uid Mechanics & Hydraulics Fourth Edition DIEGO INOCENCIO T. GILLESANIA Civil Engineer BSCE, (EVSU) - Magna Cum Laude 5th Place, PICE National Students’ Quiz, 1989 Awardee, Most Outstanding Student, 1989 3rd Place, CE Board November 1989 Review Director & Reviewer in all Subjects Gillesania Engineering Review Center Author of Various Engineering BooksChapter 1 Properties of Fluids FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS Fluid Mechanics is a physical science dealing with the action of fluids at rest or in motion, and with applications and devices in engineering using fluids. Fluid mechanics can be subdivided into two major areas, fluid statics, which deals with fluids at rest, and fluid dynamics, concerned with fluids in motion. The term hydrodynamics is applied to the flow of liquids or to low-velocity gas flows where the gas can be considered as being essentially incompressible. Hydraulics deals with the application of fluid mechanics to engineering devices involving liquids, usually water or oil. Hydraulics deals with such problems as the flow of fluids through pipes or in open channels, the design of storage dams, pumps, and water turbines, and with other devices for the control or use of liquids, such as nozzles, valves, jets, and Flowmeters. TYPES OF FLUID Fluids are generally divided into two categories: ideal fluids and real fluids. Meal fluids # Assumed to have no viscosity (and hence, no resistance to shear) + Incompressible + Have uniform velocity when flowing + No friction between moving layers of fluid * No eddy currents or turbulence Real fluids . + Exhibit infinite viscosities « Non-uniform velocity distribution when flowing + Compressible “ « Experience friction and turbulence in flowReal fluids are further divided into Newtonian fluids and non-Newtonian fluids. Most fluid problems assume real fluids with Newtonian characteristics for convenience. This assumption is appropriate for water, air, gases, steam, and other simple fluids like alcohol, gasoline, acid solutions, etc. However, slurries, pastes, gels, suspensions may not behave according to simple fluid relationships. Newtonian Fluids Non-Newtonian Fluids Pseudoplastic Fiuids } [_Delatant Fluids} Bingham Fluids] Figure 1 - 4: Types of fluid MASS DENSITY, p (RHO) The density of a fluid is its mass per unit of volume. = massof fluid, M - 1-1 volume, V ie Units: English : slugs/ft® Note: Pstugs = Ptom/ Metric: gram/cm* SI kg/m} For an ideal gas, its density can be found from the specific gas constant and ideal gas law: pw Fg.1-2where: p= absolute pressure of gas in Pa R= gas constant Joule / kg-°K For air: 87 J/kg - °K R= 1,716 lb-ft/slug-°R T = absolute temperature in Kelvin °K = °C +273 oR =F + 460 Table 1 - 1: Approximate Room-Temperature Densities of Common Fluids SPECIFIC VOLUME, V, Specific volume, V, is the volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid. V; uin =] UNIT WEIGHT OR SPECIFIC WEIGHT, Specific weight or unit weight, 7, is the weight of a unit volume of a fluid. weight of fluid, W ~ volume, V Eq.1-4 YFPS Eq.1-5Units: English : 1b/ft Metric: dyne/em? i sl : N/m) or KN/m* SPECIFIC GRAVITY Specific gravity, 3, is a dimensionless ratio of a fluid’s density to some standard reference density. For liquids and solids, the reference density is water at 4° C (39,2° F). gx Pili Eq.1-6 Prwater | In gases, the standard reference to calculate the specific gravity is the density of air. | : = Peas Eq.1-7 | | Pair For water at 4°C: = 62.4 Ib/f® = 9.81 KN/m? = 1.94 slugs/ft® = 1000 kg/m? | 0 VISCOSITY, us (MU) The property of a fluid which determines the amount of its resistance to shearing forces. A perfect fluid would have no viscosity, Consider two large, parallel plates at a small distance y apart, the space between them being filled with a fluid. Consider the upper plate to be subject to a force F so as to move with a constant velocity U. The fluid in contact with fixed platethe upper plate will adhere to it and will move with the same velocity U while the fluid in contact with the fixed plate will have a zero velocity. For small values of U and y, the velocity gradient can be assumed to be a straight line and F varies as A, Uand yas: Au. FU Fett og Fat y Avy bur U- or (from the figure) Blas |S = Shearing stress, t dV dV ee ope ape dy dy where the constant of proportionality k is called the dynamic of absolute viscosity denoted as 1. av oe a pe av [ay ab where: 1 = shear stress in Ib/ft? or Pa u = absolute viscosity in Ib sec/ft? (poises) or Pa-sec. y = distance between the plates in ft or m U= velocity in ft/s or m/s KINEMATIC VISCOSITY v (NU) Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity of the fluid, p1, to its mass density, p. where: = absolute viscosity in Pa-sec. p= density in kg/m? Eg. 1-9 ClrTable 1 - 2: Common Units of Viscosity {0/sec em?/s ———[ifoke) m?/s poise = I dynes/cm?= 0.1 Pa-see (1 dyne = 105N) stoke = 0.0001 m?/s ‘SURFACE TENSION o (SIGMA) The membrane of “skin” that seems to form on the free surface of a fluid is due to the intermolecular cohesive forces, and is known as surface Surface tension is the reason that insects are able to sit on water able to float on it. Surface tension also causes bubbles a spherical shape, since any other shape would have unit volume. tension, and a needle is and droplets to take on more surface area per Pressure inside a Droplet of Liquid: os Eq. 1-10 P a ig. 1-1 where: o = surface tension in N/m d= diameter of the droplet in m P= gage pressure in PaCapillarity (@) Adhesion > cohesion (b) Cohesion > adhesion Capillarity (Capillary action) is the name given to the behavior of the liquid in a thin-bore tube. The rise or fall or @ fluid in a capillary tube is caused by surface tension and depends on the relative magnitudes of the cohesion of the liquid and the adhesion of the liquid to the walls of the containing vessel. Liquids rise in tubes they wet (adhesion > cohesion) and fall in tubes they do not wet (cohesion > adhesion), Capillary is important when using tubes smaller than about 3/8 inch (9.5 mm) in diameter. 4acos® ie ; Eq. 1-11 ¥ For complete wetting, as with water on clean glass, the angle 0 is 0°. Hence the formula becomes Eq. 1-12 where: apillary rise or depression in m f 5 nit weight in N/m? d= diameter of the bube in ta o = surface tension in PaCOMPRESSIBILITY, ) Compressibility (also known as the coefficient of compressibility) is the fractional change in the volume of a fluid per unit change in pressure in a constant temperature process. Eq.1-13 Eg. 1-14 where; AV = change in volume V= original volume Ap = change in pressure 4V/V = change in volume (usually in percent) BULK MODULUS OF ELASTICITY, Ey The bulk modulus of elasticity of the fluid expresses the compressibility of the fluid. It is the ratio of the change in unit pressure to the corresponding volume change per unit of volume.PRESSURE DISTURBANCES . Pressure disturbances imposed on a fluid move in waves. The velocity or celerity of pressure wave (also known as acoustical or sonic velocity) is expressed as; em f= Eq. 1-17 Pp Bp PROPERTY CHANGES IN IDEAL GAS For any ideal gas experiencing any process, the equation of state is given by: Piva. P2V2 PL ws Poa Eq.1-18 | qt kh F When temperature is held constant, Eq. 1 - 18 reduces to (Boyle’s Law) ‘i Vi = p2 Vo Eg. 1-19 When temperature is held constant (isothermal condition), Eq. 1 - 18 reduces to (Charle’s Law)For Adiabatic or Isentropic Conditions (no heat exchanged) pi Vil = pr Vak Eq. 1-21 ' Vv; K or (| = & = Constant Eg. 1-22 Va rn ce eae B-(2)' Eq.1-23 T \Pa where: p= initial absolute pressure of gas al absolute pressure of gas initial volume of gas final volume of gas nitial absolute temperature of gas in °K (°K = °C + 278) T) = final absolute temperature of gas in °K k = ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure to the specific heat at constant volume. Also known as adiabatic exponent. VAPOR PRESSURE Molecular activity in a liquid will allow some of the molecules to escape the liquid surface. Molecules of the vapor also condense back into the liquid. The vaporization and condensation at constant temperature are equilibrium processes. The equilibrium pressure exerted by these free molecules is known as the vapor pressure or saturation pressure. A Some liquids, such as propane, butane, ammonia, and Freon, have significant vapor pressure at normal temperatures. Liquids near their boiling point or that vaporizes easily are said to volatile liquids. Other liquids such as mercury, have insignificant vapor pressures at the same temperature. Liquids with low vapor pressure are used in accurate barometers. The tendency toward vaporization is dependent on the temperature of the liquid. Boiling occurs when the liquid temperature is increased to the point that the vapor pressure is equal to the local ambient (surrounding) pressure. Thus, a liquid’ s boiling temperature depends on the local ambient pressure, as well as the liquid’s tendency to vaporize.Table 1 - 4: Typical Vapor Pressures ammonia Solved Problems Problem 1-1 ‘A reservoir of glycerin has a mass of 1200 kg and a volume of 0.952 cu. m. Find its (a) weight, W, (b) unit weight, 7, (¢) mass density, p, and (d) specific gravity (s) . Solution (@) Weight, W=Mg = (1,200)(9.81) Weight, W= 11,772 N or 11.772 KN () Unit weight, y= a i772 0.952 Unit weight, y= 12.366 kN/m? . M (9) Density, p= +> ensiiy, pe 100 jensit¥ P= 0.952 Density, p = 1,260.5 kg/m?(@ Specific gravity, s= Pa Pwater 1,260.5 1,000 Specific gravity, s= 1.26 Specific gravity, s = Problem 1-2 The specific gravity of certain oil is 0.82. Calculate its (a) specific weight, in Ib/f and KN/m*, and (b) mass density in slugs/ft? and kg/m’. Solution (0) Specific weight, 7 = Ywner ¥ § Specific weight, = 62.4 x 0.82 = 51.168 Ib/ft* Specific weight, y = 9.81 x 0.82 = 8.044 kN/m* (B) Density, p= Prater x 5 Density, p = 1.94 x 0.82 = 1.59 slugs/ft® Density, p = 1000 x 0.82 = 820 kg/m? Problem 1-3 A liter of water weighs about 9.75 N. Compute its mass in kilograms. Solution Mass = 8 9.75 Mass = 225 ae 981 Mass = 0.994 kg Problem 1-4 If an object has a mass of 22 kg at sea level, (a) what will be its weight at a point where the acceleration due to gravity g = 9.75 m/s? (b) What will be its mass at that point?Solution (a) W=mg=229.75) W=2145N (b) Since the mass of an object is absolute, its mass will still be 22 kg. Problem 1-5 What is the weight of a 45-kg boulder if it is brought to a place where the acceleration due to gravity is 395 m/s per minute? Solution W=Mg gu aos Me, Lmin min 60sec = 6.583 m/s? W = 45(6.583) W=296.25N Problem i - 6 If the specific volume of a certain gas is 0.7848 m°/kg, what is its specific weight? Solution Specific weight, 7= px g = 1.2742 «9.81 Specific weight, 7 = 12.5 N/m?Problem 1-7 © What is the specific weight of air at 480 kPa absolute and 21°C? Solution YEPXE = 2} =? wi = 287 J/ke°K here R = 287 J/kg: _ 48010? 287(21 +273) p = 5.689 kg 7 = 5.689 x 9.81 = 55.81 N/m? Problem 1 - 8 Find the mass density of helium at a temperature of 4 °C and a pressure of 184 KPa gage, if atmospheric pressure is 101.92 kPa. (R = 2079 J/kg * °K) Solution = RT P= Prsage + Pat = 184+ 101.92 p= 285.92 kPa . T=4+273 =277°K Density, p = 3 Density, p= 2259210 2,079(277) "Density, p = 0. 4965 kg/m? Problem 1-9 At 32°C and 205 kPa gage, the specific weight of a certain gas was 13.7 N/m). Determine the gas constant of this gas.Density, p= (205 + 101.325) x 10° R(2+ 273) Gas constant, R = 718.87 J/kg - °K 1.397 = Note: Petn = 101.325 kPa Problem 1 - 10 Air is kept at a pressure of 200 kPa absolute and a temperature of 30°C ina 500-liter container. What is the mass of air? Solution eee PRE = 20010" 287(30 + 273) p=23 kg/m Mass = 1.15 kg, Problem 1 - 11 A cylindrical tank 80 cm in diameter and 90 cm high is filled with a liquid. The tank and the liquid weighed 420 kg. The weight of the empty tank is 40 kg. What is the unit weight of the liquid in kN/m.Solution s|= 420-40 7(08)"(0.90) y=pg = 840(9.81) = 8240.4 N/m? y= 8.24 kN/m? = 840 kg/m? Problem 1 - 12 A lead cube has a total mass of 80 kg, What is the length of its side? Sp. gr. of lead = 11.3. Solution Let L be the length of side of the cube: M=pV 80 = (1000 x 11.3) L9 L=0.192 m=19.2 cm Problem 1 - 13 A liquid compressed in a container has a volume of 1 liter at a pressure of 1 MPa and a volume of 0.995 liter at a pressure of 2 MPa. The bulk modulus of elasticity (Es) of the liquid is Solution Rye ee et W/V 099%5-/1 Es = 200 MPa Problem 1 - 14 What pressure is required to reduce the volume of water by 0.6 percent? Bulk modulus of elasticity of water, Ex = 2.2 GPa.Solution av/V dp = pa- pr dV =-0,6%V = -0.006V P2 ““oooev7v ~2? P2 = 0.0132 GPa P2=13.2 MPa Problem 1-15 Water in a hydraulic press, initially at 137 kPa absolute, is subjected to a pressure of 116,280 kPa absolute. Using Ey = 2.5 GPa, determine the percentage decrease in the volume of water, Solution =__ oP “av /V (116,280 ~ 137) x 10% 5 x 199 = OE 25 x10? = wi a 2.00465 i Vv IV ~ 4.65% decrease Vv Problem 1 - 16 If 9 m® of an ideal gas at 24 °C and 150 kPaa is compressed to 2 m’, (2) what is the resulting pressure assuming isothermal conditions. (b) What would have been the pressure and temperature if the process is isentropic. Use k = 1.3.Solution (a) For isothermal condition: Pi Vi = p2 V2 150(9) = p2 (2) p2 = 675 kPa abs (b) For isentropic process: pi Vik = pr Va" 150(9)!9 = pe (2)! p2= 1,060 kPa abs i. (e" Tt \A T, 1,060 (1.3-1)/13 244273 ( 150 } Tz = 466.4°K or 193.4°C Problem 1 - 17 If the viscosity of water at 70 °C is 0.00402 poise and its specific gravity is 0.978 determine its absolute viscosity in Pa - s and its kinematic viscosity in m?/s and in stokes. Solution Absolute viscosity: w= opostpoicex 21PA-* ‘poise y= 0,000402 Pa -s Kinematic viscosity: 0.000402 (1000 0.978) v=411x107 ms velo Pp 1stoke v= 4.11 x 107 m?/s x ———"S _ 0.0001 m?/s v= 4.11 x 107 stokeProblem 1 - 18 Two large plane surfaces are 25 mm apart and the space between them is filled with a liquid of viscosity 1 = 0.958 Pa-s. Assuming the velocity gradient to be astraight line, what force is required to pull a very thin plate of 0.37 m? area at aconstant speed of 0.3 m/s if the plate is 8.4 mm from one of the surfaces? Solution FEF +Fy on U/sy Ela Usy ‘pa HUA, y ., _ 0.958(0.3)(0.37) Fh=Gopea = 12.66N F=64+12.66 F=19.06N Problem 1 - 19 A cylinder of 125 mm radius rotates concentrically inside a fixed cylinder of 130 mm radius. Both cylinders are 300 mm long, Determine the viscosity of the liquid which fills the space between the cylinders if a torque of 0.88 N-m is required to maintain-an angular velocity of 2x radians/sec. Assume the velocity gradient to be a straight line. .U=0.125(2n) ome U=0.785 m/s = 0.005 m Torque = F(0.125) Torque = tA (0.125) 0.88 = x [2n(0.125)(0.3)] (0.125) += 29,88 Pa L=0.3m liquid 29.88 # = 0785/0.005 cos = 0.19 Pa-s Problem 1 - 20 An 18-kg slab slides down a 15° inclined plane on a 3-mm-thick film of oil with viscosity }1 = 0.0814 Pa-sec, If the contact area is 0.3 m, find the terminal velocity of the slab. Neglect air resistance. Solution W = 18(9.81) = 176.58 N 0-1 NG Terminal velocity is attained when the sum of all forces in the direction of t motion is zero.[=F = 0] Wsin®-F.=0 F,=Wsind F,= 176.58 sin 15° (etAspeay y 176.58 sin 15° = 0.0814 4_ aay 0.003 U=5614 m/s 2 = 5.614 mys Problem 1 - 21 Estimate the height to which water will rise in a capillary tube of diameter 3 mm. Use o = 0.0728 N/m and 7 = 9810 N/m} for water. Solution . Note: 6 = 90° for water in clean tube ae 40 Capill he apillary tse, i= 4(0.0728) 9810(0.003) Capillary rise, 1 = 0.0099 m = 9.9 mm Capillary rise, h = Problem 1 - 22 Estimate the capillary depression for mercury in a glass capillary tube 2 mm in diameter. Use o = 0.514 N/m and 6 = 140°. Solution docos6 _ _4(0.514)(cos140°) yd (9810 13.6)(0.002) Capillary rise, h =-0.0059:m —_ (the negative sign indicates capillary depression) Capillary rise, = Capillary depression, t= 5.9 mmProblem 1 - 23 What is the value of the surface tension of a small drop of water 0.3 mm in diameter which is in contact with air if the pressure within the droplet is 561 Pa? Solution ~ ts a do 561 = et F008 = 0.042 N/m Problem 1 - 24 An atomizer forms water droplets 45 um in diameter. Determine the excess Pressure within these droplets using 6 = 0.0712 N/m. Solution = Pod _ (0.0712) Baros 7 9329Pa x Problem 1 - 25 Distilled water stands in a glass tube of 9 mm diameter at a height of 24 mm. What is the true static height? Use o = 0.0742 N/m. Solution j= 4acos0 a where 0 = 0° for water in glass tube 4(0.0742) hm 0.0742) | 9810(0.009) = 0.00336 m = 3.36 mm True static height True static heightProblem 1 - 26 A sonar transmitter operates at 2 impulses per second. If the device is held to the surface of fresh water (Ex = 2.04 x 10° Pa) and the echo is received midway between impulses, how deep is the water? Solution The velocity of the pressure wave (sound wave) is: aa Ew p 2.04 x10? = | 1, c aT 428 m/s c= Since the echo is received midway between impulses, then the total time of travel of sound, t= ¥4(0.5) = 41 see and the total distance covered is 2h, then; Problem 1 - 27 At what pressure will 80 °C water boil? (Vapor pressure of water at 80°C = 47.4 kPa). Solution Water will boil if the atmospheric pressure equals the vapor pressure. Therefore water at 80 °C will boil at 47.4 kPa,24 CHAPTER ONE ¢ FLUID MECHANICS Properties of Fluids & HYDRAULICS Supplementary Problems Problem 1 - 28 What would be the weight of 1 3-kg mass on a planet where the acceleration due to gravity is 10 m/s?? Ans: 30 N Problem 1 - 29 A vertical cylindrical tank with a diameter of 12 mand a depth of 4 m is filled with water to the top with water at 20°C. If the water is heated to 50°C, how much water will spill over? Unit weight of water at 20°C and 50°C is 9.79 KN/m? and 9.69 kN/m, respectively. Ans: 4.7 m3 Problem 1 - 30 A rigid steel container is partially filled with a liquid at 1 atm. The volume of the liquid is 1.23200 L, At a pressure of 30 atm, the volume of the liquid is 1.23100 L. Find the average bulk modulus of elasticity of the liquid over the given range of pressure if the temperature after compression is allowed to return to its initial value. What is the coefficient of compressibility? En = 1.872 GPa; 6 = 0.534 GPa? ‘Problem 3 - 31 Calculate the density of water vapor al 350 is 0.462 kPa-m?/kg-"K. kPa abs and 20°C if its gas constant Ans: 2.59 kg/m? Problem 1 - 32 Air is kept at a pressure of 200 kPa and a temperature of 30°C in a 500-L container. What is the mass of the air? Ans: 1.15 kgFLUID MECHANICS CHAPTER ONE 25 & HYDRAULICS Props s Of Fluids —_——_——— Problem 1 - 33 (a) If 12 m® of nitrogen at 30°C and 125 kPa abs is permitted to expand isothermally to 30 m’, what is the resulting pressure? (b) What would the pressure and temperature have been if the process had been isentropic? Ans: (a) 50 kPa abs (b) 34.7 kPa abs; -63°C Problem 1 - 34 A square block weighing 1.1 KN and 250 mm on an edge slides down an incline on a film of oil 6.0 xm thick. Assuming a linear velocity profile in the oil and neglecting air resistance, what is the terminal velocity of the block? ‘The viscosity of oil is 7 mPa-s. Angle of inclination is 20°. Problem 1 - 35 Benzene at 20°C has a sity of 0.000651 Pa-s. What shear stress is required to deform this fluid at a strain rate of 4900 s!? 3.19 Pa Ans: t Problem i - 36 A shaft 70 mm in diameter is being pushed at a speed of 400 mm/s through a bearing sleeve 70.2 mm in diameter and 250 mm long. The clearance, assumed uniform, is filled with oil at 20°C with v = 0.005 m?/s and sp. gr. = 0.9. Find the force exerted by the oil in the shaft. Ans: 987 N Problem 1 - 37 ‘Two clean parallel glass plates, separated by a distance d = 1.5 mm, are dipped ina bath of water. How far does the water rise due to capillary action, if = 0.0730 N/m? Ans: 9.94 mmCHAPTER ONE FLUID MECHANICS 2 6 _ Properties of Fluids & HYDRAULICS Problem 1 - 38 Find the angle the surface tension film leaves the glass for a vertical tube immersed in water if the diameter is 0.25 inch and the capillary rise is 0.08 inch, Use o = 0,005 Ib/ ft. Ans: 64,3° Problem 1 - 39 What force is required to lift a thin wire ring 6 cm in diameter from a water surface at 20°C? (6 of water at 20°C = 0.0728 N/m). Neglect the weight of the ring, Ans: 0.0274 NChapter 2 Principles of Hydrostatics UNIT PRESSURE OR PRESSURE, p Pressure is the force per unit area exerted by a liquid or gas on a body or surface, with the force acting at right angles to the surface uniformly in all directions. : Force, F = Sete at [ Pe "Area, A m In the English system, pressure is usually measured in pounds per square inch (psi); in international usage, in kilograms per square centimeters (kg/ cm’), or in atmospheres; and in the international metric system (Sl), in Newtons per square meter (Pascal). The unit atmosphere (atm) is defined as a pressure of 1.08323 kg/cm? (14,696 Ib/in®), which, in terms of the conventional mercury barometer, corresponds to 760 mm (29.921 in) of mercury. The unit kilopascal (kPa) is defined as a pressure of 0.0102 kg/cm? (0.145 Ib/sq in). PASCAL’S LAW Pascal's law, developed by French mathematician Blaise Pascal, states that the pressure on a fluid is equal in all directions and in all parts of the container. In Figure 2 - 1, as liquid flows into the large container at the bottom, pressure pushes the liquid equally up into the tubes above the container. The liquid rises to the same level in all of the tubes, regardless of the shape or angle of the tube.28 ‘CHAPTER TWO FLUID MECHANICS “iis __ Principles of Hydrostatics & HYDRAULICS Figure 2 - 1: Illustration of Pascal's Law The laws of fluid mechanics are observable in many everyday situations, For example, the pressure exerted by water at the bottom of a pond will be the same as the pressure exerted by water at the bottom of a much narrower pipe, provided depth remains constant. If a longer pipe filled with water is tilted so that it reaches a maximum height of 15 m, its water will exert the same Pressure as the other examples (left of Figure 2- 2). Fluids can flow up as well as down in devices such as siphons (right of Figure 2 - 2), Hydrostatic force causes water in the siphon to flow up and over the edge until the bucket is empty or the suction is broken. A siphon is Particularly useful for emptying containers that should not be tipped. Prtety Figure 2 - 2: Illustration of Pascal's LawABSOLUTE AND GAGE PRESSURES Gage Pressure (Relative Pressure) Gage pressures are pressures above or below the atmosphere and can be measured by pressure gauges or manometers. For small pressure differences, a U- tube manometer is used. It consists of a U-shaped tube with one end connected to the container and the other open to the atmosphere. Filled with a liquid, such as water, oil, or mercury, the difference in the liquid surface levels in the two manometer legs indicates the pressure difference from local atmospheric conditions. For higher pressure differences, a Bourdon gauge, named after the French inventor Eugene Bourdon, is used. This consists of a hollow metal tube with an oval cross section, bent in the shape of a hook. One end of the tube is closed, the other open and connected to the measurement region. ‘Atmospheric Pressure & Vacuum Atmospheric Pressure is the pressure at any one point on the earth's surface from the weight of the air above it. A vacuum is a space that has all matter removed from it. It is impossible to create a perfect vacuum in the laboratory; no matter how advanced a vacuum system is, some molecules are always present in the vacuum area. Even remote regions of outer space have a smal] amount of gas. A vacuum, can also be described as a region of space where the pressure is less than the normal atmospheric pressure of 760 mm (29.9 in) of mercury. Under Normal conditions at sea level: Pats = 2166 Ib/ ft? = 147 psi = 29.9 inches of mercury (hg) = 760 mm Hg = 101.325 kPa Absolute Pressure Absolute pressure is the pressure above absolute zero (vacuum). Pobs = Prage + Patn Eg.2-2 Note: '« Absolute zero is attained if all air is removed. It is the lowest possible pressure attainable, + Absolute pressure can never be negative. + The smallest gage pressure is equal to the negative of the ambient atmospheric pressure.Standard atmesphere = OLS ts Absolute zero = -101.325 gage or -100 gage All pressure units in kPa Figure 2 - 3: Relationship between absolute and gage pressures Note: Unless otherwise specified in this book, the term pressure signifies gage pressure, vacuum MERCURY BAROMETER 750 mm 2S ,metcury barometer is an accurate and relatively Simple way to measure changes in atmosphere Foren At sea level, the weight of the atmosphere forces mercury 760 mm (29.8 in) up a caltreter ieee lass tube. Higher elevations yield lower rea ings Prenure Pacause the atmosphere is less dence there, aro the thinner air exerts less pressure on the mercury. _ > Mercury ANEROID BAROMETER In an aneroid barometer, a Partially evacuated metal drum expands or contracts in response to changes in air pressure, A series of levers and ‘Springs translates the up and down movement of the drum top into the circular motion of the Pointers along the aneroid barometer's face. Sal eran (earatt vacuoified in this book, the term pressure signifies gage Pressurg 760 mm ¥acuum ‘urate and relatively 's in atmospheric Mercury jht of the atmosphere n) up a calibrated Atmospheric eld lower readings pressure dense there, and the on the mercury. Pointers _ Metal drum (partial vacuum) HaitspringVARIATIONS IN PRESSURE Consider any two points (1 & 2), whose difference in elevation is h, to lie in the ends of an elementary prism having a cross-sectional area a and a length of L. Since this prism is at rest, all forces acting upon it must be in equilibrium. Free liquid surface y h=Lsino Figure 2 - 4: Forces acting on elementary prism Note: Free Liquid Surface refers to liquid surface subject to zero gage pressure or with atmospheric pressure only. With reference to Figure 2-4 We7V W=*(al) [Fy = 0] Fi-Fi=Wsin9 pra-pia=y (aL) sin8 po-m=yLsin® but Lsin@=h eee Boneh eas Therefore; the difference in pressure between any two points int a homogeneous fluid at rest is equal to the product of the unit weight of the fluid (7) to the vertical distance (h) between the points.pea pit wh Eq.2-4 | essure at point 1 would cause an equal change at at any point in a liquid at rest is liquid. This means that any chanige in pre point 2. Therefore; a pressure applied transmitted equally and undiminished to every other point in the Let us assume that point @ in Figure 2 - 4 lie on the free liquid surface, then the gage pressure p, is zero and Eq. 2 - 4 becomes: = wh Eq This means that the pressure at any point “h” below a free liquid surface is equal to the product of the unit weight of the fluid (y) and h d Consider that points @ and @ in Figure 2 - 4 lie on the same elevation, such that /:= 0; then Eq. 2- 4 becomes: . : i p= pr Fg.2-6 ] This means that the pressure along the same hwrizontal plane in a homogeneous fluid at rest are equal. Pressure below Layers of Different Liquids Liquid 1 Liguid 2Consider the tank shown to be filled with liquids of different densities and with air at the top under a gage pressure of ps, the pressure at the bottom of the tank is; | valk Protos = Dh + p= 1 In + y2ln + 7+ pa Eq.2-7 | PRESSURE HEAD Pressure head is the height “ht” of a column of homogeneous liquid of unit weight 7 that will produce an intensity of pressure p. Eq.2-8 | To Convert Pressure head (height) of liquid A to liquid B [ To convert pressure head (height) of any liquid to water, just multiply its height by its specific gravity BA ot hy = hy te Eq.2-9 Pe E Ya [ hreaer ™ Fq.2-10 |MANOMETER A manometer is a tube, usually bent in a form of a U, containing a liquid of known specific gravity, the surface of which moves proportionally to changes of pressure, It is used to measure pressure, Types of Manometer Open Type - has an atmospheric surface in one leg and is capable of measuring gage pressures. Differential Type - without an atmospheric surface and capable of measuring only differences of pressure. Piezometer - The simplest form of open manometer. It is a tube tapped into a wall of a container or conduit for the purpose of measuring pressure. The fluid in the container or conduit rises in this tube to form a free surface. Limitations of Piezometer: + Large pressures in the lighter liquids require long tubes * Gas pressures can not be measured because gas can not form a free surface. (@) Open manometer (b) Differential manometer (©) PiezometerSteps in Solving Manometer Problems: 1. Decide on the fluid in feet or meter, of which the heads are to be expressed, (water is most advisable). 2, Starting from an end point, number in order, the interface of different fluids. 3. Identify points of equal pressure (taking into account that for a homogeneous fluid at rest, the pressure along the same horizontal plane, are equal). Label these points with the same number. 4, Proceed from level to level, adding (if going down) or subtracting (if going up) pressure heads as the elevation decreases or increases, respectively with due regard for the specific gravity of the fluids. Solved Problems : Problem 2-1 If a depth of liquid of 1 m causes a pressure of 7 kPa, what is the specific gravity of the liquid? Solution Pressure, p= 9.81 xs) (1) 714 > Specific Gravity Problem 2-2 What is the pressure 12.5 m below the ocean? Use sp. gr. = 1.03 for salt water. Solution park p= (9.81 x1.03)(12.5) p=126.3 kPaProblem 2-3 If the pressure 23 meter below a liquid is 338.445 kPa, determine its unit weight y, mass density p , and specific gravity s, , Solution (a) Unit weight, y poyh 338.445 = 7 (23) y= 14.715 kN/m> (6) Mass density, p . x pat 8 ~ 14.715x10° P 981 = 1,500 kg/m® (©) Specific gravity, s = Paws + Pwater s=1L5 Problem 2 - 4 If the pressure at a point in the ocean is 60) kPa, below this point? what is the pressure 27 meters Solution ‘The difference in pressure between any two points in a liquid is p>-p: = h P= pith = 60 + (9.81x1.03)(27) ps = 332.82 kPaProblem 2-5 If the pressure in the air space above an oil (s = 0.75) surface in a closed tank is 115 kPa absolute, what is the gage pressure 2 m below the surface? Solution P= Psurtace +h i Pearisce = 115 - 101.3: Note: Pam = 101.325 kPa Paurtace = 13.675 KPa gage * p= 13.675 + (9.81%0.75)(2) p= 28.39 kPa Problem 2 - 6 Find the absolute pressure in kPa at a depth of 10 m below the free surface of oil of sp. gr. 0.75 if the barometric reading is 752 mmHg. Solution Pairs = Petm * Prose Pats = Yon He (9.81 x 13.6)(0.752) Patin = 100.329 kPa eos = 100.329 + (9.81 x 0.75)(10) Pats = 173.9 kPa Problem 2-7 [A pressure gage 6 m above the bottom of the tank containing a liquid reads 90 kPa, Another gage height 4m reads 103 kPa. Determine the specific weight of the liquid. Solution po-pi=yh 103 - 90 = y(2) y= 6.5 KN/m?Problem 2-8 An open tank contains 5.8 m of water covered with 3.2 m of kerosene (y = 8 KN/m®). Find the pressure at the interface and at the bottom of the tank. Solution (a) Pressure-at the interface payee = 6)(3.2) pa = 25.6 kPa Kerosene (b) Pressure at the bottom THEN? po=E yh = Yoho + Yih = 9.81(5.8) + 83.2) Pe = 82.498 kPa Problem 2-9 Ifatmospheric pressure is 95.7 kPa’and the gage attached to the tank reads 188 mmHg vacuum, find the absolute pressure within the tank. Solution Pats = Pam + Pease Poage = Yuoercury Mmercity = (9.81 x 13.6)(0.188) Peage Pats = 95.7 + (-25.08) Pav: = 70.62 kPa abs _ Problem 2-10 The weight density of a mud is given by 7 = 10 + 0.5h, where y is in kN/m? and his in meters. Determine the pressure, in kPa, at a depth of 5 mm,Solution Since the density of the mud varies with depth, the pressure should be solved by integration dp=ydh dp = (10+ 0.5 dh a 5 fo at fore Sh)dh 6 0 5 p= 10h+0.25h? | 0 = [10(5) + 0.256)"] -0 p= 56.25 kPa Problem 2-11 In the figure shown, if the atmospheric pressure is 101.03 kPa and the absolute pressure at the bottom of the tank is 231.3 kPa, what is the specific gravity of olive oil? = 13.6 Solution Gage pressure at the bottom of the tank, p = 231.3 = 101.03 Gage pressure at the bottom of the tank, p = 130.27 kPa [p= Dyh] P= Ym lm + Yo Ito + Yoo Rew + Yo Treat 130.27 = (981 x 13.6)(0A) + (9.81 « 5)(2.9) + 9.81(2.5) + (9.81 « 0.89)(1.5) $= 1.38Problem 2 - 12 If air had a constant specific weight of 12.2 N/m} and were incompressible, what would be the height of the atmosphere if the atmospheric pressure (sea level) is 102 kPa? Solution Height of atmosphere, n= 2 y — 102 10° ~ 722 Height of atmosphere, /t = = 8,360.66 m Problem 2 - 13 (CE Board May 1994) Assuming specific weight of air to be constant at 12 N /m$, what is the approximate height of Mount Banahaw if a mercury barometer at the base of the mountain reads 654 mm and at the same instant, another barometer at the top of the mountain reads 480 mm. Solution Hm = 480 mm Air J y= 12NiP “AT h Am = 654 mm | { Prot ~ Prop = y It (tm Min)oottom ~ (Yin Hn )top = Cy It)sir (9,810 x 13.6)(0.654) - (9,810 « 13.6)(0.48) = 12h h= 1,934.53 mProblem 2 - 14 Compute the barometric pressure in kPa at an altitude of 1,200 m if the pressure at sea level is 101.3 kPa, Assume isothermal conditions a 21°C, Use R= 287 Joule /kg°K. ego 287(21+ p = 0.00001185 p dp = -(0.00001185 p)(9.81) dt a = 0,0001163 dh Pp r 1200 ‘ip P = .0,0001163 dh P ror 3si0° 5 5 1200 inp | = -0,0001163/ | 1.3~10" Jo Inp —In (101.3 « 10°) = - 0,0001163(1200 - 0) In p= 11.386 eit386 P p = 88,080 PaProblem 2 - 15 Convert 760 mm of mercury to (a) oil of sp. gr. 0.82 and (b) water, Solution (aa Mercury EPH, Soil 13.6 = 0.76 0.82 No = 12.605 m of oil (B) Pevator = Henereusy Smercuty = 0.76(13.6) Mearer = 10.34 m of water Problem 2- 16 (CE Board May 1994) A barometer reads 760 mmHg and a pressure gage attached to a tank reads 850 cm of oil (sp. gr. 0.80). What is the absolute pressure in the tank in kPa? Solution Pabs = Paton + Pgoge = (9.81 x 13.6)(0.76) + (9.81 x 0.8)(8.5) Pats = 168.1 kPa abs Problem 2 - 17 A hydraulic press is used to raise an 80-KN cargo truck. If oil of sp. gr. 082 acts on the piston under a pressure of 10 MPa, what diameter of piston is required? Solution Since the pressure under the piston is uniform: Force = pressure x Area 80,000 = (10 x 10°) 4 D8 D=01 m= 100mmProblem 2 - 18 (CE November 1998) Piston A has a cross-section of 1,200 sq, cm while that of piston B is 950 sq. cm. with the latter higher than piston A by 1.75 m. If the intervening passages are filled with oil whose specific gravity is 0.8, what is the difference in pressure between A and B. , Solution Pa~pa= Yolts = (9,810 « 0.8)(1.75) pa ~ pa = 13,734 Pa Problem 2 - 19 In the figure shown, determine the weight W that can be carried by the 15 KN force acting on the piston. 300 mm @ Solution Since points 1 and 2 lie on the same elevation, p: = p2 15. Ws F003" ~— 303)" W=150 kN 20mm oOProblem 2 - 20 A drum 700 mm in diameter and filled with wat in diameter, attached to the top. Poured into the pipe to e er has a vertical pipe, 20 min How many Newtons of water must be xert a force of 6500 N on the top of the drum? Solution Force on the top; F= px Area 6500 = p x + (700? - 202) “sh P= 0.016904 MPa 20.mm a P= 16,904 Pa b=yh] 16,904 = 9810 Top h=1,723m ° Weight = y x Volume Biel 9810 x + (0.02)2(1.723) a Weight = 5.31 N Area on top iger is negligible? linder if the | Fs? | / Plunger, | |2 = 0.00323 mz | i Oil, s = 0.78Solution Plunger, 1a = 0.00323 m? Oil, s = 0.78 Oil, s = 0.78 [p2- pr =yoh] m= * Dos a 309.6 F (kPa) 136.22 - 309.6 F = (9.81 x 0.78)(4.6) F = 0,326 kN = 326N Problem 2 - 22 The hydraulic press shown is filled with oil with sp. gr. 0.82, Neglecting the weight of the two pistons, what force F on the handle is required to support the 10 KN weight?Solution Since points 1 and 2 lie on the same elevation, then; F(0.425) = F(0.025) F(0.425) = 1.11(0.025) F = 0.0654 kN F=654N FBD of the lever arm Problem 2 - 23 The fuel gage for a Gasoline (sp. gr. = 0.68) tank in a car reads proportional to its bottom gage. If the tank is 30 cm deep an accidentally contaminated with 2 cm of water, how many centimeters of gasoline does the tank actually contain when the gage erroneously reads “FULL”? Solution Vent LSince the gage reads “FULL” then the reading is equivalent to 30 cm of gasoline. Reading (pressure head) when the tank contain water = (y+ 2.gb;) cm of gasoline Then; y+2ph; =30 y= 27.06 em Problem 2 - 24 (CE Board November 2000) For the tank shown in thé Figure, In = 3m and fis = 4 m. Determine the value of iz. Solution Summing-up pressure head from 1 to 3 in meters of water ’ + hn(0.84) - x= a hi a + 0.84 In (4-3) = f= 119mProblem 2 - 25 (CE Board May 1992) In the figure shown, what is the static pressure in kPa in the air chamber? 1 Solution The pressure in the air space equals the pressure on the surface of oil, ps. = 2m 1 P2- ps Yoh 19.62 ~ ps = (9.81 x 0.80)(4) ps -11.77 kPa Another solution: Sum-up pressure head from 1 to 3 jn meters of water: Pt 42-4080) = P38 Y Y PS: 0+2-326 3. 9.81 ps=-11.77 kPaProblem 2 - 26 For the manometer shown, determine the pressure at the center of the pipe. im Mercury, § = 13.55 1.5m Oil, s = 0.80 Solution Sum-up pressure head from 1 to 3 in meters of water: PA 4 4(13,38) + 1.5(08) 1 Mercury, $= 13.55 Oil, s = 0.80Problem 2 - 27 (CE Board November 2001) Determine the value of y in the manometer shown in the Figure. ¥ im Air, 5 KPa ¥ ol 3m im c= Solution Summing-up pressure head from A to B in meters of water: a +3(08)+1.5-y(13.6) = 28 ¥ 5° Pa pop +39-13.6y= 28 981 ie where ps = 0 y= 0.324 m mn 5 kPa im || At, A oll am S=0.8 KSProblem 2 - 28 (CE May 1993) In the figure shown, when the funnel is empty the water surface is at point A and the mercury of sp. gr. 13.55 shows a deflection of 15 cm. Determine the new deflection of mercury when the funnel is filled with water to B. Solution ( 30om@ 4 = 0.15 Figure (a): Level at A Figure (b): Level at B Solve for y in Figure (a): Sum-up pressure head from A to 2 in meters of water: PA +y-0150355) = 2 Y + 0+y-203=0 y= 2.03 mIn Figure (b): i When ie funnel is filled with water to B, point 1 will move down to 7 with the same value as point 2 moving up to 2° Sum-up pressure head from B to 2" PB 08 +y+x~(r +015 +x)(1355) = a Y 0+ 0.80 + 2.08 + x-27.17-2.03=0 26.1x = 0.80 031 m = 3.1. cm New reading, R = 15 + 2x = 15 + 23.1) New reading, R = 212m Problem 2 - 29 Solution The pressure at point m in the figure shown was increased from 70 kPa to 105 kPa. This causes the top level of mercury to move 20 mm in the sloping tube. What is the inclination, 9? Figure (a) Figure (b) In Figure (2):Sum-up pressure head from 2 to nm: in meters of water: P2 yy(i3.6)-x= Pm Y 1 13.6y -1= Sr Eq. (1) In Figure (b): Sum-up pressure head from 2' to m’ in meters of water: ee + (0.2 sin 0 + y +0.2)(13.6) - (x+0.2) = Pee y 0+2.72sin0+13.6y+2.72-x-02= 3 13.6y - x = 8.183 - 2.72 sin 0 Eq. (2) [13.6y - x = 13.6y - x] 8.183-2.72sin0 = 2 Ist sin 6 = 0.5852 0 = 22.66° Problem 2 - 30 A closed cylindrical tank contains 2 m of water, 3 m of oil (s = 0.82) and the air above oil has a pressure of 30 kPa, If an open mercury manometer at the bottom of the tank has 1 m of water, determine the deflection of mercury. Solution air, 30 kPa Sum-up pressure head from 1 to 4 in meters of water: Pair. +, 9(0:82) + 2-41 - (13.6) = 2 1 Y Bo +246 +3-13.6y=0 y = 0.626 mProblem 2-31 The U-tube shown is 10 mm in diameter or and contains mercury. If 12 ml of water is poured into the right-hand leg, what are the ultimate heights in the two. legs? Mercury Solution Be. 120 mm = Solving for i, (see figure b): Volume of water= = he 15.28 cm = 152.8 mm [— 2omm = L120 mm —al \2 Fn= 12cm? Notes 1 m= tan? Since the quantity of mercury before and after water ic poured remain the same, then; 120(3)=R+x+120+% R+2x=240 > Eq. (1) 10mm F Mercury L s20mm —I Figure (a) Figure (b) i 120 mm ~In Figure (b): Summing-up pressure head from 1 to 3 in mm of water: Pi 4.1528- R136) = 22 Y y R=11.24mm In Eq. (2): 11.24 + 2x = 240 x= 114.38 mm Ultimate heights in each leg: Right-hand leg, te =i +x = 152.8 + 114.38 Right-hand leg, /te = 267.18 mm Left-hand leg, fy = R+x Left-hand leg, h Problem 2 - 32 For a gage reading of -17.1 kPa, determine the (a) elevations of the liquids in the open piezometer columns E, F, and G and (b) the deflection of the mercury in the U-tube manometer neglecting the weight of air. GageSolution ~ B38 > 3m +r 4m 3m, 4m Pa = pair = -17.1 kPa EL4m Mercury, § = 13.6 Column E Sum-up pressure head from 1 to e in metes of water: FA enon =2e Y ¥ Fe +07) =0 fy =2.5m Surface elevation = 15 Surface elevation Column F Sum-up pressure head from 1 to fin meters of water; Pt 4300.7) -hyty = PL Y Y Bhi +21-m=0 hp = 0,357 m Surface elevation = 12 + hz Surface elevation = 12 + 0.357 = 12,357 mColumn G Sum-up pressure head from 1 (og in meters of water; PL 4300.7) + 4(1) ~ho¢1.6) = 28. Y Y Bet +21+4-1.6in=0 hy=2.72m Surface elevation = 8 + fy Surface elevation = 8 + 2.72 = 10.72 m Deflection of mercury Sum-up pressure head from 1 to 5 in meters of water; 7 +3(0.7)+4+4-1(13.6) = 23. 7 =171 ai +101 -13.6h; hy = 0.614 m Problem 2 - 33 An open manometer attached to a pipe shows a deflection of 150 mmHg with the lower level of mercury 450 mm below the centerline of the pipe carrying water. Calculate the pressure at the centerline of the pipe. Solution Sum-up pressure head from 1 to 3. in meters of water; PL 4 9.45 -0.15(13.6) = ¥ Ps Pt +045-2.04=0 981 p= 15.6 kPaProblem 2 - 34 For the configuration shown, calculate the weight of the piston if the pressure gage reading is 70 kPa. Solution Sum-up pressure head from =n Weight A to Bin meters of water; oe fo ime > PA 100.86) = 28. 7 Y Pa _gg6= 70 981 981 Pa= 78.44 kPa Weight = F, Fu = py x Area = pax Area = 7844 Z (1p Weight = 61.61 kN Problem 2 - 35 Two vessels are connected to a differential manometer using mercury, the connecting tubing being filled with water. The higher pressure vessel ic 15m lower in elevation than the other. (a) If the mercury reading is 100 mm, what is the pressure head difference in meters of water? (b) If carbon tetrachloride (s = 1.59) were used instead of mercury, what would be the manometer reading for the same pressure difference?Solution (a) Gage liquid = mercury, = 0.1 m Sunv-up pressure head from 1 to 4 in meters of water; PL ge the h(13.6)-x-15= PL ¥ 7 Pi. Ps 245-01+0.1013.6) ¥ Y Pi. Pt = 2.76 m of water Y Y (b) Gage liquid = carbon tetrachloride reading, Sunv-up pressure head from 1 to 4 in meters of water; Ply y+ n-n(1.59)-x-15 = PL t Ki Pi Ps 215+059h 7, Y where 21 . 24 = 2.76 m > from (a) t Y 2.76 = 1.5 + 0.59h h=2136m Problem 2-36 In the figure shown, determine the height h of water and the gage reading at A when the absolute pressure at B is 290 kPa. Air, p = 175 kPa absSolution Sum-up absolute pressure head Air, p = 175 kPa abs from B to 2 in meters of water; p. Pa = B2 F® .0.7(13.6)-h= y a7pe 8) , h x = 15 $e -952-h= 38 = 2.203 m 700 mm cia Sum-up absolute pressure head from B to A in meters of water; P® _o.7013.6) +0.7= 2A Y Y 38 pa = 203.5 kPa abs 2.952407 = PA 981 Problem 2 - 37 i I) In the figure shown, the atmospheric i pressure is 101 kPa, the gage A reading at A is 40 kPa, and the vapor Q! t pressure of alcohol is 12 kPa Air absolute. Compute x + y. - = Aicohc x S080 cL 3m Mercury| Solution p= 12 kPa abs| Sum-up absolute pressure head from 1 to 2 in meters of water; Pa yng = 22 yo) = 7 404101 yoy. 12 981 7" 981 y=14.6lmieee OO Sum-up pressure (gage) head from 1 to 4 in meters of water; PL + (0.9) + 1.3(0.9) -1.3(13.6) = 2 Y Y a + 0.9x - 16.51 = 0 x=13.81m Then, x + y= 28.42 m Problem 2 - 38 For the manometer setup shown, determine the difference in pressure between A and B. Solution r+ 068=y+17 x-y=102m, Eq. (1) Sum-up pressure head from A to B in meters of water; PA _ 5» 0,68(0.85) + ¥ 1 =x-y +0578 > Eq. (2) Pa _ Pa 7 c Substitute x - y = 1.02 in Eq, (1) to Eq, Q): Pa _ PB 2102+0578 ¥ Y Pa Ske = 4508 981 pa~ pn 15.68 kPaProblem 2 - 39 A differential manometer is attached to a pipe as shown. Calculate the | pressure difference between points A and B . Solution Sum-up pressure head from A to B in meters of water; PA _y(0.9) - 0.13.6) +0109) + (0.9) = 7 ° Pa _ P8 2977136)-0.1(09) T y Pa PB 21.07 m 981 Pa pn = 12.46 kPaProblem 2 - 40 In the figure shown, the deflection of mercury is initially 250 mm. If the pressure at A is increased by 40 kPa, while maintaining the pressure at B constant, what will be the new mercury deflection? Solution Figure (a) In Figure a, sum-up pressure head from A to B in meters of water; PA _ 0.6 -0.25(13.6) + 0.25 + 2.1= ” % Pa _ PB 27.65 mof water Y +In Figure b, pq’ = pa + 40 Sum-up pressure head from A’ to B in meters of water; PA (0.6 - x) - (0.254 2x)19.6 + (2354+ x) = 2B 1 Pat oot r-34-27.214 235 +r= 2B 7 7 Pa , 40 Pe Pay 0 165-252 = Pe y | OBI t Pa. PB 2959 "2.473 But 24 . P8 2165 * v iid 1.65 = 25,2 x - 2.423 162 m = 162 mm New mercury deflection = 250 + 2x = 250 + 2(162) New mercury deflection = 574 mm Problem 2 - 41 In the figure shown, determine the difference in pressure between points A and B. Kerosene, s = 0.82 jai js = 00012Solution Kerosene, 5 = 0.82 Sum-up pressure head from A to B in meters of water; Pa +.0.2(0.88) - 0.09(13.6) - 0.31(0.82) + 0.25 - 0.100.012) = P# Pa E pa = py = 9.81(1.0523) = 10,32 kPa P8 = 7.0523 m of water Y Problem 2 - 42 (CE Board) Assuming normal barometric pressure, how deep in the ocean is the point where an air bubble, upon reaching the surface, has six times its volume than it had at the bottom? Solution Applying Boyle’s Law {assuming isothermal condition) ip Vi= pV) pi = 101.3 + 9.81(1.03)h pr= 101.3 + 10.104 h wev “p= 101.3 +0= 1013 V2=6V , (101.3 + 10.104h)V = 101.3 (6 V) 10.104 h = 101.3(6) - 101.3 n= 50.13 mProblem 2 - 43 ‘ h A vertical tube, 3 m long, with one end closed is inserted vertically, Eo ae open end dovn, into a tank of water to such a depth that an open son Teter connected to the upper end of the tube reads 150 mm of Te ower end a vapor pressure and assuming normal conditions, how far is the tube below the water surface in the tank? Solution Applying Boyle's Law: pi Viz V2 : Before the tube was inserted; Absolute pressure of air inside, 1 = 101.3 Volume of air inside, Vi = 3A When the tube was inserted; Absolute pressure of air inside, p2 = 101.3 + 9.81(13.6)(0.15) Absolute pressure of air inside, pp = 121.31 kPa Volume of air inside the tube, V2 = (3 - yA [pr Vi= pe Va] 101.3 (3 A)=12131[ (3-y)A] 3 -y=2.505 y=0495m From the manometer shown; Pe = te Now = (9.81 « 13.6)(0.15) pe 20.0124 kPaSince the pressure in air inside the tube is uniform, then pe = pr = 20,0124 kPa Pe= Yo ht 20.0124 = 9.81h; h= 2.04 m Problem 2 - 44 A bottle consisting of a cylinder 15 cm in diameter and 25 cm high, has a neck which is 5 cm diameter and 25 cm long. The bottle is inserted vertically in water, with the open end down, such that the neck is completely filled with water. Find the depth to which the open end is submerged. Assume normal barometric pressure and neglect vapor pressure. Solution * sem oe Applying Boyle's Law pi Vi = pa Vo Before the bottle was inserted: Volume of air: Vi = $15) (25) + $625) V, = 4,908.74 cm Absolute pressure in air: pia 101.325 When the bottle is inserted: Volume of air: Va= 2 (15) (25) V2= 4,417.9 cm? Pressure in air: pr = 101.325 + 9.81 h (pr Vi = pa Va) 101.325(4,908.74) = (101.325 + 9.81 f)(4,417.9) 101.325 + 9.81 h = 112.58 h=1.15em . h+25 = 26.15 emProblem 2 - 45 A bicycle tire is inflated at sea level, where the atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPaa and the temperature is 21 °C, to 445 kPa. Assuming the tire does not expand, what is the gage pressure within the tire on the top of a mountain where the altitude is 6,000 m, atmospheric pressure is 47.22 kPaa, and the temperature is 5 °C. G Solution Piva _ P2V2 qT, Th At sea level: Absolute pressure of air, p; = 101.3 + 445 Absolute pressure, p; = = 546.3 kPaa Volume of air, Vi = V Absolute temperature of air. T; = 21 + 273 = 294 °K On the top of the mountain: Absolute pressure of air, p2 = 47.22 + p Since the tire did not expand, volume of air, V2 = V Absolute temperature of air, T; = 5 + 273 = 278 °K PaVy _ PaVo e ] 1 T 546.3(V) _ (47.224 pV 294 278 47.22 + p = 516.57 p= 469.35 kPaFLUID MECHANICS CHAPTER TWO 69 & HYDRAULICS Principles of Hydrostatics [supplementary Problems Problem 2 - 46 ‘A weather report indicates the barometric pressure is 28.54 inches of mercury. What is the atmospheric pressure in pounds per square inch? Ans: 14.02 psi Problem 2 - 47 ‘The tube shown is filled with oil. Determine the pressure heads at B and C in meters of water. Ans, PB = -2.38m % Pc 0.51 m foil, s = 0.85 Problem 2 - 43 For the tank shown in the figure, in kPa, Neglect the unit weigh’ -ompute the pressure at points B, C, D, and E air. Anepre Sor pe> pa ker ALS70 CHAPTER TWO FLUID MECHANICS Principles of Hydrostatics & HYDRAULICS Problem 2- 49 A glass U-tube open to the atmosphere at both ends is shown contains oil and water, determine the specific gravity of the oil. If the U-tube Ans: 0.86 030m —4 0.35 m — Water | Problem 2 - 50 A glass 12 cm tall filled with water is inverted. The bottom is open. What is the pressure at the closed end? Barometric pressure is 101.325 kPa. Ans: 100.15 kPaa Problem 2 - 51 In Figure 13, in which fluid will a pressure of 700 kPa first be achieved? Ans: glycerin Po = 90 kPa a ay, ‘ethyl alcohol = 773 kgm 60m ail p = 899.6 ka/m? 10m water p= 979 kg/m? 5m glycerin p = 1236 kg/m? SmO LUID MECHANICS CHAPTER TW E HYDRAULICS Principles of Hydrostatics 71 Problem 2 - 52 A cylindrical tank contains water at a height of 55 mm, as shown. Inside isa small open cylindrical tank containing cleaning fluid (s.g, = 0.8) at a height h. The pressure py = 13.4 kPa gage and po = 13.42 kPa gage. Assume the cleaning fluid is prevented from moving to the top of the tank. Use unit weight of water = 9.79 KN/m*, (a) Determine the pressure pa in kPa, (b) the value of h in mm, and (c) the value of y in millimeters, i Ans: (a) 12.88; (b) 10.2; (¢) 101 Problem 2- 53 A differential manom: water pipes. The indicating mm, tm is 225 mm, and /, between the two pipes. wn is measuring the difference in pressure two iquid is mercury (specific gravity = 13.6), hy is 675 is 300 mr. What is the pressure differential Ans: 89.32 kPaCHAPTER TWO FLUID MECHANICS 72 Principles of Hydrostatics & HYDRAULICS Problem 2 - 54 A force of 460 N is exerted on lever AB as shown. The end B is connected toa piston which fits into a cylinder having a diameter of 60 mm. What force Fy acts on the larger piston, if the volume between C and D is filled with water? Ans: 15.83 kN Problem 2 - 55 An open tube open tube is attached to a tank as’shown. If water rises to a height of 800 mm in the tube, what are the pressures ps and pe of the air above water? Neglect capillary effects in the tube. Aas: pa = 3.92 kPa; pg = 4.90 kPa