The lowest layers—1 and 2—define the network's physical media and related
tasks, such as putting data bits onto the network interface cards (NICs) and cable. The highest
layers define how applications access communication services. The higher the layer, the more
complex its task is.
Application Layer
Layer 7, the topmost layer of the OSI reference model, is the application layer. It is closest to the user.
This layer relates to the services that directly support user applications, such as software for file
transfers, database access, and e-mail. In other words, it serves as a window through which application
processes can access network services. Application-layer protocols are like File Transfer Protocol
(FTP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP),HTTP etc. Application layer provides user interfaces
and support network services like:-
• Email
• File access and transfer
• Hyper Text Transfer or access to WWW
Presentation Layer
Layer 6, the presentation layer, defines the format used to exchange data among networked
computers. Think of it as the network's translator. When computers from dissimilar systems—such
as IBM, Apple, and Sun—need to communicate, a certain amount of translation and byte
reordering must be done. The presentation layer is responsible for converting protocols, translating
the data, encrypting the data, changing or converting the character set, and expanding graphics
commands.
The presentation layer is responsible for translating and formatting data, encrypting the
data, decrypting, compression of data (to reduce the number of bits that need to be transmitted).
Session Layer( Layer 5)
It allows two applications on different computers to open, use, and close a connection called
a session. (A session is a highly structured dialog between two workstations.) The session layer is
responsible for managing this dialog. It also provide security, that are needed to allow two applications to
communicate over the network.
provides dialogue control between devices, or nodes.
It provides an additional connection level beneath the session layer. The transport layer ensures that
packets are delivered error free, in sequence, and without losses or duplications/ data transport
reliability. At the sending computer, this layer repackages messages, dividing long messages into several
packets and collecting small packets together in one package. This process ensures that packets are
transmitted efficiently over the network. At the receiving computer, the transport layer opens the packets,
reassembles the original messages, and, typically, sends an acknowledgment that the message was
received. If a duplicate packet arrives, this layer will recognize the duplicate and discard it.
It uses sequencing, acknowledgments, retransmissions, and flow control to provide transport delivery.
The transport layer provides flow control and error handling, and participates in solving problems
concerned with the transmission and reception of packets. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
and Sequenced Packet Exchange (SPX),User Datagram protocol/UDP are examples of transport-layer
protocols.
It Unpacks, reassembles and sends receipt of messages at the receiving end.
Network Layer( Layer 3)
It is responsible for addressing messages and translating logical addresses and names into physical
addresses. This layer also determines the route from the source to the destination computer.
This layer handles the routing of the data (sending it in the right direction to the right destination on
outgoing transmissions and receiving incoming transmissions at the packet level). The network layer does
routing and forwarding
manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the network, and determines the best
way to move data
Concerned about network addressing
Network addresses allow a system to be identified on the network by a logically assigned address.
This is the layer where routing occurs. It provides logical addressing (e.g IP addresses) that routers use to
determine the best path to a destination. Packet forwarding and packet filtering occurs at this layer.
It also Manages traffic such as packet switching, routing and controlling the
congestion of data .
. Internet Protocol (IP),IPv6 and Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX) are examples of
network-layer protocols.
formats the message into pieces, each called a frame, and adds a customized header containing the
hardware destination and source address.
will ensure that messages are delivered to the proper device on a LAN using hardware addresses,
and translates messages from the Network layer into bits for the Physical layer to transmit.
Data link Concerned with:-
physical addressing
network topology
error notification
flow control
reliable transfer of data across media
Switch and bridge works in this layer.
Physical Layer (Layer 1)
The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite was created to ensure and preserve
data integrity, as well as maintain communications in the event of atomic war.
The TCP/IP Suite defines a set of rules to enable computers to communicate over a network. TCP/IP
provides end-to-end connectivity specifying how data should be formatted, addressed, shipped, routed and
delivered to the right destination.
It is a combination of two protocols TCP and IP that is an industry-standard suite of protocols that
provide communications in a heterogeneous (made up of dissimilar elements) environment. TCP/IP
very popular and has become the de facto standard for what's known as internetworking(the
intercommunication in a network that's composed of smaller networks. )
• TCP/IP is a combination of two individual protocols.
• IP operates at Layer 3, and is a connectionless protocol that provides best-effort delivery across a
network.
• TCP operates at Layer 4, and is a connection-oriented service that provides flow control as well as
reliability.
• By pairing these protocols, a wider range of services is provided.
• Together, they are the basis for an entire suite of protocols called the TCP/IP protocol suite.
• The Internet is built upon this TCP/IP protocol suite.
TCP/IP was originally designed as a set of wide area network (WAN) protocols for the express purpose
of maintaining communication links and data transfer between sites.
All modern operating systems offer TCP/IP support, and most large networks rely on TCP/IP for much of
their network traffic.
Following are some of the advantages of TCP/IP:-
1.It is an industry-standard protocol.
2.It contains a set of utilities for connecting dissimilar operating systems
Many connectivity utilities have been written for the TCP/IP suite, including the File Transfer Protocol
(FTP) ,Telnet. They do not dependent on the network operating
system used on either machine. For example, a Windows NT server running an FTP server could be
accessed by a UNIX FTP client to transfer files without either party having to worry about compatibility
issues.
3.Used to Access to the Internet
• The Internet is built upon this TCP/IP protocol suite.
4. Highly reliable or provide reliable network communication.
5. scalable or use in large network like Internet, client-server architecture
Internet Protocol (IP) is a packet-switched protocol that performs addressing and route
selection.
IP is a connectionless protocol and sends packets without expecting the receiving host
to acknowledge receipt.
Transport Layer
The transport layer, corresponding to the transport layer of the OSI reference model.
Is responsible for establishing and maintaining end-to-end communication between two hosts. The
transport layer provides acknowledgment of receipt, flow control, and sequencing of packets. It also
handles retransmissions of packets.
Protocols used in transport layer are like:- TCP or User Datagram Protocol (UDP) protocols depending
on the requirements of the transmission.
UDP is best used to send small amounts of data for which guaranteed delivery is not required.
UDP is used by applications that do not require an acknowledgment of data receipt.
These applications typically transmit small amounts of data at one time. Broadcast packets must
use UDP.
Examples of services and applications/ well-known application layer protocols that use UDP are like
SNMP,POP3 and TFTP etc
Application Layer
Corresponding/contains the session, presentation, and application layers of the OSI model, the
application layer connects applications to the network.
Numerous protocols have been written for use in this layer, including Simple Network Management
Protocol (SNMP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), SMTP, HTTP, Telnet and many others.
NB:The core protocols that make up TCP/IP are like TCP,IP,ARP,ICMP,FTP,SMTP,SNMP etc
NETWORK PROTOCOLS
Introduction to Protocols
Protocols are rules and procedures for communicating.
They are language spoken between computers or the rules that two computers must follow in
order to exchange those messages.
It is a set of rules or standards that control data transmission and other interactions between
networks, computers, peripheral devices, and operating systems.
The same protocol must be used on the sending and receiving devices. It is possible for two
devices that use different protocols to communicate with each other, but a gateway is needed in
between.
Keep three points in mind when you think about protocols in a network environment
There are many protocols. While each protocol facilitates basic communications, each has
different purposes and accomplishes different tasks. Each protocol has its own advantages and
restrictions.
Some protocols work only at particular OSI layers.
Protocols can also work together in a protocol stack, or suite. Just as a network incorporates
functions at every layer of the OSI reference model, different protocols also work together at
different levels in a single protocol stack. For instance, the TCP/IP .
Types of protocols
Routable and non-routable Protocols
Routable Protocols
Data that is sent from one LAN to another along any of several available paths is said to be routed. The
protocols that support multipath LAN-to-LAN communications are known as routable protocols. Because
routable protocols can be used to tie several LANs together and create new wide-area environments, they
are becoming increasingly important.
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Document No.
General Wingate Polytechnic College
Institution Name: GW/201-05
Page No.
Issue No.
Title: Determine Best Fit Topology G1
MODULE CODE ICT HNS3 TTLM 02 111 ዐ
Effective date: Feb 08,2010
Examples of routable protocols are almost all layer 3 protocols, and those that are layered
over them like TCP/IP, Telnet,SMTP,SNMP,IPX, AppleTalk etc
Routable protocols can travel through LANs and WANs and beyond because they can pass
through a router.
Non-routable protocoles
Assume that all computers communicate with are on the same network.
Today’s in modern networks most of these protocols are dying or falling out of use a because
they do not support multi-segment network.
Eg . Layer 2 protocols such as NetBEUI and Ethernet are non-routable protocols.
POP3(Post Office Protocol3):-most recent version of standard protocol used by local e-mail clients
for receiving e-mail from a remote server over a TCP/IP connection.
HTTP(Hyper Text Transfer Protocol):-most common and used for exchanging Hyper Text
documents(text, sound, movie, graphics ,multimedia files etc) On WWW b/n computer.
HTTP clients (such as Web browsers) and servers communicate via HTTP request and response
messages.
HTTP is the protocol used for the majority of World Wide Web communications
SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol): An Internet protocol for monitoring networks and
network components.
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) provides status messages and problem reports across
a network to an administrator.
Self check Questions
Choose the best answer by circling from the given alternatives
1. Which one is a Simplex transmission mode
A. TV B. Computer network C.Telephone communication
2. Which of the following is not true
A. In full duplex two device can communicate at the same time
B. In half duplex communication is takes place only in one direction
C. Telephone conversation is a full duplex communication
D. Radio uses a simplex communication
3. Which of the following is true
A. Computer network uses circuit switching
B. In packet switching, every packet follows the same route
C. Telephone communication uses circuit switching
D. All are true
Ethiopian TVET-System
INFORMATION SHEET # 3
Unit of Competence: Determine Best Fit Topology
Hubs
Hub is used as the central hardware component to connect computers in a star topology. Hubs can also be
used to expand the size of a LAN(185 meters) .. Hubs are multiport repeater
A Hub works at the physical layer of the OSI Reference Model to regenerate the network's signals and
resend them out on other segments.
When data enters the hub through any of its ports, the hub amplifies the signal and transmits it out
through all of the other ports.
Passive Hubs: Send the incoming signal directly through their ports without any signal processing.
Or they act as connection points and do not amplify or enhance the signal.
Bridges
Bridge can join segments or workgroup LANs. However, a bridge can also divide a network to isolate
traffic or problems. For example, if the volume of traffic from one or two computers or a single
department is flooding the network with data and slowing down the entire operation, a bridge could
isolate those computers or that department.
You might say that the bridge is like a traffic cop at a busy intersection during rush hour. It keeps
information flowing on both sides of the network, but it does not allow unnecessary traffic
through.
Bridges work at the data-link layer of the OSI reference model.
Bridges actually have some degree of intelligence in that they learn where to forward data.
Switch
It is used as the central hardware component to connect computers in a star topology.
Bridges and switches are usually used interchangeably; the difference is that a switch is most often
used to connect individual computers(offer a more direct network connection between the source and
destination computers)
Switches no longer broadcast network packets as hubs did in the past, they memorize addressing of
computers and send the information to the correct location directly based on MAC address(they amplify,
filter and forward packet).
In a small home or office, a hub is generally sufficient. However, if many users are always
sending large files to each other, the switch eliminates congestion
Hubs have actually become hard to find, due to the widespread use of switches
fig:48-port switch.
Routers
In an environment that consists of several network segments with differing protocols and architectures, a
bridge might be inadequate for ensuring fast communication among all segments. A network this complex
needs a device that not only knows the address of each segment, but can also determine the best path for
sending data and filtering broadcast traffic to the local segment. Such a device is called a "router."
Routers work at the network layer of the OSI reference model. This means they can switch and route
packets across multiple networks.
Bridges and routers can be confusing even for engineers with LAN and WAN experience because they
appear to do the same things: both forward packets between networks and send data across WAN links.
A bridge can recognize only one path between networks. A router can search among multiple
active paths and determine which is the best path at that particular moment.
Gateways
Gateways enable communication between different architectures and environments. They repackage and
convert data going from one environment to another so that each environment can understand the other
environment's data. A gateway repackages information to match the requirements of the destination
system. Gateways can change the format of a message so that it conforms to the application program at
the receiving end of the transfer. For example, electronic-mail gateways, such as the X.400 gateway,
receive messages in one format, translate it, and forward it in X.400 format used by the receiver, and vice
versa.
A gateway links two systems that do not use the same:
Communication protocols.
Data-formatting structures.
Languages.
Architecture.
Gateways interconnect heterogeneous networks; for example, they can connect Microsoft Windows NT
Server to IBM's Systems Network Architecture (SNA).
Network addressing
Addressing on a network can take one of three forms:
Computer names: on a typical network, most users prefer to use computer names to
communicate; computer names are far easier to remember than IP addresses. A computer
name is the logical equivalent of an IP or MAC address
IP(Internet protocol) addresses: Although users can use IP addresses, customarily IP
addresses are used primarily by applications to communicate with locations on or outside
the network
MAC(Media Access Control) address: MAC addresses are the physical addresses of
network devices(NIC) and if users use computer names and application use IP addresses,
then computers and other networked devices use MAC addresses to access other devices
on the network
With three ways to address elements on a network, there must be ways to resolve each type of address to
its equivalents.
MAC Addressing
Although the MAC address is always used in networking. It cannot be routed. The MAC address is not
routable because of ,It does not pass through routers (because of its position in the OSI model is 2 not3 )
IP Addressing
An IP address is a logical address of a computer/software, which is expressed as a four 8-bit group of bits
(a total of 32 bits) separated by periods. Each 8-bit group of bits can be represented by a 3-digit decimal
that spans between 0 and 255. For example 196.27.22.42
You can depict an IP address using one of three methods:
Dotted-decimal, as in 172.16.30.56
Binary, as in 10101100.00010000.00011110.00111000
Hexadecimal, as in AC.10.1E.38
The total number of distinct addresses one can have from these 32 bit addressing scheme is 2 32 =
4,294,967,296.
It shows the specific location of a device on the network.
It allow a host on one network to communicate with a host on different network
It is hierarchical address that makes it to handle large number of address(2 32) like Telephone
number.
An IP address consists of two parts a network address that identifies the network and a host address that
identifies the particular host(i.e PC), or node. Host Is computer, connected to a physical network, that
exchanges information with another computer.
IPV4 Addressing
The IP address identifies and differentiates a given machine from all others on the network. It consists of
a 32-bit number that is usually displayed as four octets expressed in decimal and separated by periods.
=>8bits. 8bits. 8bits. 8bits.
Internet designer decided to create classes of network based on network size, they created classful IP
address. For large number of network and small number of hosts probably class C IP address is an option.
There are five different classes of networks: A, B, C, D and E. classes D and E are reserved.
Class D is reserved for multicasting purpose and class E for experimental purpose.
Class A networks/Address
Designed to meet the needs of large networks with many nodes.
This class will only support 126 networks; but each network can support 16,777,214 hosts.
The first octet of the IP address is network portion and the rest is the node portion (part).
The Class A format is: NetworkID/bit. nodeID. nodeID. nodeID
NetworkID
0 x x x x X x x 24 bits node ID
For example, in the IP address 49.22.102.70 => 49 is the network address, and 22.102.70 is the Node
address.
To know the range of class A consider the first octet which is 0xxxxxxx ,here 0 is constant ,If we turn
the other 7 bits all off(0) and then turn them all on(1), we'll find the Class A range of network
addresses:00000000 = 0 and 01111111 = 127
So, a Class A network is defined in the first octet between 0 and 127, and it can't be less or more.
NB: 0 and 127 are not valid in a class A network b/c they are reserved, so we use 1-126.
A maximum of 126 (27-2) networks can be defined. The calculation requires that the 2 is subtracted
because 0.0.0.0 is reserved for use as the default route and 127.0.0.0 (also written 127/8 or 127.0.0.0/8)
has been reserved for the "loopback" function. The host calculation requires that 2 is subtracted because
the all-0’s of host bit is reserved for designating "this network" and all-1’s reserved for "broadcast"
address .
Example of valid class A IP address 12.100.90.6, here 12 is the network address and 100,90 &6 is the
node address.
Reserved/not valid IP address in classful IPAddress
Network address of all 0’s reserved/Interpreted to mean "this network or segment”
Eg. 0.67.9.8 , 0.123.44.67 etc
Network address of all 1’s class reserved/Interpreted to mean "all networks."
Eg. 255.4.96.37
Network 127.0.0.1 Reserved for loopback tests. Designates the local node
and allows that node to send a test packet to itself without generating network traffic
Node address of all 0’s in any class Interpreted to mean "network address" or any host on
specified network.
Eg.18.0.0.0, 160.56.0.0, 198.12.7.0 etc not valid IP to give for PC.
Node address of all 1’s in any class Interpreted to mean "all nodes" on the specified network; for
example, 128.2.255.255 means "all nodes" on network 128.2 (Class B address).
Eg.15.255.255.255, 128.2.255.255, 200.20.25.255 are not valid IP for PCs.
Class B networks
was designed for medium-sized networks
This class will support 16,384 networks; and limited to 65,534 hosts per network.
The first two octet (16-bit )are the network portion and the next two Octet are for nodes
Each Class B network address has a 16-bit network-prefix with the two highest order bits set to 10
and a 14-bit network number, followed by a 16-bit host-number.
The Class B format is: NetworkID/bit. NetworkID. nodeID. nodeID
Class C networks
Was designed for small networks; thus the number of hosts per network will be small, however it
will support many more networks total.
The first three octet are the network portion and the remaining one for node.
1 1 0 (21 bits) network id 8 bits node id
A maximum of 2,097,152 (2 ) networks can be defined with up to 254 (28-2) hosts per network
21
Each Class C network address has a 24-bit network-prefix with the three highest order bits set to
1-1-0 and a 21-bit network number, followed by an 8-bit host-number.
To know the range of class C consider the first octet which is 110xxxxx ,here 110 are constant If
we turn the other 5 bits all off(0) and then turn them all on(1), we'll find the Class C range of
network addresses:11000000 = 192 and 11011111 = 223
NB: class A network(not mostly used) support the largest number of Host address and class C
(which the opposite of Class A)support the largest number of Network address.
Example of valid class C IP address 192.16.30.56, here 192, 16 and 30 is the network address
and 56 is the node address.
When you determine the IP address, remember:
Each logical network must have its own network address.
IP address type
1. Private IP addresses/ networks
Private IP addresses are typically used on local networks including home, school and business LANs.
Devices with private IP addresses cannot connect directly to the Internet. Likewise, computers outside the
local network cannot connect directly to a device with a private IP. Instead, access to such devices must
be brokered by a router.
Three ranges of address are reserved for use in private networks. These ranges are not routable or
accessible outside of private networks and private machines cannot directly communicate with
public networks.
The following are the three ranges reserved for private networks:
Class Address range Number of addresses
A 10.0.0.1–10.255.255.254 16777216
B 172.16.0.1–172.31.255.254 1048576
C 192.168.0.1–192.168.255.254 65536
2. Public IP address
An IP address can be public - for use on the Internet or other wide area network (WAN).
Static verses Dynamic IP address
IP addresses can be determined statically (assigned to a computer by a system administrator) or
dynamically IP (assigned by another device on the network on demand like using DHCP Server).
NB: Network infrastructure devices such as servers, routers and firewalls are typically assigned
permanent /static IP addresses manually . The client machines can also be assigned static IP by a
network administrator, but most often are automatically assigned temporary /dynamic IP addresses via
software that uses the "dynamic host configuration protocol" (DHCP) commonly by DHCP server.
Reserved IP address
Certain host addresses are reserved and can’t be assigned to devices on a network
These are
1. Network address used to identify the network itself with all host bits zero.
Example: 192.168.1.0
2. broadcast address used for broadcasting packets to all devices on the network with all host bits one
Example: 192.168.1.255
So usable host with in a network calculated by 2n-2 (two is subtracted because these are reserved for the
network and broadcast. where n is the number of bits used for the host portion of the address.
Broadcast address The address used by applications and hosts to send information to all machines /nodes
on a network rather than a specific machine.
NB:we get broadcast address by making all host bits 1’s in any class and the network bits are as it is(not
changed).
Eg1. 201.25.25.255, is a broadcast address for the network 201.25.25.0
Eg2. 10.255.255.255, which broadcasts to all hosts on network 10.0.0.0.
Eg3, the broadcast address of 192.168.5.77 would be 192.168.5.255
Eg4, the broadcast address of 10.20.9.7 would be 10.255.255.255
NB: to avoid confusion broadcast address cannot be assigned to a Node.
Subnet mask (network mask)
A subnet mask or sub network mask is a 32 bit number which is used to identify which portion of the IP
address identifies the network portion and which part indicates the host part or portion.
A subnet mask is a 32-bit value that allows the recipient of IP packets to distinguish the network
ID portion of the IP address from the host ID portion of the IP address.
In subnet mask, all bits of the network ID portion/subnet bits are set to 1 (or we make all bits 1’s for
network and subnet bits) and all bits of the host address portion are set to 0.
Not all networks need subnets(small network), meaning they use the default subnet mask. This is
basically the same as saying that a network doesn't have a subnet address.
These default masks can’t be changed. In other words, you can't make a Class B subnet mask as
255.0.0.0.
Table : Default Subnet Mask
Class IP Format Default Subnet Mask
A network.node.node.node 255.0.0.0
B network.network.node.node 255.255.0.0
C network.network.network.node 255.255.255.0
Eg The default subnet mask of 8.20.15.1 ( 0001000.00010100.00001111.00000001) is 255.0.0.0
( 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000).
The default subnetmask of 138.20.15.1 is 255.255.0.0
Subnetting
A subnetwork, or subnet, is a logically visible subdivision(part of a network) of a network. The
practice /process of creating subnetworks is called subnetting.
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Document No.
General Wingate Polytechnic College
Institution Name: GW/201-05
Page No.
Issue No.
Title: Determine Best Fit Topology G1
MODULE CODE ICT HNS3 TTLM 02 111 ዐ
Effective date: Feb 08,2010
Subnetting is the process of breaking down an IP network into smaller sub-networks called
“subnets.”
subnetting, allows a network administrator to divide one large network into smaller logical
networks and, thus, control the flow of traffic for security or efficiency reasons.
There are many reasons to perform subnetting. Some of the benefits of subnetting include the following:
Reduced network traffic With routers, most traffic will stay on the local network; only packets
destined for other networks will pass through the router this reduce network traffic on that
network segment.
Optimized network performance This is a result of reduced network traffic.
Simplified network management It ís easier to identify and isolate network problems in a group
of smaller connected networks than within one large network.
To use address space more efficiently
The most common reason of subnetting is to control network traffic/to control heavy traffic loads.
To create subnet we borrow/take at least 2 bits from host bits so there will be a three level addressing
hierarchy which is Network number/bits ,subnet number and Host number.
NB: we subtract two b/c all 0’s and all 1’s of the subnet bits is not allowed for valid subnet.
to know how many hosts can be created /have per subnet we use the formula:
n
2 -2 =m (no. of hosts that can be created per subnet)
Where n is the number of bits remaining from the host bits/ the 0’s in subnet mask.
For example if we borrow 2 bits from host in class C we can create/have 62 hosts =>
26 -2 =62
NB: we subtract two b/c all o’s and all 1’s of the host bits is not allowed for host which
is the subnet address and the broadcast address respectively.
Subnetting Process
Subnetting Class C IP Addresses
There are many different ways to subnet a network.
In a Class C address, only 8 bits is available for defining the hosts.
NB: When we borrow at least 2 bits for subnet from host bits by start from the left
host bits and go to the right, without skipping bits.
you cannot have to borrow only one bit for subnetting since that would mean that the
bit would always be either off or on, which would be illegal or 21 -2 =0 since you need
at least two bits for creating subnets.
Eg1. Subnet the IP Address/network 198.10.20.0 by borrowing 2 bits
From the Host.
Question1) How many subnet can be created?
Question2) How many Hosts per subnet are there?
Question3) What are the valid Subnet IDs list them?
Question4) List the valid Host address for each subnet (list only the range or sample =>Start and End
Host Address for each subnet) ?
Question5) List the broadcast address for each subnet
Question6) what is the subnet mask?
ANSWERS
2
1. 2 -2 =2 sunbnets can be created.
2. 26 -2 =62 hosts can be exist per subnet. Hence class C.
3. A.198.10.20.00000000=>invalid subnet ID /no. b/c all borrowed bits can’t be 0
B.198.10.20.01000000=>valid subnet ID /no. which is 198.10.20.64
C.198.10.20.10000000=>valid subnet ID /no. which is 198.10.20.128
D.198.10.20.11000000=>invalid subnet ID /no. b/c all borrowed bits can’t be 1.
Hence the valid subnet IDs are 198.10.20.64 (subnet 1)and 198.10.20.128(subnet 2)
4. A.for the 1st subnet(198.10.20.64) the valid hosts IDs are (62) they are=>
The 1st Host ID/no. -----198.10.20.01000001=>198.10.20.65
NB: Host ID/no. -----198.10.20.10000000=>198.10.20.128 is not valid b/c all host bits can’t be 0’s and
Host ID/no. -----198.10.20.10111111=>198.10.20.191 is not valid b/c all host bits can’t be 1’s which is
broadcast address.
5. A.The broadcast ID/no. for the 1st subnet/198.10.20.01000000 is 198.10.20.01111111=>
198.10.20.127
5B.The broadcast ID/no. for the 2nd subnet/198.10.20.10000000 is 198.10.20.10111111=>
198.10.20.191
NB:We get the broadcast address by making all host bits 1’s in any subnet or by subtracting 1 from
the next subnet ID or last host ID + 1.
6.the subnet mask is 11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000=>255.255.255.192
NB:We get the subnet mask by making all network and subnet bits 1’s and all host bits 0’s .
Exercise
1. Subnet the IP Address/network 200.10.20.0/27 by borrowing 3 bits
From the Host and answer the above six questions.
2. A company leased 193.62.52.0 Address , this company requires 6 sunbnets for it’s 6 branches and it
also has 10 hosts per subnet. Answer the above six questions.
3. Subnet the IP Address/network 199.7.8.0 by borrowing 4 bits from the Host. And answer the above
six questions.
4.AAU leased 130.62.0.0 Address , for its 7 campus subnets(4killo,5killo,6killo,commerce
building ,debreziet campus and blackline) and each campus has 140 hosts. Answer the above six
questions.
IPv6 Features
The definition of a collision domain is a set of LAN devices whose frames could collide with one another.
This happens with hubs, bridges, repeaters and wireless access points as only one device can send and
receive at a time. If more than one device tries sending or receiving, the information is lost and
irrecoverable it will need to be resent. This can slow down network performance along with making it a
security threat.
A hub is considered a layer one device of the OSI model; all it does is send packets out on all ports
including the port in which the packet was received on. This causes a collision domain b/c only one
device can transmit at time. This also shares the bandwidth of all devices connected to that collision
domain.
A switch uses layer two of the OSI model, so the switch uses MAC addresses to send the packet to the
correct device. Rather than sending it to all ports a switch only sends the packet out one port, if it has the
MAC address in its MAC address table. If not the switch will send the packet on all ports except for the
port in which the packet was received on. Switches provide separate collision domains on each port.
This provides dedicated bandwidth to that device. This also allows simultaneous conversations b/n
devices on different ports. Each port can be operated at full-duplex so the device can send and receive
information at the same time
.
A broadcast domain is like a collision domain, the definition of a broadcast domain is a set of
devices that if one device sends a broadcast frame all other devices will receive that frame in the same
broadcast domain.
So if devices are in the same IP network they will be able to receive a broadcast message. Having a
smaller broadcast domain can improve network
performance and improve against security
attacks. The more PCs and network devices connected
to a single broadcast domain, the more broadcast
messages you will have. Remember a
Compiled by :Emamu Abdela Page 61
Document No.
General Wingate Polytechnic College
Institution Name: GW/201-05
Page No.
Issue No.
Title: Determine Best Fit Topology G1
MODULE CODE ICT HNS3 TTLM 02 111 ዐ
Effective date: Feb 08,2010
broadcast message goes to every PC and network device. An example is when the router gets a packet that
is destined to a host (192.168.1.124) on its Ethernet interface (192.168.1.0 network) the router will send
an ARP request saying who is 192.168.1.124? That packet will go to every PC on the network, each PC
has to look at the packet and then discard it if it is not 192.168.1.124. But only be processed by the PC
that is 192.168.1.124. So a broadcast message can be just like a collision domain and affect network
performance. The only devices that can block or not send broadcast messages are routers because they
separate networks. Each interface on a router is a different network.
Design Networks
During network design we do/consider a lot of things like:-
Choosing Peer-to-Peer or Server-Based?
Taking a Hardware and Software inventory
Telecommunications Equipment Survey
Requirements of the Network (Minimum Considerations)
Selecting Network Topology
Choosing an appropriate Network Media and hardware
Documenting Your Design ,building map and Making a Final Proposal
Whenever we start to design a network for an organization, we should clearly identify the organizational
objective and the goal of the network to be developed.
A general network goal that can work for most organizations can be to install an economical computer
network that will bring up-to-date communication technology and be flexible enough to allow for future
expansion. Some detailed network goals for a company are:-
Network the existing computers so that they can share information and printers.
Adding additional computers to the network.
Allow for the possible addition of computers at a later date.
Provide an Internet connection etc.
The first decision we need to make for this new network is whether it should be a peer-to-peer or a server-
based network. The factors we need to examine include the:
Size of the network, Level of security, Type of business.
Level of administrative support available, Amount of network traffic.
This is actually a simple process, but one that should not be taken lightly. For each computer, you will
need to gather information, including:
Make and model. , Processor manufacturer and speed.
Amount of memory (RAM) installed.
The size and manufacturer of each hard drive.
Details of any other installed drives, such as compact-disc and removable disk drives.
Monitor:make, model, and size, Any installed peripherals like printers, plotters, and scanners etc
Software Survey
Be aware of all the software currently in use throughout the potential network. For example, if you were
to convert all the computers to Windows NT while you were installing the new network, you might find
that some of the old standby programs, once used on a daily basis, now no longer run. For each software
program, gather the following information:
Program name ,Program version number
Availability of the original installation floppy disks or compact discs
Any licensing information
Telecommunications Equipment Survey
It might seem strange to review the existing telecommunications equipment (like modems
telephone lines)when you are installing a LAN, but this is actually a very important element of your
survey, especially if you intend to use like Internet connections a host on a LAN that includes
modems and enables users to connect to the network over telephone lines.)
Requirements of the Network
After you have examined the existing facility and equipment, you need to define the requirements of your
network. You'll then match these requirements to the existing hardware, software, and
telecommunications features available and determine what steps need to be taken to develop the network.
At a minimum, you should consider the following:
The size of the facility (located on a single floor vs. multiple floors)
The number of users
Whether the LAN will be extended to several buildings
The environment (office, manufacturing, out-of-doors)
The current network media, if any
The technical competence of users
The amount of network traffic (initially, and anticipated for the future)
The level of security
Building a Map
Now it's time to lay out the network. But before you begin to recommend a network plan for our bicycle
company, you will first need to make a map of all the elements involved. During this step, you should
consider two aspects of the network: the physical layout, including the location of each piece of hardware
and how it relates to the others, and the physical and logical topology of the proposed network.
The second step is to create a layout of the network topology. Don't forget to include printers and other
peripherals, such as scanners and modems.
Choosing Network Media
The choice of which media to select should not be taken lightly. The cost of installation can be quite high.
The media you choose will usually be related to the geographic requirements of the site
NB: to choose cable you need to consider different factor like cable cost, distance cover,
bandwidth ,security etc
Designing a LAN for a small office with a few users is different from building one for a large company
with two thousand users. In building a small LAN, a flat design is usually used, where all connecting
devices may be connected to each other. For a large company, a hierarchical approach should be used.
2 .Geographies
The geographical locations of the sites that need to be connected are important in a network design. The
decision making process for selecting the right technology and equipment for remote connections,
especially those of cross-country nature, is different from that for a LAN. The tariffs, local expertise,
quality of service from service providers, are some of the important criteria.
3. Politics
Politics in the office ultimately decides how a network should be partitioned. Department A may not want
to share data with department B, while department C allows only department D to access its data. At the
network level, requirements such as these are usually done through filtering at the router so as to direct
traffic flow in the correct manner. Business and security needs determine how information flows in a
network and the right tool has to be chosen to carry this out.
4 .Types of Application
The types of application deployed determines the bandwidth required. While a text-based transaction may
require a few kbps of bandwidth, a multimedia help file with video explanations may require 1.5 Mbps of
bandwidth.
5. Cost Constraints
The one major decision that makes or breaks a design is cost.
Network documentation
The Results of Undocumented Network
let see the case if none of the primary server systems were documented. No one knew what server did
what, how much memory, disk space, what type of processor(s), and in some cases, did not know what
Operating System was installed. Because of the lack of network documentation, no one knew what was
suppose to be done to maintain enterprise Anti-Virus system. virus signatures had not been updated in
over six months. the system was not even functioning and nearly 90% of systems on the network were
infected with virus and worms (and not the annoying kind either, the destructive kind)
there were four different tape backup servers, and again, because of the lack of network documentation,
none of them had been maintained. The customer just kept changing tapes. And do you know what, none
of the backup jobs had been running for months. Talk about a false sense of security!
The very last thing that we want to talk about is how lack of network documentation and procedures can
affect network security.
network documentation is very essential for maintaining ,managing resources etc
All server hardware and operating systems should be documented, including the physical locations and
what primary, secondary, etc.. purpose they serve. All key service accounts , login account, user-id and
password's should be documented and stored in a safe location. A visual diagram of the network layout,
even from a high level, should exist no matter how small or large the network is.
Procedures on how to maintain the network technology, including Operating Systems, security
related services, backup and disaster recovery (business continuity), and firewall technologies
should exist.
Additionally, you should document and secure all Operating System and application licensing.
Other information to have documented is key contact information. For instance, who do you call
if your Internet connection goes down? Who do you contact if your offsite web services are not
functioning?
The above is just the basic items that need to be documented within a computer network. There are
many more aspects to network documentation.
6. Which of the following work on network layer of the OSI reference mode
A. Router B. Repeater C. Switch D.Hub
7. Which of the following is true
A. MAC address of a computer can be changed
B. IP address is used in TCP/IP network
C. Every computer should have a unique MAC address to communicate
D. Once we assign an IP address to a computer it is very difficult to change
8. Which of the following is a class B IP address
A. 192.168.1.1 B.113.10.10.1 C.130.1.12.1 D.240.2.1.5
9. Which of the following is a different IP address than the other
A. 192.168.0.1 B.192.168.0.168 C.192.168.1.0 D.192.168.0.2
10. Which of the following is a correct private class C IP address
A. 192.160.7.8 B.10.10.1.2 C. 192.10.1.1 D. 192.168.100.200
11. The default Subnet mask of 100.10.2.1 IP address is
A. 255.0.0.0 B.255.255.0.0 C.255.255.255.0 D.255.10.0.0
12. Which of the following statements describe the network shown in the graphic? (Choose
two)