Chapter 1 - Heredity and Evolution

1. Complete the following diagram.

Solution:

2. Read the following statements and justify same in your own words with the help of
suitable examples.

a. Human evolution began approximately 7 crore years ago.

Solution: The dinosaurs became extinct around 7 crore years ago and from that point human
evolution began. Humans are thought to have evolved from monkey like animals which looked
more or less like modern lemurs. These monkey like animals further evolved into ape like animals.
Some of these ape like animals evolved into gibbon and orangutan while rest of them evolved into
gorilla and chimpanzees. From their evolved, the first human like animal called Ramapethicus.
The following table lists the evolutionary history of modern man:
Year Evolution
15 million years ago Dryopithecus ape−like and Ramapithecus man−like

3 − 4 million years ago Man-like primates

2 million years ago Australopithecines, also called Homo habilis, lived in
East Africa
1.5 million years ago Homo erectus
1,000 − 40, 000 years ago Neanderthal man
75, 000 − 10, 000 years ago Homo sapiens
b. Geographical and reproductive isolation of organisms gradually leads to speciation.

Solution: Speciation may be defined as an evolutionary process, which involves the formation of
one or more species from an existing species. In order to understand speciation, let us consider
the example of beetles. Let us consider that a population of beetles has split into two separate
populations, which cannot reproduce with each other.

Formation of a new species

These two separate populations of beetles are spread on a wide mountain range since their food is
widely distributed. Hence, the population of beetles in that area is very large. Beetles are small
insects, which cannot travel to far off places. They gather food from nearby places. As a result,
sub-populations of beetles are spread over that area. These sub-populations can lead to the
formation of an entirely new species.
Geographical isolation: Since this population of beetles is spread over a large area, reproduction
cannot occur between individuals of sub-populations. Reproduction will only occur within a sub-
population, which will lead to the production of a new species. Now, if a river starts flowing
between the two populations, then the two subpopulations would be further isolated and the
chances of gene flow or reproduction further decreases.
Genetic drift and natural selection: Genetic drift and natural selection can give rise to different
changes in subpopulations. For example, a particular sub-population of beetles evolves to blue or
green colour due to natural selection or genetic drift. This will result in changes in subsequent
generations. Thus, the two populations of beetles become completely different from each other.
These sub-populations will eventually be incapable of reproducing with each other. For
example, the green female beetles of an area will prefer to reproduce with the green males only
because green beetles have the survival advantage. Therefore, this results in the formation of a
new species of green beetles, which are reproductively isolated.

c. Study of fossils is an important aspect of study of evolution.

Solution: Fossils are the remains of organisms that once existed on Earth. They represent the
ancestors of plants and animals, which are alive even today. Fossils provide evidences of evolution
by revealing the characteristics of the past organisms, and the changes that have occurred in these
organisms to give rise to a present organism. Fossils have the same shape as that of the original
animal, but their colour and texture may vary widely. The colour of a fossil depends upon the type
of minerals that form it. For example, the fossil of a bone will not have some constituents of the
bone in it. It has the same shape as the bone, but it is chemically more like a rock.
Importance of Fossils:
i They inform us about the types of living things that existed in the past.
ii They inform us about the extent to which living things have changed over time.
iii The most recent fossil is found in a rock nearest to earth’s surface. Therefore, they inform us
about the time when a particular life form existed.

d. There is evidences of fetal science among chordates.

Solution: Fetal science or embryology is used as an evidence of evolution. Comparative study of

embryos invertebrates/chordates shows that there is lot of similarity in them at the initial stages
whereas this similarity decreases gradually. This similarity in the development of embryos
represents common origin of organisms.

3. Complete the statements by choosing correct options from bracket. (Gene, Mutation,
Translocation, Transcription, Gradual development, Appendix)

Solution:
a. The causality behind the sudden changes was understood due to mutation principle of Hugo
de Vries.
b. The proof for the fact that protein synthesis occurs through gene was given by George Beadle
and Edward Tatum.
c. Transfer of information from molecule of DNA to mRNA is called as transcription process.
d. Evolution means gradual development.
e. Vestigial organ appendix present in human body is proof of evolution.

4. Write short notes based upon the information known to you.

Solution:
a. Lamarckism: Lamarck gave the principle of 'use or disuse of organs’. He proposed that the
reason behind evolution was the changes in the morphological activities of the organism. For
example: giraffe has a long neck because it used to browse on leaves of tall plants by extending
their neck for several generations, shoulders of iron smith are strong due to repetitive hammering
movements, wings of ostrich and emu are weak because they are not used for flying, legs of birds
and swan are used for swimming because they live in water. These characters are termed as
acquired characters which are transferred from one generation to another.

b. Darwin’s theory of natural selection: Darwin is famous for the theory which he published in
the book titled ‘Origin of Species’. In this book he explained the theory of natural selection which
talks about the survival of the fittest. He stated that there is a continuous competition between
organisms for survival and the strongest of all survives. The chances of survival are higher for
organisms which show modifications which will help them to survive. He also said that, nature
also plays an important role in the selection of the fittest. Nature selects only those organisms
which are capable of adapting to the changing situations while the rest which are incapable to do
so perish away. The organisms which are selected by the nature then reproduce and give rise to
new species which have their own characteristics
c. Embryology: Embryology is the study of the formation and development of embryo and fetus.
Embryology is used as one of the evidences of evolution. Comparative study of embryos in
vertebrates shows that there is lot of similarity in them at the initial stages whereas this similarity
decreases gradually. This similarity in the development of embryos represents common origin of
organisms.

d. Evolution: Evolution refers to the gradual change which occurs in an organism over a long
duration of time. It is a slow going process which results in the development of the organism. Life
originated on earth about 3.5 billion years ago. It is believed that there might have been presence
of simple elements on earth which may have given rise to simple organic and inorganic molecules.
From these simple molecules, complex molecules like proteins, DNA etc. may have been formed.
Other evolutionary changes may have resulted in the formation of simple cells and the result of
the continuous evolution on earth is the several species of plants and animals which exist on earth.
Today, the diversity on earth varies from unicellular Amoeba to a human being and from a
unicellular algae like Chlorella to huge Banyan tree.

e. Connecting link: Connecting link refers to plant and organisms which show characteristics
related to two different groups. For example, Peripatus is considered a connecting link between
annelida and arthropoda. It has characteristics like segmented body, thin cuticle and parapodia-
like organs which are similar to annelids. It also shows tracheal respiration and open circulatory
system which is similar to arthropods. Another example is duck billed platypus which is a
connecting link between reptiles and mammals as it lays eggs like reptiles and has mammary
glands like mammals.

5. Define heredity. Explain the mechanism of hereditary changes.

Solution: Heredity refers to the passing of traits from parents to off springs either through asexual
or sexual reproduction. Gregor Johann Mendel 1822–1884 was the first to carry out the study on
the transmission of characteristics from the parents to the off springs. He proposed that heredity
is controlled by factors, which are now believed to be segments of chromosomes or genes. These
traits are passed on in the form of genetic information from parents to off springs. This genetic
information is stored in molecules called DNA. During the process of reproduction, the child
receives genetic information from both the parents in the form of DNA. 50% genetic information
is passed on from the paternal DNA whereas rest 50% information is passed on by the maternal
DNA. This is why a child closely resembles its parents and has traits similar to both of them.
Commonly observed heritable features are curly hair, a particular type of ear lobe, hair on ears
etc.

6. Define vestigial organs. Write names of some vestigial organs in human body and write
the names of those animals in whom same organs are functional

Solution: Vestigial organs is a term used for organs which are degenerated, underdeveloped or
useless for an organism. Usually, with the changes in the outer environment, the organs undergo
a gradual change in order to cope up with those changes. Presence of vestigial organs is an
indication that they were useful for our ancestors but as we evolved with the changing
surroundings, these structures lost their functionality but our still found in our bodies. It is not
compulsory that if an organ is vestigial for humans, so will it be for other organisms too.
7. Answer the following questions.
a. How are the hereditary changes responsible for evolution?

Solution: Heredity is the passing of traits from parents to off springs. These traits which are
passed from one generation to another are called inherited traits as they are inherited from the
previous generation. Evolution refers to the changes which occur in these inheritable traits over
a long period of time. These changes allow organisms to survive with changing environment and
provide an advantage over other species who cannot survive in that environment. Changes in
these inheritable characters, provide better chances of survival and reproduction and thus result
in the evolution of species.

b. Explain the process of formation of complex proteins.

Solution: A protein is a Quaternary structure. It is made up of two or more polypeptide chains.

Complex proteins are made up of various protein molecules which are linked by non-covalent
bonds. Amino acids are the basic units of the proteins. They link together to form a primary
structure, polypeptide chain. Secondary structure is made up of beta sheets or alpha helices. This
structure then folds into a three-dimensional structure called as tertiary structure. The protein
structure binds with a non-protein moiety to form a Quaternary structure called as complex
protein.
Transcription Translation
DNA → mRNA → Protein

c. Explain the theory of evolution and mention the proof supporting it.

Solution: There are various theories of evolution but the most acceptable one is the theory of
'Gradual development of living organisms'. According to this theory, the first living material
which is the protoplasm was formed in ocean. Gradual changes resulted in the formation of
unicellular organisms and further developments resulted in the formation of larger and complex
organisms. However, these changes did not occur overnight, they were slow and gradual changes
which took almost 300 crore years. These changes and development are often referred to as
evolution and are the prime cause of diversity of plants and organisms which we see on earth
today. There are various evidences which support evolution:

Morphological evidence- Similarity in morphological features of animals and plants is an

evidence that they have evolved from common ancestors. For example: In animals similarities
like structure of mouth, position of eyes, structure of nostrils and in plants, similarities in
characters like leaf shape, leaf venation, leaf petiole represent common ancestry.

Connecting links- Connecting links refers to plant and organisms which show characteristics
related to two different groups. For example, Peripatus is considered a connecting link between
annelida and arthropoda. It has characteristics like segmented body, thin cuticle, and parapodia-
like organs which are similar to annelids. It also show tracheal respiration and open circulatory
system which is similar to arthropods. Another example is duck billed platypus which is a
connecting link between reptiles and mammals because it lays eggs like reptiles and has mammary
glands like mammals.
Embryological evidence- Embryology is used as one of the evidences of evolution. Comparative
study of embryos shows that there is lot of similarity in them at the initial stages whereas this
similarity decreases gradually. This similarity in the development of embryos represents common
origin of organisms.

d. Explain with suitable examples importance of anatomical evidences in evolution.

Solution: Anatomical evidences help us to study how species have evolved over a period of time.
Analogous structures support the theory of evolution and explain the fact that how species build
up adaptations in order to fit in an environment whereas homologous structures help us to
understand common ancestry.
For example, if we compare the hands of humans with cat’s foreleg, flipper of whale and patagium
of bat, we see that each of these organism use these structures are differently. But still there is a
similarity between the structure of bones and joints which indicates that somewhere or the other
these animals may have originated from common ancestors.
This is an example of homology. Another example which explains analogous features is the arctic
fox and the ptarmigan bird, Both of them change colours from dark brown to white during seasonal
changes. They do not show common ancestry in way but since, they are found in the same habitat
they are adapted to colour change.

e. Define fossil. Explain importance of fossils as proof of evolution.

Solution: Any preserved remains, impression, or trace of organisms that lived in the past is called
fossil. Examples include bones, shells, exoskeletons, stone imprints of animals, etc.
The time of death of a plant or animal can be calculated by measuring the radioactivity of C-14
and ratio of C-14 to C-12 (non-radioactive carbon) present in their body of the fossil organism.
By determining the age fossil. This called carbon dating.
Once the age of fossil been determined, it is easy to gather the information about other past lived
organisms. It can be concluded that vertebrates have been slowly originated from invertebrates.

f. Write evolutionary history of modern man.

Solution: The family to which human beings belong is called Hominidae. It was in the Miocene
age that the family Hominidae split from the Pongidae (apes) family. Dryopethicus was the first
in the evolution of man in the stages of evolution and some believe him to be the common ancestor
of man and apes. Around 2.5 million years later, the Ardipithecus ramidus, which could both live
on trees, as well as walk about on land, roamed the earth. Further evolution took place over the
next 1.5 million years, which brought forth the Australopithecus afarensis. Another half million
years later, came the Homo Habilis, the Homo Erectus and the Homo Heidelbergensis. The
modern man or Homo Sapiens are thought to have evolved about 2 - 3 million years ago in Africa.
The evolutionary history of modern man is as follows:

Year Evolution

15 million years ago Dryopithecus (ape−like) and Ramapithecus (man−like)

3 − 4 million years ago Man-like primates

2 million years ago Australopithecines, also called Homo habilis, lived in East
Africa
1.5 million years ago Homo erectus

1,000 − 40, 000 years ago Neanderthal man

75, 000 − 10, 000 years ago Homo sapiens