SINCE 196° Module 2 Licence Category B1 Physics 2.2.1 Mechanics. -OBJECTIVES Mass, force and weight Shear force and bending Moments, couples and torque moment diagrams Centre of gravity Nature and properties of solids, Vectors liquids and gas 6 Stress, strain and elasticity v Pressure Secondary stresses — shear, | |” See at) torsion and bending v Humidity v Pressure and force Structural definitions Materials behaviour (hydrostatics) Fluid pressure and depth Buoyancy in liquids <Mass, force and weight > Mass: (symbolized ‘m’) is a dimensionless quantity representing the amount of matter in a particle or object. vThe standard unit of mass in the International System (SI) is the kilogram (kg), and the slug in the imperial system. 1 slug = 14.59 kilogram vin physics, mass is a property of a physical body. It is a measure of an object's resistance to acceleration when a force is applied. > Force :The physicist uses the word “force” to describe any push or pull. A force is one kind of vector. A vector is a quantity that has both size and direction. v A force has a certain magnitude or size. The units in which force are measured are the pound (Ib) or newton (N). v The relationship between the metric and imperial units is given by the conversion factor: 1 lb = 4.448 N > Weight : A weight is one kind of force. y It is defined as the gravitational pull of the earth on a given body. ¥ The direction of this force is toward the geometrical centre of the earth. Issue 0Mass conversions 0.0154 grain 1 gram [g] 1,000 mg 0.0353 oz - 1 gram [kg] 1,000 g 2.2046 Ib — 1 kilogram [kg] 1,000 g 0.068 slug ~ 1 tonne [t] 1,000 kg 0.9842 long ton (UK) 1 ounce [oz] 437.5 grain 28.35g = 4 pound [Ib] 16 0z 0.4536 kg 1 stone 14 Ib 6.3503 kg 1 hundredweight [ewt] | 112 Ib 50.802 kg 1 slug 14.6 kg a 1 long ton (UK) 20 cwt 1.016t 1 short ton (US) 2,000 Ib 0.907 t = 1000 + 1000 = 1000 11/02/2020 Issue 01 RevisionDistinction between mass and weight Mass is the quantity of matter, determined by the number of protons and neutrons in the body. Weight is a measure of the gravitational pull of the earth on this quantity of matter. The mass of an object is the same wherever this object is in the universe. If the stone is not on the earth but is in a space station orbiting the earth some distance from the earth's surface, the weight of this stone is different from its weight on the earth's surface. If the stone is on the planet Mars, we speak of its “weight on Mars”, the gravitational pull of Mars on the stone. The pull of the earth on a body of a given mass varies slightly with the position of the body on the earth's surface. For example, a body that weighs 57.3 Ibs at the North Pole would weigh 57.0 Ibs at a place on the equator. This occurs because a body at either pole is slightly closer to the centre of the earth than it is at the equator.Distinction between mass and weight v Mass depends upon the amount of matter. vy Weight depends upon the mass and the amount of gravity Mass = 100kg Weight = 980N Mass = 100kg Weight = 162.2N 11/02/2020 Issue 01 Revision 01 oDistinction between mass and weight % Physicists and engineers measure masses of bodies in slugs or kilograms and ° weights i in pounds or Newton's. The equation relating mass and weight is: v w=mg This is a form of Newton's second law (F = ma). g has a definite numerical value. We will use the following relations: g= 32 Jes or g=5.a—" slug k Suppose the weight of a piece of cheese is marked 32 oz. and we wish to know the number of grams. First we convert the weight in ounces to Ibs. (16 oz. =1 Ib)Then we convert from pounds to Newton's. weight = yes = 2 lb = 21bx 4.487 = 8.96N 1lb _W_896N mar = oa =0.914kg = 914g Issue 0 Revision ZDistinction between mass and weight Weighing scales indicating in stones Weighing scales indicating in lb and kg Issue 01 Revision 11/02/2020 01 8Moments, couples and torque Lever arms and moments v The distance of any object from the fulcrum is called the “lever arm”. v The lever arm multiplied by the weight (or mass) of the object is its turning effect about the fulcrum. This turning effect is known as the “moment”. v The moment of a force about a point is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance from the point to the line of action of the force. Moment = Fd Where; v F=the force in newton's (N) or pounds (Ib.) v d=perpendicular distance in meters (m) or feet (ft.) v Momentsare expressed in Ibs.ft or Newton. metres and the direction must be specified, clockwise (+) or anticlockwise (-), positive or negative.Moments, couples and torque Example 1 v A10N force acts on a spanner, at a perpendicular distance of 100 mm from the centre of the nut and bolt. What is the moment M1 applied to the nut and bolt? ‘J yv Moment = Fd “M 7 ¥ =10x100=1,000Nm 2) am) Example 2 I d | v What would the moment (M2) be if the spanner was 3 times longer? yv Moment = Fd v =10x300 =3(— M1 ee t 400mm—d F i Oe mak) Ca L* s¢0mm——4 11/02/2020The principle of moments When an object is in equilibrium: sum of anticlockwise moments = sum clockwise moments v The simple see-saw is a good example. A small weight at a large distance can be balanced by a large weight at a small distance. v Example 3 vy Person B of mass 500 N sits on a see-saw, 2 m from the fulcrum. How far from the fulcrum would person A, of mass 1,000 N need to sit, in order for the see-saw to be balanced? sum of anticlockwise moments = sum clockwise moments v W,xd,=W,xd, on ‘co 500 N x 2m = 1,000 N xX 9 X= 500 N x 2m/ 1,000 N X=1m Pivot (aerum) 48 86 11/02/2020The principle of moments Example 4 v In the figure shown below, we can write an equilibrium formula, and determine the necessary size of the weight required (X) to be placed at 7.5" in order to balance the system, as follows: v sum of anticlockwise moments= sum of clockwise moments (Wy x d4) = (W2 x da) + (W3 x d3) 30lb.in = 15 Ib.in + (X * 7.5”) 30-15 =7.5X X=15/7.5 }<——— 7.5" X=2 Ibs Issue 01 Revision 12 11/02/2020Couples v A “couple” is a pair of forces of magnitude F that are equal and opposite but applied at points separated by a distance d perpendicular to the forces. v The combined moment of the forces produces a torque Fd on the object on which they act. vy Anexample is the cutting of an internal thread with a tap and tap wrench. The force applied at one end of the wrench handle, multiplied by the distance to the centre of rotation is just half of the torque felt at the tap itself, since there is an equal y torque applied at the other wrench handle. P v The moment (or torque) of a couple is “ calculated by fauiltiplying the size of one A&A of the force (F) by the perpendicular distance between the two forces (d). F i . Couple = tangential force y Ege eed" wheel in a car; Moment of applied by just one hand multiplied by the distance between the hands Issue 0 RevisionTorque wrenches We define torque as the force (F) applied to a body that is pivoted at a point (0) multiplied by the distance from the pivot point to the place where the force is applied and multiplied by the sin of the angle between r and F. We will use the Greek letter tau (1) for torque. The distance mentioned in the preceding sentence is called the lever arm and symbolized by the letter d. The defining equation is: T = Fd sin © v_ Inthe diagram, we note that @ = 90°. Th by far the most common case. Since sin 90° = 1, this common case reduces to the simpler equation: v T=Fd v However, it must be remembered that in those cases where @ is not 90°, the full equation must be used. Note also that the unit for torque is the lb ft, Ib in or the Nm. 11/02/2020 Issue 01 Revision 14Extensions A typical beam type torque wrench has an extension spanner attached. v If this combination is used to torque load a fastener, then the following formula should be used to calculate the wrench scale reading which corresponds to the specified torque value: v Scale reading = specified torque x v L=distance between the driving tang and the centre of the handle = length of extension spanner between centres v Asimple way of calculating the scale reading required without using the formula is set out in the following example, for which the specified torque loading is 300 Ib in and the lengths of the wrench and spanner are 10 and 5 inches respectively. a) Force required on wrench handle to produce a toraue of, 300 Ib. in is 300 lb. in divided by the distance between nut and wre—————_. pon 10in+5in- b) Scale reading when force on handle is 20 Ib. is,20 Ib. x 10 in 200 Ib.in. v Force must therefore be applied to the wrench handle until a reading of (200 Ib.in) is shown on the wrench scale, and this will represent a (300 Ib.in) torque load applied to the nut. With the “break” type wrench, the adjustment must be pre-set at 200 Issue 0 sion 15Extensions A torque wrench fitted with ! an extension spanner | L ; ! ‘| i i > A torque wrench fitted with an extension spanner positioned out-of-line with the wrench Issue 01 Revision 11/02/2020 01Centre of gravity (Centre of mass) Centre of mass of regular and irregular shapes (centroids) v In many applications, it is important that objects are designed with stability in mind. v This requires an understanding of the centre of mass, as well as an ability to find out where it is. v By incorporating a low centre of mass and wide base into an object, we can reduce the chance of it toppling over. v Mass is the amount of matter an object has. Every part of an object forms part of its overall mass. But when we try to balance an object on a point, there will only be one place where it will balance. v The mass of an object being concentrated at a point, known as the centre of mass, or “centroid”. v The centre of mass for a symmetrical object can be found easily. v The axes of symmetry are marked on the object. The centre of mass is where the axes of symmetry cross. Issue 01 Revision 11/02/2020 01 Centroid of triangle coordinates (x,y) Where Xy+X2+ x3 S 3 ey Atg 2st) 3) an) x| Centre of gravity (Centre of mass) v The centre of mass for an irregular shaped, non-symmetrical object is found by suspending the object: > Drill a small hole in the object and hang it up so that it is free to swing without obstruction. >» Hanga eee line from the suspension point. Thi F sheet is lets you mark the vertical line directly below the suspension point. Drill another hole at a different location within the object. Again, hang a plumb line to determine the vertical and mark it on. The point at which the two marked lines cross is the centre of mass. Centre of gravity (centre of mass) by calculation by pivoting for example a beam at some point (the “fulcrum”), the beam, such that the beam is in equilibrium (balanced), then the position of the fulcrum can be found Die O momen ana Revision 18Arm The arm is the horizontal distance that an item is located from the datum. If the particular item is located forward, or to the left of the datum, it’s shown with a negative (-) sign. If the item is located aft, or to the right of the datum, it’s shown with a positive (+) sign. The location of the datum is arbitrary, but for convenience, it is usually considered to be at one end of the beam. The conventional signs which are applied to arms and moments in relation to their direction from the C of G datum are as follows: > Horizontal (-) forward and (+) aft of the datum > Vertical (-) below and (+) above the datum > Transverse (-) right and (+) left of the datumArm v Example: A uniform beam weighs 40 Ibs.; it is 15 ft. long and has a load of 10 Ibs., 25 Ibs. and 45 Ibs. at distances of 2 ft., 6 ft. and 14 ft. from the left hand end respectively. Find the C of G position relative to the —--* **" 45 Ibs 40 Ibs 15 ft a Take moments about X ‘Clockwise turning moments = 45x65 = 292.5 Ibs ft Anticlockwise turning moments = 25x15+10x5.5 = 92.5 \bsft Resultant moment = greater — lesser = 292.5-92.5 = 200 Ibs ft Thus, as the resultant moment is clockwise, the C of G must be to the right of X. C of G relative to X = resultant moment total weight Total Weight = 10+25+40+45 = 1201Ibs Thus, C of G position = 200 = 1ft8in 120 Le., the C of G is 1 foot 8 inches to the right of x. /2020 Tssue OT Revision 01 2>» v v The tabular method The tabular method is useful when the moment system is complex. The method works by listing the masses (including the mass of the beam itself, acting at the centre of the beam, assuming that the beam mass is uniformly distributed). In the next column, the arm of each respective mass is listed. The datum point, for convenience, is taken to be one end of the beam. The masses and the arms are then totaled at the bottom of their respective columns. Example : A uniform beam 60 cm long and having a mass of 8 kg, has masses of 2 kg, 10 kg, 20 kg and 30 kg at distances of 6 cm, 14. cm, 23 cm and 36 cm respectively, from the left hand end. Find C of G of beam. Datum 8kg ‘Arm (om) __| Moment (kg om) Beam (st load 2nd load 3rd load 4th load Totals Cof Gof the whole system = resultant moment total mass> The tabular method vy Example: A uniform beam 60 cm long and having a mass of 8 kg, has masses of 2 kg, 10 kg, 20 kg and 30 kg at distances of 6 cm, 14cm, Datum Bk 23 cm and 36 cm - aaa cau Goma cn . m ass (kg m (om) joment (kg om) respectively, from the | ~~. ey Sere cas | left hand end. Find C of | istioas 2 6 12 G of beam. 2nd load 10 14 140 3rd load 20 23 460 C.G will be at 27.66 cm | atnicas 30 36 1080 from datum Totals 70 | 1932 C of G of the whole system = {esultant moment 31932_ a7 6emto total mass 70 ‘the right. Issue 01 Revision 11/02/2020 22Aircraft centre of gravity An aircraft is balanced if it remains level when suspended from an imaginary point. This point is the location of its ideal CG. The CG of an Cal) or helicopter is the location where all the mass of the aircraft is considered to act. Aircraft balance refers to the location of the centre of gravity along the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. The Centre of Gravity (CG) is the point about which an aircraft would balance if it were possible to suspend it from that point. Obtaining this balance is simply a matter of placing loads so that the average arm of the loaded aircraft falls within the C of G range. The exact location of the range is specified for each type of aircraft in the flight manual. Centre of gravity (CG) limits are specified longitudinal (forward and aft) and/or lateral (left and right) limits within which the aircraft's centre of gravity must be located during flight. The area between the limits is called the CG range of the aircraft. If, due to incorrect loading of an aircraft, the aircraft's CG is located outside of the designated limits, the aircraft will be difficult to ? 2Aircraft centre of gravity v The “datum” is an imaginary vertical line TS FF from which all ee horizontal Py measurements are taken Graphical symbol “ or indicated, with the cG an aircraft suspended from its C.G ition, it balance aircraft in level flight attitude, for balance purposes. v The datum may be located at any convenient location by the manufacturer of the aircraft. v There is no fixed rule for the location of this datum. In most cases it is located on the nose of the aircraft or some oint on the aircraft ivogtrecture itself. =~ Comer ot avty Total weight 24Aircraft weighing methods ~ Types of Aircraft weighing equipment : > — Weighbridge scales. v These consist of a separate weighing platform for each wheel or bogey, the mass at each reaction point being indicated directly on the balance arm or on a dial indicator. Large aircraft may be weighed in a hangar, using portable weighbridge scales, or on weighbridges set permanently into the floor. Hydrostatic weighing units These are based upon the principle that fluid pressure in a cylinder, in which a piston is working depends on the area of the piston and the load applied to it. The units are placed between the lifting jacks and the aircraft jacking points and the weight at each position recorded on a gauge. The gauge may be calibrated directly into weight units or a conversion may be required to obtain the correct units. v It is important that the jacks used with these units are vertical and the units correctly positioned. Issue 0 RevisionAircraft weighing methods >» — Electrical/electronic strain gauge type weighing equipment. v incorporate three or more weighing cells, using metallic resistance elements or strain gauges, the resistance of which varies with change in length, due to elastic strain. v These strain gauges are either incorporated into cells between the aircraft and the jacks, or they are used in portable weighbridge platforms placed beneath the aircraft wheels. v The output may be measured with a galvanometer, or sent to an instrumentation unit, which adds all of the platform values and digitally displays the aircraft load. v The capacity of the equipment must be compatible with the load, so that accurate measurements may be obtained.Weighing on aircraft jacks Jacking should be done in accordance with the maintenance manual procedures and suitable jacking adapters should be placed at the jacking points. Weighing units of sufficient capacity should be attached to the jacks and the jacks positioned at each jacking point. Zero indication of each weighing unit should be verified, before the aircraft is raised evenly, until clear of the ground when the aircraft should be leveled. Readings should be made at each weighing point, and to ensure representative readings are obtained, a second reading should be made. The mass of the aircraft may be deduced by adding all of the readings from each weighing point. With the aircraft weight correctly established, it remains only to calculate the CG.1/16/2019Weighing on aircraft jacks Example 1: A nose-wheeled aircraft, which has been weighed and its dry operating mass has been calculated to be 1,915 kg. The CG is forward of the main undercarriage and, using the main wheel centre-line position as a reference datum, the CG can be found by means of the formula: AxB+C Where; + A=Massat the nose wheel + B= Distance between the front and rear reactions + C= Total Mass (the sum of all the reactions) v_ Thus: A x B= 100 x 6 = 600 kg m v_ then, the CG= 600 (kg m) + 1,915 (kg) = 0.3133 m or 313.3 mm. The CG is, therefore, calculated (to 3 significant figures) to be 313 mm forward of the main wheel centre-line. Calculation aircraft's CG (main wheel centre-line as reference datum) Nose whee! reaction \ x Main whee! reactions Calculation aircraft's CG (main wheel centre-line as reference datum)Weighing on aircraft jacks Example 2 : The main wheel centre-line is not, however, always taken as the reference datum and, as another example, the reference datum could be taken to be somewhere between the nose wheel and the wheel positions. In this instance, it is necessary to use the formula: y Total moment Total mass \ Nose wheel ‘reaction CcG= Main wheel It is also necessary to remember that y feacos moments, which are aft of a reference datum are considered to be positive or additive (+ve), while moments, which are forward of the datum are considered to be negative or subtractive (-ve). Total moment (+7,060 kg m) + total mass . (1,915 kg) = +3.687 m (to 3 d.p.). Calculation Therefore, the CG is located 3.687 metres aft aircraft's CG of the reference datum (which, by (reference datum observation, remains at 313 millimeters aft of nose wheel) forward of the main wheel centre-line, as previously calculated).Vectors v Astudy of physics will involve the introduction of a variety of quantities that are used to describe the physical world. Examples of such quantities include distance, displacement, speed, velocity, acceleration, force, mass, momentum, energy, Scale: 1m = 4m work, power, etc. All these quantities can by divided into two categories > A vector dean is a quantity that is fully described by both magnitude and direction, for example: displacement, velocity, acceleration, and force. > ascalar quantity is a quantity that is fully described by its magnitude alone. Vector diagrams depict a vector by use of an | | arrow drawn to scale in a specific direction. The magnitude is 20 The vector diagram depicts a displacement vector. m and the direction A scale is clearly provided a vector arrow (with is 30 degrees west arrowhead) is drawn in a specified direction. The of north vector arrow has a head and a tail. The magnitude and direction of the vector is clearly labeled.Vectors v Vectors can be directed due east, west, south, and north. v But some vectors are directed northeast (at a 45- degree angle); v Thus, there is a clear need for some form of a convention for identifying the direction of a vector. Scale: 1 cm = 4m. The magnitude is 20 m and the direction is 30 degrees west of northVectors v There are a variety of conventions for describing the direction of any vector. w E > The direction of a vector is often expressed z as an angle of rotation of the vector about its “tail” from east, west, north, or south. | o- counter-ciockwise For example, a vector can be said to have a direction of 40 degrees north of west (meaning a vector pointing west has been rotated 40 degrees towards the northerly direction). > The direction of a vector is often expressed | 0. counter ciockwise as a counter-clockwise angle of rotation meee ieee mae of the vector about its “tail” from due east, for example a vector with a direction of 30 degrees is a vector that has been rotated 30 degrees in a counter-clockwise direction relative to due east.Magnitude of a vector Scale: 1cm = 5 miles Representing the magnitude of a vector Since the scale used for constructing the diagram is 1 cm = 5 miles, the vector arrow is drawn with a length of 4 cm. That is, 4 cm x (5 miles/1 cm) = 20 miles (Diagram) Using the same scale (1 cm = 5 miles), a displacement vector that is 15 miles will be represented by a vector arrow that is 3 cm in length. G=38ini And finally, an 18-mile displacement vector is represented by a 3.6-cm long arrow. In conclusion, vectors can be represented by use of a scaled vector diagram. On such a diagram, a vector arrow is drawn to represent the vector. The arrow has an obvious tail and arrowhead. d= 20 mi 60° 60°Vector addition v Avariety of mathematical operations can be performed with and upon vectors. v Two vectors can be added together to determine the result (or resultant). v The rules for summing vectors are applied to free-body diagrams in order to determine the net force (i.e., the vector sum of all the individual forces). 5 5 10 Foci 400 up Fai 200 N, down Fucis20N, let — + —> —- > 5 5 Fw 1200 N -_ : Fun 600N * 9 Fu= 600 N 10 15 Fra 20N — 5 —> 5 -10 5 Fyn = 800 N Fw = 600N 5 —Vector addition The task of summing vectors will be extended to more complicated cases in which the vectors are directed in directions other than purely vertical and horizontal directions. For example, a vector directed up and to the right me be added to a vector directed up and to the left. There are a variety of methods for determ the magnitude and direction of the result of adding two or more vectors. The two methods that will be discusse >» The Pythagorean theorem and trigonometric methods tHhmE | v The Pythagorean theorem is a useful method | "#™N| *———» = tkmN R adding two (and only two) vectors that make a right angle to each other. Example : John leaves the base camp and hikes 11 km, north and then hikes 11 km east. Determine John's resulting displacement. The result (or resultant) of walking 11 km north and 11 km east is a vector directed northeast as shown in the diagram below. 11km, E >» The head-to-tail method using a scaled vector diagramVector addition e > The Pythagorean theorem and trigonometric methods v Examples :In each examples A and B below, use the Pythagorean theorem to determine the magnitude of the vector sum. > Example A: se R? = (5)? + (10)? R?=125 R=v(125); R=11.2km 5S km, west S > Example B: R? = (30)? + (40)? R? = 2,500 R=v(2500); R=50km 11/02/2020 ssue 0 ot vision aN Cc »™® = 2 Pythagorean Theorem —-:- ™ pb a°+b*=c* ai = 222 ‘NN Complicated vector additions Issue 01 1/16/2019 Revision 00 38» Using trigonometry to determine a vector’s direction vy SOH CAH TOA is a mnemonic that helps one remember the meaning of the three common trigonometric functions - sine, cosine, and tangent functions. v These three functions relate an acute angle in a right triangle to the ratio of the lengths of two of the sides of the right triangle. v The three trigonometric functions can be applied to the hiker problem in order to determine the direction of the hiker's overall displacement. v The process begins by the selection of one of the two angles (other than the right angle) of the triangle. v Once the measure of the angle is determined, the direction of the vector can be found. v The measure of an angle as determined through use of SOH CAH TOA is not always the direction of the vector. The following vector addition diagram is an example of such a situation. Observe that the angle within the triangle is determined to be 26° using SOH CAH TOA. ¥ This angle is the southward angle of rotation that the vector R makes with respect to west. Yet the direction of the vector as voexpressed with the’ CCW (countér=clockwise from east) canveantinn ie INA A°s direction Using trigonometry to determine a vector > The Pythagorean theorem and trigonometric methods v Examples :In each examples A and B below, use the Pythagorean theorem to determine the magnitude of the vector sum. > Example A: R? = (5)? + (10)? R* =125 R=v(125); R=11.2km tan(Theta) = {5/10) =0.5 Theta = tan™~ (0.5) Theta = 26.6 degrees Direction of R = 90 degrees + 26.6 degrees Direction of R = 116.6 degrees > Example B: R2 = (30)? + (40)? S0)lan, West R2=2,500 40 km, south R=v (2500); R=50km 30 tan(Theta) = (40/30) = 1,333 Theta = tan™~ (1.333) Theta = 53.1 degrees Direction of R = 180 degrees + 53.1 degrees Direction of R = 233.1 degrees 11/02/2020 ssue 0 01 Revision -Vector addition >» The head-to-tail method using a scaled vector diagram yv The magnitude and direction of the sum of two or more vectors can also be determined by use of an accurately drawn scaled vector diagram. v Using ascaled diagram, the head-to-tail method is employed to determine the vector sum or resultant. v Astep-by-step method for applying the head-to-tail method to determine the sum of two or more vectors is given below. >» Choose a scale and indicate it on a sheet of paper. The best choice of scale is one that result in a diagram that is as large as possible, yet fits on the sheet of paper. > Draw the first vector to scale in the indicated direction. Label the magnitude and direction of the scale on the diagram (eg., scale: 1 cm = 20m). Starting from where the head of the first vector ends, draw the second vector to scale in the indicated direction. Label the magnitude and direction of this vector on the diagram. Repeat steps 2 and 3 for all vectors that are to be added. Draw the resultant from the tail of the first vector to the head of the last vector. Label this vector as resultant or simply R. Using a ruler, measure the length of the resultant and determine its Vv VI VY vV igdsure the direction of the resultant using the counter-clockwise ge et ght PeVector addition Simple ‘head-to-tail’ method example 300° 45° + = 300° + 210° 210") Resultant 20.3 m, 312 Three vectors arranged *head-to-tail' to find the resultant Three vectors yv The order in which three vectors are added has no effect upon either the magnitude or the direction of the resultant. ; Issue 01 1/16/2019 Revision 00 ”Vector addition >» Vector components : v In situations in which vectors are directed at angles to the customary coordinate axes, a useful mathematical trick will be employed to transform the vector into two parts with each part being directed along + uw -~ - ~ ~ a : Zh eP Scale: 1m = 10 ms Vy = 43 mis Vx= 25 mis Parallelogram method of vector resolutio — TSSUEUT 1/16/2019 Revision 00 °Vector addition >» Vector components : v Example 1: After rearranging the order in which the three vectors are added, the resultant vector is now the hypotenuse of a right triangle. ¥ The lengths of the perpendicular sides of the right triangle are 8.0 m, north (6.0 km + 2.0 km) and 6.0 km, east. v_ The magnitude of the resultant vector (R) can be determined using the Pythagorean theorem. R? = (8.0 km)? + (6.0 km) ” R? = 64.0 + 36.0 R? = 100.0 R= ¥ (100.0) R = 10.0 km 60km,E 60kn,E Resutant +—> ifs ri ResultantVector addition >» Vector components : v Addition of non-perpendicular vectors v Now we will consider situations in which the two (or more) vectors that are being added are not at right angles to each other. v_ The trick involves the concept of a vector component and the process of vector resolution. v Of course, vector A has two components - A, and A,. vy These two components together are equal to vector A. v That is, A= Ax + Ay. v And since this is true, it makes sense to say that A + B = Ax + Ay+B. = 22? R Any vector which is not Ay 90 degrees (A) or | parallel. can be + Ay resolved into two components Ax B (Ax and Ay) mon eo R= (A +BY +A? 45Vector addition >» Tailwinds, headwinds Plane + = Resultant velocity velocity + = 100 kmvhr 25 km/hr 125 km/hr The plane travels with a velocity relative to the ground which is the vector sum of the plane’s velocity (relative to the air) and the wind velocity Plane ft = Resultant velocity velocity + = 100 km/hr 25 km/hr 75 km/hr Aeroplane with a headwind 16/2019 46Vector addition e ~ side winds Y The direction of the resulting velocity can be determined using a trigonometric function. = tan-1(25) v @=tan "(75 ¥ @=14.0° v lf the resultant velocity of the aeroplane makes a 14.0-degree angle with the southward direction, then the direction of the resultant is 256 degrees. ne - Wind = Resultant velocity velocity velocity ape a + 100 km/hr 25 km/hr 103.1 km/hr 1/16/2019Stress, strain and elasticity < The structure (or “airframe”) of an aircraft or helicopter is designed to carry the loads imposed by the forces of lift, thrust, drag and weid tin an a aerodynamic way which still permits a commercially viable payload. Generally, a simple structure is made up of three types of member, » Beams subject to bending >» Struts subject to compression >» Ties subject to tension. The load applied to a member is the force in pounds, ee or newtons, but the most important factor from the point of view of the strength of a member is not the load it has to carry but the relationship between the load and the cross-sectional area of the member. This is called the “stress” in the member and is measured in pounds per square inch, newton's per square meter or some other suitable units. When a load is applied to a member in a framework it will, to some extent, move under the load. For example, a tie will stretch under load. The vertical movement of the wing tips of a large aircraft is evidence of the extension and compression of the upper and lower surfaces. This movement under load is called “strain”. strut supports the weight of the wing only when the aircraft is on the ground . During a heavy landing, the compressive loads on the strut are increased considerably. dMTlight, it is no longer astrut but acts as a tie since the lift developed by the wing has reversed the loads!" ””Stress, strain and elasticity v Inad v The spar of a helicopter rotor blade will be in tension at the upper surface and in compression at the lower surface with the aircraft on the ground and the rotor stationary. n to the loads imposed by lift and weight there are also loads imposed by thrust and drag and, on the ground, maneuvers such as braking and turning. v Prior to designing an effective repair to a damaged sheet metal aircraft, the stresses that act on the structure must have been identified. v There are only five types of stress, among which two are primary ones: » Tension : is a primary stress that tries to pull a body apart. v Example : When a weight is supported by a chain, the chain is subjected to tension (tensile stress). Bracing wires in an aircraft are in tension >» Compression : tries to squeeze the part together. This is called “compressive stress”. v The other three, bending, torsion and shear, are really just different arrangements of tension and compression working on a body at the same time, can, for practical purposes, be expressed in terms of the first two. 1 76/2019 oe iaaeas 9Secondary stresses : shear, torsion and bending >» Shear — shear forces try to slide a body apart and if a rivet or bolt is examined that has failed because of shear forces, it will be recognized that the shank has actually been pulled apart. >» Torsion — a twisting force. When a structural member is twisted, a tensile stress acts diagonally across the member and a compressive stress acts at right angles to the tension. » Bending — pull one side of a body apart while at the same time squeezing the other side together. >» The wing struts are under tension in flight but under compression on the ground.i j ¢ i torsional stress consists of tension an: compression both acting diagonally acro the body and perpendicular Issue 01 Revision 00 1/16/2019Stress and strain v e SSS » Tensile Strength (tenacity) describes the ability of a material to resist breaking under a tensile (stretching) force. » Compressive Strength, the ability to withstand compressive or squeezing loads without splitting or cracking. Shear Strength the ability to resist off-set (scissor action) loads. foughness the ability of a material to resist fracture under impact foad. It is the opposite of brittleness » Elasticity , the ability of a material to return to its original shape after deformation. The extension or compression of a spring is a good example. ity the opposite to elasticity and is the of a material to retain any shape imposed by a force when that force is removed. A good exemple medals and coins. Wee) 1/16/2019 Revision 00Materials behaviour ¥ The following are the properties of a material under Stress which are important in engineering terms: >» Ductility is the capacity of a material for plastic deformation under tensile loading without fracture. Wire drawing > Malleability is the capacity of a material for plastic deformation and forming under compressive load without cracking. Sheet making >» Hardness , The ability of a material to withstand scratching, abrasion, indentation or permanent distortion and wear » Brittleness , the tendency of a material to fracture when subjected to a shock loading or blow. There is no permanent deformation before fracture to act as a warning of failure. >» Rigidity (stiffness) , the ability of a material 1/16/2019 Rigidity 5 Revision 00 a