Radial geodesics in Schwarzschild spacetime

Spherically symmetric solutions to the Einstein equation take the form

 a 2 dr2
ds2 = − 1 + dt + + r2 dθ2 + r2 sin2 θdϕ2
r 1 + ar

where a is constant.
We also have

the connection components, which now take the form (using eν = e−λ = 1+ ar , and therefore
a a −ν
ν = ln 1 + r and ν,1 = − r2 e

Γ000 = 0
a
Γ001 = Γ010 = −
2r2 1 + ar

1 a a
Γ100 = − 1+
2 r r2
a
Γ111 =
2r2 1 + ar

Γ101 = Γ110 = 0
Γ011 = 0
1
Γ212 = Γ221 =
 r a
Γ122 = −r 1 +
r
1
Γ313 3
= Γ31 =
 ra 
Γ133 = − 1+ r sin2 θ
r
cos θ
Γ323 = Γ332 =
sin θ
Γ233 = − sin θ cos θ

Now consider the geodesic equation for a particle which starts from rest at time τ = t = 0.
dua
0= + Γabc ub uc
dτ
It might seem that the initial velocity 4-vector is ua = (1, 0, 0, 0), but this is not allowed. Using the line
element, ds2 = −dτ 2 , we must have
2 2 2 2
r2 r2
   
 a dt 1 dr dθ dϕ
−1 = − 1 + + + 2 + 2 sin2 θ
1 + ar


r dτ c2 dτ c dτ c dτ

where c is the speed of light. If there is no initial motion in the spatial directions we must have
 
0 dt 1
u0 = =q
dτ 0 1+ a r0

where r0 is the initial radial position.

The geodesic equation for each component is then (at the initial time),

1 du0
0 = + 2Γ001 u0 u1
c dτ

1
 1 du1
0 = + Γ100 u0 u0 + Γ111 u1 u1 + Γ122 u2 u2 + Γ133 u3 u3
c dτ
1 du2
0 = + 2Γ221 u2 u1 + Γ233 u3 u3
c dτ
1 du3
0 = + 2Γ313 u1 u3 + Γ323 u2 u3
c dτ
Notice that if u2 = 0 or u3 = 0 then the corresponding accelerations also vanish, so they remain zero.
However, u1 cannot remain zero.
For radial motion, substituting for the connection coefficients, we therefore have
1 du0 a
0 = − 2
u0 u1
c dτ r 1 + ar
1 du1  a a 0 0 a
0 = − 1+ u u + 2
u1 u1
c dτ r 2r2 2r 1 + ar
We also have the relation given by the line element,
 2  2
 a  dt 1 1 dr
−1 = − 1 + + a
r dτ 1+ r c dτ

First equation
Integrate the first equation,
du0 adr
0 = − 2
1 + ar


u0 r
ˆ
0 adr
= ln u −
r (r + a)
ˆ  
0 1 1
= ln u − − dr
r r+a
= ln u0 − ln r + ln (r + a) − ln b
for some constant b, and therefore
a 0 
u =b 1+
r
q
Evaluating at the initial condition, we see that b = 1 + ra0 .

Radial component of velocity from the line element

Now substitute into the line element equation to find u1 ,
 a  0
2 1 1 2


−1 = − 1 + u + a u
r 1+ r
 2
 a  b 1 1 2


−1 = − 1 + a + a u
r 1+ r 1+ r
1 2

2
 a
u = b − 1+
r r
 a
u1 = b2 − 1 +
r
r
a a
= −
r0 r

2
Now integrate to find r (τ ),
ˆ
dr
cτ = q
a
− ar
r0
ˆ √
1 rdr
= √ q
a r
r0 − 1

√ 1√
dr
Let y = r. Then dy = 2 r, so
ˆ
2 y 2 dy
cτ = √ q
a y2
r0 − 1
√
Now let y = r0 cosh ξ so that
ˆ √
2 r0 cosh2 ξ r0 sinh ξdξ
cτ = √
a sinh ξ
3/2 ˆ
2 (r0 )
= √ cosh2 ξdξ
a
3/2 ˆ
(r0 )
cosh2 ξ + 1 + sinh2 ξ dξ


= √
a
3/2 ˆ
(r0 )
= √ (cosh 2ξ + 1) dξ
a
3/2  
(r0 ) 1
= √ sinh 2ξ + ξ
a 2
3/2  r 
(r0 ) −1 r
= √ sinh ξ cosh ξ + cosh
a r0
3/2 r r r 
(r0 ) r r r
= √ − 1 + cosh−1
a r0 r0 r0
√ 3/2 r
r0 (r0 ) −1 r
= √ r+ √ cosh
a a r0

Second equation
We can also get this result from the second equation,
1 du1  a a 0 0 a
0= − 1+ u u + 2
u1 u1
c dτ r 2r 2 2r 1 + ar

Substituting for u0 ,
1 du1 1 ab2 a
0 = − 2 + 2
u1 u1
c dτ 2r 1 + ar 2r 1 + ar
1 du1
 
1 a 1 2 1 1 1
= b − u u
c dτ r2 1 + ar 2 2
1 dr
Then, bringing the u1 dependent factor to the left and multiplying both sides by u1 = c dτ ,

u1 du1 1 a
1 2 = 2 a dr
2b − 12 u1 u1 r 1+ r

3
we can integrate,
ˆ
u1 du1
= ln r − ln (r + a)
b2 − 12 u1 u1
ˆ
u1 du1
ln r − ln (r + a) = 1 2
b − 12 u1 u1
ˆ 2
dy
= 2
b −y
= − ln b2 − y + ln d

Therefore,

b2 − y
= d
1 + ar

2  a
y = u1 b2 − d 1 +
=
r
q
Comparing to the previous result, u1 = b2 − 1 + ar we see that the results agree provided d = 1.

Solution to lowest order

r0
To lowest order in r , the components of the velocity are

b
u0 =
1 + ar
 
a  a
= 1+ 1−
2r0 r
a a
= 1+ −
2r0 r
= 1

which gives t = τ and r

a a
u1 = −
r0 r
Notice that the Newtonian acceleration in the r direction agrees with the lowest order limit if we fix the
value of the constant a,

GM 1 d2 r
− =
r2 c2 c2 dt2
1 du1
=
c dτ
1 a 2 1 1


= 2 a b −u u
2r 1 + r
  
a a a a
≈ 1 + − −
2r2 r0 r0 r
a
≈
2r2
a GM
= − 2 2
2r2 r c
2GM
a = − 2
c

4
This finally establishes the Schwarzschild line element,
dr2
 
2GM
ds2 = − 1 − dt2 + + r2 dθ2 + r2 sin2 θdϕ2
rc2
1 − 2GM
rc2

Orbits
The Kepler problem
For comparison, we first compute the orbits in Newtonian gravity. We start from the conservation laws.
Since the velocity is
~v = ṙr̂ + rθ̇θ̂ + r sin θϕ̇ϕ̂
the angular momentum is
→
−
L = →
−
r ×→−
p
 
→
−
= m r × ṙr̂ + rθ̇θ̂ + r sin θϕ̇ϕ̂

= mrθ̇→
−
r × θ̂ + mr sin θϕ̇→
−
r × ϕ̂
→
−
Since this is conserved in both magnitude and direction, the orbit remains in the plane perpendicular to L .
Without loss of generality, we may take the orbit to lie in the θ = π2 plane, so that
→
−
L = mr2 ϕ̇k̂
~v = ṙr̂ + rϕ̇ϕ̂
The energy is also conserved,
1
GM m
m ṙ2 + r2 ϕ̇2 −
E=
2 r
2 E
Define the angular momentum per unit mass, l = r ϕ̇ and the energy per unit mass, E = m. Then we have
ϕ̇ = rl2 so that
l2
 
1 GM
E = ṙ2 + 2 −
2 r r
r
l2 2GM
ṙ = 2E − 2 +
r r
To find an equation for the orbit, r (ϕ), divide by ϕ̇ = rl2 and integrate:
ˆ
ldr
ϕ= q
2
r2 2E − rl 2 + 2GMr

1
Now set u = r so that
ˆ
−ldu
ϕ = √
2E − l2 u2 + 2GM u
ˆ
−ldu
= q
2 G2 M 2
− GMl − lu + 2E + l2

Let
GM
y = − lu
l
G2 M 2
A2 = 2E +
l2

5
so that ˆ
dy
ϕ= p
−y 2 + A2
so with y = A sin θ we have
ˆ
A cos θdθ
ϕ =
A cos θ
= θ y
= arcsin
A
Solving for r we have,

A sin ϕ = y
GM
= − lu
l
GM l
= −
l r
so
1 GM A
= − sin ϕ
r l2 l
l2
GM
r = q
2l2 E
1− 1+ G2 M 2 sin ϕ

To see that this describes an ellipse, let

a
r=
1 − e sin ϕ
Then, changing to Cartesian coordinates,

r − er sin ϕ = a
r − ey = a
2
r = a2 + 2eay + e2 y 2
x2 + y 2 = a2 + 2eay + e2 y 2
x + y − 2eay − ey = a2
2 2 2
2
e2
  
2 ea 2
x + (1 − e) y − = a 1+
1−e 1−e
 
ea e2 b2
Finally, setting y0 = 1−e , b = a2 1 + 1−e and c2 = 1−e we have the standard form for an ellipse centered
at (x, y) = (0, y0 ):
2
x2 (y − y0 )
+ =1
b2 c2
An examination of the magnitudes of the constants shows that this solution is valid for bound states, with
E < 0. For positive energy, the final integral gives a hyperbolic function and the equation describes a
hyperbola.
Now consider the orbits described by general relativity.

6
Geodesic orbits
The geodesic equations are:

1 du0 a
0 = − 2
u0 u1
c dτ r 1 + ar
1 du1  a a 0 0 a  a 2 2  a
0 = − 1+ u u + u1 1
u − r 1 + u u − 1 + r sin2 θu3 u3
2r2 1 + ar


c dτ r 2r2 r r
1 du2 2
0 = − sin θ cos θu3 u3 + u2 u1
c dτ r
1 du3 2 cos θ 2 3 2 3 1
0 = + u u + u u
c dτ sin θ r
We also have the relation given by the line element,
 2  2  2  2
ds2  a  dt 1 dr r2 dθ r2 2 dϕ
2
=− 1+ + 2 a

+ 2 + 2 sin θ
dτ r dτ c 1+ r dτ c dτ c dτ

Because of the spherical symmetry, orbits will remain in a plane, as seen by choosing initial conditions with
θ = π2 and u2 (0) = 0. Then the geodesic equations become

1 du0 a
0 = − 2
u0 u1
c dτ r 1 + ar
1 du1  a a 0 0 a 1 1
 a 3 3
0 = − 1+ u u + u u − 1 + ru u
2r2 1 + ar


c dτ r 2r2 r
1 du2
0 =
c dτ
1 du3 2
0 = + u3 u1
c dτ r
so that u2 remains zero. We may integrate the ϕ equation immediately,

du3 2
= − dr
u3 r
l0
u3 =
r2
dϕ
r2 = l0
dτ
which simply states conservation of angular momentum.
We also have the same result for u0 as we did for radial geodesics,
 a 0
1+ u =b
r
though b differs. How we proceed depends on the type of orbit we desire.

Timelike orbits and perihelion advance

ds2
We can compute u1 from the line element for a timelike orbit, dτ 2 = −1,
2
b2 l02

1 dr
−1 = − + 2 +
1 + ar c 1 + ar


dτ r 2 c2

7
 2
l02 

a 1
2 dr a
−1 − = −b + 2 1++
r c dτr2 c2 r
 2
1 dr a l2  a 
= b2 − 1 − − 20 2 1 +
c2 dτ r r c r
dr
To find b let t = τ = 0 when dτ = 0. Then

b2 l02
−1 = − a + 2 2
1 + r0 r0 c
l2
   
2GM
b2 = 1 + 20 2 1−
r0 c r0 c2
s
l2 2GM 2GM l2
b = 1 + 20 2 − 2
− 3 40
r0 c r0 c r0 c

so that with this value for b and a = − 2GM

c2 we have
2
l2 l2
    
dr 2GM 2GM 2GM 2GM
=− + + 02 1− − 02 1−
dτ r0 r r0 r0 c2 r rc2

2 l02
We find the equation for the orbit by dividing by u3 = r4 ,
 2     
dr 2GM 2GM 1 2GM 1 2GM
= r4 − + + 1 − − 1 −
dϕ r0 l02 rl02 r02 r0 c2 r2 rc2
dr
dϕ = r  
r2 − 2GM 2GM 1 2GM
− r12 1 − 2GM


r0 l 2 + rl 2 + r 2 1 − r0 c2 rc2
0 0 0

1
In terms of u = r this becomes

− u12 u2 du
dϕ = q
− 2GM u0
+ 2GM u + u20 1 − 2GM 2 1 − 2GM u



l02 l02 c2 u0 − u c2
2
2GM u3
    
du 2 2GM 2GM u0 2GM 2
= u0 1 − u 0 − + u − u +
dϕ c2 l02 l02 c2

which is the usual equation for an ellipse except for the last term.
Make the definitions
du
u0 =
dϕ
 
2 2GM 2GM u0
a = u0 1 − u0 −
c2 l02
2GM
b =
l02
2GM
c =
c2
Then we have
2
(u0 ) = a + bu − u2 + cu3

8
or
−du
dϕ = √
a + bu − u2 + cu3
This agrees with the Kepler result, except for the last, cubic term in the denominator, which is very small
for ordinary stars or planets.
If we integrate this about half of one orbit without the cubic term, we just get π. Multiplying by 2 we
get a complete circuit, that is,
ˆu+
du
2π = −2 √
a + bu − u2
u−

where u± are the extremes of the orbit. The perihelion advance is the difference between this integral and
2π,
ˆu+
du
∆ϕ = 2π − 2 √
a + bu − u2 + cu3
u−

Unfortunately, estimating this straightforwardly involves an elliptic integral. I haven’t found any way to do
it simpler than Weinberg’s calculation in Gravitation and Cosmology. I won’t repeat his calculation here.
The result for the perihelion advance of Mercury is about 43 seconds of arc per century, in excellent
agreement with the experimental result.

Null geodesics
ds2
Now return to the solution for the geodesic, but consider the null case, dτ 2 = 0. Then we still have
r
 a 0 2m
1+ u = b= 1−
r r0
dϕ
r2 = l0 = r0 c
dτ
where r0 is the radius of closest approach. But now we have
 2  2  2  2
 a  dt 1 dr r2 dθ r2 2 dϕ
0=− 1+ + 2 + + sin θ
c 1 + ar


r dτ dτ c2 dτ c2 dτ
2
b2 l02

1 dr
0=− + 2 +
1 + ar c 1 + ar


dτ r2 c2
Therefore, with a = − 2m
r 2
c2 r 2
  
dr 2m
= b c − 20
2 2
1−
dτ r r
At the radius of closest approach, this becomes

l2
 
2m
0 = b2 c2 − 02 1 −
r r0
 0 
2m
0 = b2 − 1 −
r0

9
 q
bc 1 2m
The procedure is the same. We convert to an equation relating r and ϕ. Setting A = l0 = r0 1− r0 , this
leads to
s
dr 2
l02
 
dτ r 2 2
2m
dϕ
= b c − 2 1−
dτ
r0 c r r
dr
dϕ = q
r2 l2 2m


r0 c b2 c2 − r02 1 − r
dr
= r
r2 2 l02 2m


r r02
b − r02 c2
1− r

dr
= q
r2 2m r 2 2m
r r02
−1+ r − r02 r0

dr
= s
r3
q 0 −1
r2 2m r3
r r02
−1 1+ r0 r2
1− 0
r2

The total change in angle twice the integral from infinity to r0 . No deviation corresponds to a change in ϕ
of π, so ˆ
dr
∆ϕ = −π + 2 s
r3
0
2m r3 −1
q 2
r
r r 2 − 1 1 + r0 r2
0 1− 0
r2
m r0
Now expand the second square root in powers of r0  1 and substitute r = sin θ,
ˆ −1  2 !
r3
r02


dr m m
∆ϕ = −π + 2 1+ 1 − 03
1− 2 +O
r02
q
r r2
−1 r0 rr
r02
ˆ −1 !
r03 r02
 
r dr m
= −π − 2 q0 1+ 1− 3 1− 2
r2 r0 r r
r2 1 − r02
ˆ π2  
m
−1
1 − sin3 θ 1 − sin2 θ


= −π + 2 dθ 1 +
0 r0
ˆ π2  
m 2

−1
= −π + 2 dθ 1 + 1 + sin θ + sin θ (1 + sin θ)
0 r0
   π
2m −1 θ θ θ θ 2
= (1 + sin θ) cos + sin cos cos θ + (cos θ − 2) sin
r0 2 2 2 2 0
2m √  1 2m
= 2 √ (−2) −
2r0 2 r0
4m
= −
r0
The integral was easily handled by the Wolfram online integrator.
For the sun,
4m 4GM
=
r0 R
4 × 6.67 × 10−11 × 1.99 × 1030
=
6.96 × 108

10
 1
= 8.476 × 10−6 rad × 57.2957deg/rad × sec/deg
3600
= 1.748 sec

so light is deflected by 1.75 seconds of arc. This is confirmed by experiment.

11