STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY AND ROCK MECHANICS

ROCKS AS MATERIALS FOR CONSTRUCTION

BUILDING STONES
Building stones, essential elements in construction, play a critical role in construction due to
their durability, strength, workability, and aesthetic appeal. Selected based on their physical and
mechanical properties, such as resistance to weathering and compressive strength, stones like granite,
limestone, sandstone, marble, and slate are utilized in various architectural applications. From
foundations and walls to decorative elements and finishes, building stones contribute to the structural
integrity and visual appeal of architectural projects, ensuring longevity and enhancing the built
environment.
Stone masonry is a traditional building technique where workers use natural stones to construct
structures like walls, buildings, bridges, and monuments. It involves shaping and arranging stones using
mortar, which is a type of cement, to bind them together. Stone masonry can be either dry, where stones
are stacked without mortar, or wet, where mortar is used to hold the stones in place. This method has been
used for centuries and is known for its durability, strength, and timeless aesthetic appeal.
PROPERTIES
When choosing a stone for construction, it's essential to thoroughly evaluate its properties
because these characteristics directly impact how well the stone will perform in its intended application.
The properties of a rock serve as essential criteria for evaluating its performance, longevity, and overall
contribution to the structural integrity and visual appeal of a construction project. By carefully
considering these properties during the selection process, builders can ensure that the chosen stone meets
the functional and aesthetic needs of the project while also standing the test of time.
Strength Characteristics
The strength characteristics of a rock refer to its ability to resist various types of
forces without breaking or deforming. These characteristics are crucial in determining the
suitability of the rock for construction purposes.
1. Compressive Strength. Compressive strength can be defined as the ability of the soil
or rock to resist forces imposed on it or the maximum stress that a sample can withstand
under specified loading conditions. It is a measure of the ability of a material to withstand
compressive forces without collapsing or fracturing. It is an important property for
materials used in construction, engineering, and manufacturing, as it indicates their
ability to support loads or resist deformation under compression.

For example, in concrete, compressive strength is typically measured by

applying a compressive force to a standardized specimen of the material until it fails.
The maximum load that the specimen can withstand before failure occurs is then
recorded as the compressive strength of the material.

Where:
 Co = Compressive Strength
P = Load of Failure
A = Area of cross-section of stone under P

The Compressive strength of a rock depends on a number of factors, such as its

a) Mode of formation

b) Composition

c) Texture and structure

d) Moisture content and

e) Extent of weathering it has already suffered

2. Transverse Strength. Transverse strength, also known as flexural strength or modulus

of rupture, is a measure of a material's ability to resist bending or shearing forces. In the
context of rocks, transverse strength refers to the capacity of a rock specimen to
withstand applied loads perpendicular to its axis without fracturing or breaking. It is an
important mechanical property used in engineering applications, particularly in the design
of structural elements and rock support systems. But when a stone is intended for use as a
beam or a lintel, its transverse strength is determined as modulus of rupture using the
following relationship.

Where:
R = Modulus of rupture;
W = weight at which sample breaks;
l= length of the specimen;
b = width of specimen;
d = thickness of the specimen.

3. Porosity. Porosity of a rock refers to the volume percentage of void space (pores)
within the rock's total volume. These void spaces can be filled with fluids such as water,
oil, or gas, or they can be empty. Porosity is a crucial property in various fields, including
petroleum engineering, hydrogeology, and geotechnical engineering, as it directly affects
the rock's ability to store and transmit fluids.

Porosity is an important engineering property of rocks. It accounts for the fluid

absorption value of the stones in most cases and also that a higher porosity signifies a
lesser density which generally means a lesser compressive strength. Porosity values for a
few common building stones. Granite-0.1 to 0.5%, Basalt- 0.1 to 1%, Sandstone- 5 to
25%, Limestone- 5 to 20%, Marble- 0.5 to 2%, Quartzite- 0.1 to 0.5%.
 High porosity in rocks indicates a significant volume of void spaces relative to the rock's
total volume, often filled with fluids like water, oil, or gas. It is typically found in
sedimentary rocks formed by processes like deposition, compaction, dissolution, or
fracturing. In contrast, low porosity rocks have tightly packed mineral grains with
limited interconnected pore spaces, resulting in poor fluid storage and transmission
capabilities. This property is common in igneous and metamorphic rocks due to their
crystalline nature and lack of significant pore spaces, making them less permeable and
less suitable for fluid storage or extraction processes.

4. Absorption Value. The absorption value of a rock refers to its capacity to absorb
fluids, typically water, into its pore spaces. This property is essential in various
engineering applications, particularly in construction and geotechnical engineering,
where the ability of rocks to absorb water can impact their durability, stability, and
behavior under different environmental conditions. It maybe obtained from the
relationship:

Where S = weight at saturation; W = dry weight of the sample used

5. Density. The density of a rock refers to its mass per unit volume and is typically
expressed in grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm³) or kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m³). It
is a fundamental physical property of rocks and is influenced by factors such as mineral
composition, porosity, and degree of compaction. Density values can vary widely
depending on the type of rock, with sedimentary rocks generally having lower densities
compared to igneous and metamorphic rocks. Accordingly, three types of density may be
distinguished in rocks.

1.Dry density: It is the weight per unit volume of an absolutely dried rock
specimen, it includes the volume of the pore spaces present in the rock
2.Bulk density: It is the weight per unit volume of a rock sample with natural
moisture content where pores are only partially filled with water.
3.Saturated density: It is the density of the saturated rocks or weight per unit
volume of a rock in which all the pores are completely filled with water

Bulk density values in gram/cubic cm for some common building stones are:

6. Abrasive Resistance. The abrasive resistance of rock refers to its ability to withstand
wear and erosion caused by abrasive forces such as friction, impact, or rubbing against
other surfaces. This property is crucial in various industries, including mining,
construction, and manufacturing, where rocks are subjected to abrasive environments.
Abrasive resistance is influenced by factors such as mineral hardness, surface roughness,
and composition. Rocks with high abrasive resistance are often preferred for applications
involving heavy wear and abrasion.
 Stones composed of more than one mineral like granite may look quite appealing. In such
cases, when freshly used, but within short time, they may get pitted or disfigured because
of unequal wear of the different mineral components.

7. Frost and Fire Resistance. Many building stones show quick disintegration of
building stones or rocks when used in situations involving frost formation (excessive
cold) or heating.

Frost causes disintegration by expansion of water on breezing within the rock pores. In
the case of fire, the unequal expansion in different mineral components and also at
different depths from surface inwards may cause disintegration. This effect becomes
more pronounced when the rock is first heated and then suddenly cooled by water by
water. Heavy stones including granites crumble to pieces under such a treatment. It is
easy to understand that rocks which are found porous and weak in strength are easily
deteriorated in cold humid climates by frost action. Limestone and sandstones fall in this
category. They show very poor frost resistance.

ABRASIVE

IMPORTANT BUILDING STONES

Important building stones are those that possess characteristics suitable for construction, such as
durability, strength, workability, and aesthetic appeal. Building stones are essential components in
construction, providing structural support, aesthetic appeal, and durability to various architectural
projects. They are chosen based on their physical and mechanical properties, as well as their suitability
for specific applications.

Common types of building stones include:

1. Granites. Granite is a type of igneous rock characterized by its coarse-grained texture and
high silica content. It forms from the slow crystallization of magma deep within the Earth's
crust. Granite typically consists of quartz, feldspar, and mica minerals, though its
composition can vary widely depending on the specific mineralogy of the parent magma and
subsequent geological processes. Granite is renowned for its durability, strength, and
resistance to weathering, making it a popular choice for various construction applications,
including countertops, flooring, monuments, and exterior cladding.
 2. Sandstones. Sandstone is a sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-sized mineral
particles or rock fragments. These particles are typically cemented together by silica, calcite,
or iron oxide, creating a solid rock matrix. Sandstones often exhibit distinct bedding planes
and cross-bedding structures, reflecting their depositional environment and geological
history. They come in a wide range of colors, including tan, brown, red, and gray, and may
contain fossils or other sedimentary features. Sandstone is valued for its durability,
workability, and aesthetic appeal, making it suitable for various construction applications,
such as building facades, walls, paving, and decorative elements.

3. Marbles. Marble is a metamorphic rock that forms from the recrystallization of limestone or
dolomite under high pressure and temperature conditions deep within the Earth's crust. This
process causes the original minerals in the limestone to recrystallize into interlocking grains,
resulting in a fine-grained, crystalline rock with a smooth and often polished surface. Marble
is renowned for its distinctive veining, wide range of colors, and elegant appearance, making
it highly prized for architectural and decorative purposes. It is commonly used in sculptures,
building facades, flooring, countertops, and interior finishes to impart a sense of luxury and
sophistication to spaces.

4. Slate. Slate is a fine-grained metamorphic rock that forms from the recrystallization of shale
or mudstone under low-grade metamorphic conditions. It typically exhibits a distinct foliation
or cleavage, which allows it to be split into thin, flat sheets. Slate is characterized by its
smooth texture, durability, and ability to retain color, making it suitable for a variety of
applications. It is commonly used as roofing material, flooring, cladding, and for decorative
purposes such as chalkboards and billiard tables.

REFERENCE/S:

ASTM International. (2000). Standard Test Method for Flexural Strength of Hydraulic-Cement Mortars
(C 348-00). West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International.

Selley, R. C. (1998). Elements of Petroleum Geology (2nd ed.). Academic Press.

ASTM International. (2013). Standard Test Method for Water Absorption of Core Conventional Density
Hardened Concrete (C 642-13). West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International.

Blatt, H., Tracy, R. J., & Owens, B. E. (2006). Petrology: Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic (3rd
ed.). W. H. Freeman.

Ozkahraman, H. T. (2007). Prediction of the abrasion resistance of rock aggregates using simple
aggregate properties. Engineering Geology, 91(1), 80-92.

Ashmole, P., & Mottram, A. (2000). Conservation of Building and Decorative Stone (2nd ed.).
Butterworth-Heinemann.

Blatt, H., Tracy, R. J., & Owens, B. E. (2006). Petrology: Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic (3rd
ed.). W. H. Freeman.