Research process (procedures, research question,

theories, hypotheses, variables and their

operationalization

Univerzita plná života

pef.czu.cz 22/10/23
 pef.czu.cz

Introduction 2

Key Components
▪ Procedures in the Research Process
• Overview of chronological steps, from problem statement to results interpretation.
▪ Crafting a Research Question
• The foundation of meaningful exploration and analysis.
▪ Theories in Research
• The bedrock for constructing and testing hypotheses.
▪ Formulation of Hypotheses
• Translation of theoretical postulations into testable propositions.
▪ Understanding Variables
• Role, types, and interactions within the research framework.
▪ Operationalization of Variables
• Translating abstract concepts into measurable variables.
Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta
 pef.czu.cz

Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta

 pef.czu.cz

Procedures in the Research 4

Process
• A roadmap, a series of systematically organized steps to answer the research
question.
Steps in the Research Process
1. Identification of the Problem
• Pinpointing a gap in existing knowledge, a societal concern, or a theoretical dilemma.
• Example: Understanding the impact of social media on political polarization.
2. Review of Literature
• Understanding the current state of knowledge regarding the problem.
• Involves critically analyzing previous studies, understanding methodologies employed, and
identifying gaps.

Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta

 pef.czu.cz

Procedures in the Research 5

Process
Steps in the Research Process
3. Selection of Research Method
• Choosing the vehicle for the journey of inquiry.
• Methods can range from experiments, surveys, case studies to qualitative interviews and
observations.
4. Data Collection and Analysis
• Meticulously collecting data in line with chosen method, followed by rigorous analysis.
• Testing of theoretical constructs in the empirical realm.
5. Reporting and Interpretation of Results
• Constructing the narrative that communicates the findings.
• Reflection on the limitations of the study and proposing directions for future research.
Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta
 pef.czu.cz

Crafting a Research Question 6

• A clear, focused, concise, complex, and arguable question around which you center
your research.
▪ The Importance of a Clear Research Question
• Direction and Focus
• Provides the necessary direction and focus that guides your research.
• Framework for Research
• Helps to keep your research on track, coherent, and relevant.
• Evaluation Metric
• Pivotal when others evaluate the significance and relevance of your research.
• Contribution to Knowledge
• Indicative of the knowledge gap that your research intends to fill.
Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta
Crafting a Research Question pef.czu.cz

Characteristics of a Good 7
Research Question
▪ Specificity
• Narrows down the focus of the research into a manageable scope.
▪ Relevance
• Has a clear justification in the contemporary social, academic, or practical context.
▪ Feasibility
• Ensures that you can actually answer the research question within the constraints of time,
resources, and scope.
▪ Clarity
• Clear and unambiguous, providing a straightforward understanding of what the research
aims to achieve or uncover.

Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta

Crafting a Research Question pef.czu.cz

Examples of Strong vs. Weak 8

Research Questions
▪ Example 1
• Weak: How does social media affect society?
• Strong: How does the use of social media correlate with political polarization among young
adults in the United States?
▪ Example 2
• Weak: Why are mental health issues prevalent?
• Strong: What factors contribute to the prevalence of anxiety disorders among high school
students in urban settings?
▪ Example 3
• Weak: Are schools effective?
• Strong: How do school engagement programs impact student retention rates in low-income
districts?
Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta
Crafting a Research Question pef.czu.cz

Examples of Strong vs. Weak 9

Research Questions
▪ Example 4
• Weak: How does education affect employment?
• Strong: How does the level of tertiary education impact the employability of individuals aged
25 to 35 in urban areas?
▪ Example 5
• Weak: Why are some countries poorer than others?
• Strong: What are the impacts of trade policies on the economic development of landlocked
developing countries in Africa?
▪ Example 6
• Weak: Is social media good or bad?
• Strong: How does the frequency of social media use correlate with anxiety levels among
college students?
Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta
Crafting a Research Question pef.czu.cz

Examples of Strong vs. Weak 10

Research Questions
▪ Example 7
• Weak: What is the effect of climate change?
• Strong: How have changing precipitation patterns, as a result of climate change, affected
agricultural productivity in the Midwest over the last two decades?
▪ Example 8
• Weak: How to improve mental health?
• Strong: What impact do mindfulness-based interventions have on reducing stress levels
among high school teachers?

Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta

 pef.czu.cz

The Role of Theories in Research 11

▪ Definition of a Theory:
▪ A theory in social sciences is a systematic set of interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions that
explain or predict events or situations by specifying relations among variables.
▪ Importance of Theory in Guiding Research:
• Provides a framework for understanding and interpreting the social world.
• Aids in the generation of hypotheses.
• Helps in explaining phenomena and enabling prediction of future occurrences.
• Facilitates communication among scholars and the accumulation of knowledge.
▪ Relationship Between Theory and Hypotheses:
• A hypothesis is a testable statement of what the researcher predicts will be the outcome of the study.
• Theories guide the derivation of hypotheses.
• Testing hypotheses can contribute to theory development or refinement.
Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta
 pef.czu.cz

The Role of Theories in Research 12

▪ Deductive vs. Inductive Approaches in Research:
• Deductive reasoning starts with a theory or hypothesis and examines the
possibilities to reach a specific, logical conclusion.
• Example: If social isolation leads to increased levels of anxiety (theory), then individuals
practicing social distancing during a pandemic will report higher levels of anxiety
(hypothesis).
• Inductive reasoning begins with specific observations and measures, then detects
patterns and regularities, formulates some tentative hypotheses that can be
explored, and finally ends up developing some general conclusions or theories.
• Example: Observing that social media usage spikes among a group during a major social
event, an inductive researcher might explore the impacts of social media on public opinion
regarding the event, eventually contributing to theories regarding social media's role in
modern discourse.
Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta
 pef.czu.cz

Conceptual framework - theory 13

Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta

The Role of Theories in Research pef.czu.cz

Applying a known theory (RCT) 14

▪ Rational Choice Theory (RCT):
▪ RCT posits that individuals are rational actors aiming to maximize their utility through their choices, given
their preferences and the constraints they face.
▪ The Research Conundrum - Voter Turnout:
▪ Voter turnout, the proportion of eligible voters who cast a ballot, is a vital sign of democratic vitality. The
varying levels of voter turnout across different contexts pose a riveting research question.
▪ Bridging Theory to Inquiry: A Framework for Understanding:
▪ RCT proposes that individuals weigh the costs and benefits before deciding to vote. We surmise that the
perceived costs (like time, effort) and benefits (like influencing policy) of voting might significantly impact
voter turnout.
▪ Birth of Hypotheses: Generating Tentative Propositions:
• Hypothesis 1 (H1): The lower the perceived costs of voting, the higher the voter turnout.
• Hypothesis 2 (H2): The higher the perceived benefits of voting, the higher the voter turnout.
Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta
The Role of Theories in Research / Applying a known theory pef.czu.cz

Applying a known theory (RCT) 15

▪ Explanation and Prediction:
• Hypotheses based on RCT elucidate and predict voter turnout.
• Hypotheses suggest less voting cost and more benefits could increase turnout.
▪ Communication of Findings:
• RCT provides a coherent narrative for our findings.
• Our study communicates how rational calculations may drive voting.
▪ Implications and Future Research:
• RCT suggests policy changes can affect voter turnout.
• Results encourage further exploration into factors influencing turnout.

Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta

 pef.czu.cz

Formulating Hypotheses 16
▪ Definition of Hypothesis:
▪ A hypothesis is a clear, concise, and testable statement positing a potential
relationship between variables. It's a tentative explanation or prediction awaiting
verification through empirical testing.
▪ Characteristics of a Strong Hypothesis:
• Testability: A hypothesis must lend itself to empirical investigation.
• Specificity: A hypothesis should delineate the variables and the nature of their
relationship.
• Simplicity: A hypothesis should be simple and straightforward.

Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta

Formulating Hypotheses pef.czu.cz

Hypotheses Types and Testing 17

▪ The Binary of Hypotheses: Null and Alternative:
• Null Hypothesis (H0): Posits no significant relationship between the variables under investigation.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Posits the existence of a significant relationship between the variables.
▪ The Duel of Hypotheses - Testing the Waters:
• The process of hypothesis testing involves a duel between H0 and H1, with data collection and analysis
determining which hypothesis holds water.
• If a significant relationship is found, we reject H0 in favor of H1. If no significant relationship is found, we
fail to reject H0.
▪ The Echoes Beyond Testing: Implications:
• Hypotheses are bridges between theory and empirical evidence.
• Hypothesis testing can affirm, refine, or challenge existing theories, contributing to academic discourse.

Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta

Formulating Hypotheses pef.czu.cz

Examples of well-crafted 18
hypotheses
▪ Hypothesis 1: Lower Perceived Cost Leads to Higher Voter Turnout
• Testability: Quantifiable variables (perceived cost via survey, voter turnout via electoral
data)
• Specificity: Clearly identifies variables and anticipates an inverse relationship
• Simplicity: Straightforward and uncomplicated, favoring empirical investigation
▪ Hypothesis 2: Higher Perceived Benefit Leads to Higher Voter Turnout
• Testability: Quantifiable variables (perceived benefits via survey, voter turnout via
electoral data)
• Specificity: Clearly identifies variables and anticipates a direct relationship
• Simplicity: Direct and understandable relationship between the variables

Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta

 pef.czu.cz

Variables 19
▪ A variable is any characteristic, number, or quantity that can be measured or counted.
• Why are important?
▪ Independent Variables (IVs)
• presumed to cause a change in other variables
• Voter‘s perception of benefit: catalyst in voting behavior. quantified through a survey measuring voters'
satisfaction derived from electoral participation.
▪ Dependent Variables (DVs)
• These variables are the outcome or effect variables. They are the variables that are
thought to be affected by the independent variables.
• Voter Turnout: Outcome variable, presumably affected by perceived benefits and costs.
Measured by the percentage of eligible voters casting a ballot.
▪ Control Variables
• Socio-economic Status, Education, Age: Potentially affecting voting decision, these variables are held
constant to isolate perceived benefits' effect on voter turnout.
Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta
 pef.czu.cz

20

Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta

 pef.czu.cz

Control variables - important 21

Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta

 pef.czu.cz

22

Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta

 pef.czu.cz

23

Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta

 pef.czu.cz

Variables 24

▪ Intervening Variables
• Serve as a bridge between IVs and DVs, explaining the process through which
IVs affect DVs.

Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta

 pef.czu.cz

25

Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta

 pef.czu.cz

26

Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta

 pef.czu.cz

27

Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta

 pef.czu.cz

28

Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta

Variables pef.czu.cz

Operationalization of Variables 29
in Research
▪ Operationalization translates abstract concepts into measurable or observable forms,
ensuring clarity and consistency in data collection and interpretation.
▪ Importance of Operationalization
1. Precision and Clarity: Provides precise definitions of variables, contributing to
research coherence.
2. Consistency: Ensures uniformity in data collection across settings and time,
promoting research replicability.
3. Validity and Reliability: Enhances the accuracy and consistency of the research by
precisely defining and measuring variables.
4. Communication: Facilitates clear communication of methods and findings among
scholars, practitioners, and the public.
Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta
Variables pef.czu.cz

Operationalization of Variables 30
in Research
▪ Steps in Operationalizing Variables
▪ Define the Concept Clearly
• Explain the theoretical background and relevance of the concept in the context of your research.
▪ Choose a Measure or Indicator:
• Select appropriate measures or indicators that align well with the defined concept.
▪ Ensure Reliability and Validity of the Measure:
• This may involve pilot testing the measure, examining previous research, or using statistical analysis to
assess these qualities.

Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta

Variables / Operationalization of Variables in Research pef.czu.cz

Reliability 31
• A reliable measurement is a measurement that gives us the same results when applied
repeatedly, unless the state of the observed object has changed.
• About consistency: repeating the survey should yield similar results.
• Issues:
• Significant variation in results when administered to the same group at different times indicates
unreliability.
• Measurement Error: caused by misunderstandings, memory lapses, or random response errors.
• How to Address:
• Improve question wording to reduce misunderstandings.
• Provide clear instructions.
• Use multiple data collection methods to cross-check accuracy and consistency.

• Reliability can be seen as a prerequisite for validity

Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta
 pef.czu.cz

32

Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta

Variables / Operationalization of Variables in Research pef.czu.cz

Validity 33
• A valid measurement is one that actually measures what we intended to
measure.
• About accuracy: measurements should truly reflect voter turnout.
• Issues:
• Social Desirability Bias: over-reporting due to voting being seen positively.
• Proxy Inaccuracy: using proxies like political party membership doesn't always reflect voting
behavior.
• How to Address:
• Cross-check self-reported voting data with official records.
• Ensure questions are unbiased, clear, and precise.
• Use multiple measures/indicators to ensure a valid measurement.

Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta

Variables pef.czu.cz

Variables and Their Levels of 34

Measurement in Research
1. Categorical/Qualitative/Discrete Variables: Represent types or categories of data
with no logical order or meaningful differences between categories.
1.Nominal Variables: Labels or categories without any order or ranking.
Examples: Types of cuisine (Italian, Chinese, Indian), colors (red, blue, green)
2.Ordinal Variables: Categories with a clear order but not uniformly defined intervals.
Example: Levels of education (high school, undergraduate, graduate)
2. Continuous/Quantitative/Scalar Variables: Numerical data with a clear order and
meaningful intervals.
1.Interval Variables: Consistent scale but no true zero point.
Example: Temperature (30°C is not 'twice as hot' as 15°C)
2.Ratio Variables: True zero point allowing meaningful interpretation of multiplication and
division.
Example: Income (someone can earn double the income of another)
Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta
 pef.czu.cz

35

Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta

 pef.czu.cz

36

Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta

 pef.czu.cz

Conclusion 37
▪ Recap of Key Points Covered:
1. Research Question: The foundation of any research project.
2. Theories: Guides research, generates hypotheses, and provides a framework for
understanding phenomena.
3. Hypotheses: Should possess attributes of testability, specificity, and simplicity.
4. Variables and their Operationalization: Critical for accurate conducting and
interpretation of research.
5. Operationalizing Variables: Includes defining the concept, choosing a
measure/indicator, ensuring reliability and validity.

Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze Provozně ekonomická fakulta

Děkuji za pozornost.