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The Sukari Gold Mine, Eastern Desert—Egypt: structural setting, mineralogy

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Article in Mineralium Deposita · August 2004

DOI: 10.1007/s00126-004-0426-z

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Mineralium Deposita (2004) 39: 495–511
DOI 10.1007/s00126-004-0426-z
A RT I C L E
Hassan M. Helmy Æ Reinhard Kaindl Æ Harald Fritz
Jürgen Loizenbauer
The Sukari Gold Mine, Eastern Desert—Egypt: structural setting,
mineralogy and fluid inclusion study
Received: 28 July 2003 / Accepted: 27 May 2004 / Published online: 24 June 2004

Springer-Verlag 2004
Abstract The Sukari gold mine (18.8 Mt @ 2.14 g/t Au)
is located 15 km west of the Red Sea coast in the
southern central Eastern Desert of Egypt. The vein-type
deposit is hosted in Late Neoproterozoic granite that
intruded island-arc and ophiolite rock assemblages. The
vein-forming process is related to overall late Pan-Afri-
can shear and extension tectonics. At Sukari, bulk NE–
SW strike-slip deformation was accommodated by a
local flower structure and extensional faults with veins
that formed initially at conditions of about 300 C and
1.5–2 kbar. Gold is associated with sulfides in quartz
veins and in alteration zones. Pyrite and arsenopyrite
dominate the sulfide ore beside minor sphalerite, chal-
copyrite and galena. Gold occurs in three distinct posi-
tions: (1) anhedral grains (GI) at the contact between
As-rich zones within the arsenian pyrite; (2) randomly
distributed anhedral grains (GII) and along cracks in
arsenian pyrite and arsenopyrite, and (3) large gold
grains (GIII) interstitial to fine-grained pyrite and arse-
nopyrite. Fluid inclusion studies yield minimum vein-
formation temperatures and pressures between 96 and
188 C, 210 and 1,890 bar, respectively, which is in the
range of epi- to mesothermal hydrothermal ore deposits.
The structural evolution of the area suggests a long-
term, cyclic process of repeated veining and leaching
followed by sealing, initiated by the intrusion of
granodiorite. This cyclic process explains the mineral-
Editorial handling: H. Frimmel
R. Kaindl (&)
Institute of Mineralogy and Petrology,
Universitätsplatz 2, 8010 Graz, Austria
E-mail: reinhard.kaindl@uni-graz.at
Tel.: +43-316-3805522
Fax: +43-316-3809865
H. M. Helmy
Geology Department, Faculty of Science,
Minia University, Minia, Egypt
H. Fritz Æ J. Loizenbauer
Institute of Geology and Paleontology,
Heinrichstrasse 26, 8010 Graz, Austria
ogical features and is responsible for the predicted gold
reserves of the Sukari deposits. A characteristic feature
of the Sukari gold mineralization is the co-precipitation
of gold and arsenic in pyrite and arsenopyrite.
Keywords Gold deposits Æ Sukari mine Æ Central
Eastern Desert Æ Egypt Æ Arsenian pyrite Æ Arsenopyrite
Introduction
More than 110 gold deposits and occurrences are known
from the Eastern Desert of Egypt. Ancient Egyptians
(4,000 years B.C.) discovered most of these deposits and
exploited the topmost part in many of them. In all big
gold mines, simple Pharaonic tools of gold sieving and
separation are found. Gold exploitation from major
gold deposits lasted from Pharaonic times, Roman
through Islamic and recent times. During the recent
active period of gold mining (1902 to 1958) a total of 7 t
of gold were produced (Kochin and Bassyuni 1968). All
mining activities terminated in 1958, due to political
reasons (nationalization of big foreign companies), not
because of exhaustion of the ore reserves. Figure 1
shows the distribution of major gold deposits in the
central Eastern Desert of Egypt. Considering the spatial
distribution of these deposits, some important facts are
noted. (1) Gold deposits never occur inside the gneissic
domes. (2) The vast majority of gold deposits occur
within, and in vicinity to plutons that intruded ophiolites
and related volcano-sedimentary strata of the Pan-
African Nappes. (3) Gold occurrences are typically
linked with ductile to brittle faults related to the Najd
Fault System.
Many authors have reviewed gold deposits in Egypt
(e.g., Sabet et al. 1976; Sabet and Bordonosov 1984;
Botros 2002). Almost all authors related the gold min-
eralizations in the Eastern Desert to emplacement of
granitoid rocks that intruded mafic to ultramafic host
rocks (Hume 1937; Amin 1955; El Shazly 1957), or to
496
emplacement of subduction-related calc-alkaline grani-
toids (El Gaby et al. 1988). Loizenbauer et al. (2002)
have recently recognized the relations between shear
tectonics and gold mineralization. On a mineralogical
basis, Sabet and Bordonosov (1984) distinguished three
gold-bearing ‘formations’, i.e., gold sulfide, gold-ferru-
ginous quartzite and gold-quartz vein formations, the
latter being the most important target, and the only
source of gold in Egypt. In all gold-bearing quartz veins,
gold is either associated with pyrite or pyrite+arseno-
pyrite. The major gold deposits belong to the pyrite-
arsenopyrite type, i.e., Barramiya, Um Rus, El Sid,
Atud, Sukari mines and many others. This type occurs in
and around a granitoid (mainly granodiorite) host usu-
ally in direct contact with mafic-ultramafic rocks (Takla
et al. 1990) and along shear-zones, as in the Sukari gold
deposit.
During the last few years, the Pharonia Gold Mining
Company reconsidered the Sukari gold mine for further
exploration and exploitation. Underground mapping,
core drilling, and geochemical studies of quartz veins
and alteration zones led to the discovery of large ore
reserves of 18.8 Mt @ 2.14 g/t of gold (Hellman and
Schofield 2002), making this mine one of the major gold
deposits in Egypt. The Sukari mine is in a developmental
stage for further gold exploitation.
In this contribution, we integrate structural, petro-
graphical and fluid inclusions data to characterize the
tectonic setting and mechanisms relevant for gold min-
eralization at Sukari. Relationships between deforma-
tion phases, fluid evolution and precipitation of large
amounts of sulfides and gold are elaborated. The study
expands on previous work on mineralization (Botros
2002; Hassaan et al. 1990, Harraz 1991; Morsy et al.
1989) and regional geology (Fritz et al. 1996, 2002;
Greiling et al. 1994; Loizenbauer et al. 2001) from the
Eastern Desert of Egypt.
General geology of the central Eastern Desert
The Neoproterozoic crust in NE Africa was consoli-
dated by accretion of intra-oceanic island arcs, conti-
nental micro-plates and oceanic plateaus (e.g. Gass
1982; Stern 1994; Kröner et al. 1994; Abdelsalam and
Stern 1996). As a result of convergent tectonics, a nappe
assembly with two major tectonostratigraphic units was
established within the central Eastern Desert of Egypt:
The structural basement, referred to as ‘‘infrastructure’’
by Egyptian geologists (for an overview of Egyptian
geology see: El Gaby et al. 1990 and reference therein),
consists of orthogneisses, psammitic schists and am-
phibolites that suffered amphibolite grade, polyphase
metamorphic conditions (Neumayr et al. 1996, 1998;
Loizenbauer et al. 2001). Structural cover units sum-
marized here as Pan-African Nappes and referred to as
‘‘suprastructure’’ include ophiolites, mélange-like sedi-
ments of accretionary-wedge type and calc-alkaline
volcanics similar to igneous rocks at modern arcs.
Metamorphism in these units is of greenschist meta-
morphic grade (Neumayr et al. 1998).
Exhumation of previously buried high-grade struc-
tural basement units was achieved by combined sinistral
strike-slip faults and related north- and south-dipping,
NE-trending normal faults. This orogen-scale fault sys-
tem is known as the Najd Fault System (Stern 1985) that
accommodated bulk NW–SE extension in the Arabian
Nubian Shield (Stern et al. 1994; Burke and Sengör
1986; Wallbrecher et al. 1993; Greiling et al. 1994; Fritz
et al. 1996). Overall NW–SE extension exposed ‘‘gneissic
domes’’ namely the Meatiq-Sibai- and Hafafit Domes
(Fig. 1). Some of these domes have been interpreted as
core complexes (Sturchio et al. 1983; Fritz et al. 1996;
2002; Blasband et al. 2000). Simultaneously with exhu-
mation of basement rocks, intramontane molasse basins
with sediments delivered from basement domes and Pan-
African Nappes were deposited (Grothaus et al. 1979;
Fritz and Messner 1999). In addition, various syn-tec-
tonic and post-tectonic granitoids have been emplaced
during late Pan-African extension (Greenberg 1981;
Bregar et al. 2002) that softened the crust by enhanced
advective heat supply (Bregar et al. 2002).
Geology of the Sukari gold mine area
The Sukari gold mine is located approximately 15 km to
the southwest of Marsa Alam, between the Red Sea
coast and the Hafafit Gneiss Dome (Figs. 1, 2A). The
mine occurs within a Late Neoproterozoic granitoid
(Arslan 1989; Harraz 1991) that intruded older volca-
nosedimentary successions and an ophiolitic assemblage,
both known as Wadi Ghadir mélange (El Sharkawi and
El Bayoumi 1979). The volcanosedimentary succession
is composed of andesites, dacites, rhyodacites, tuffs and
pyroclastics. Magmatic rocks are of calc-alkaline affinity
(Akaad et al. 1995) and were formed in an island-arc
setting (El Gaby et al. 1990). The dismembered ophio-
litic succession is represented by a serpentinite at the
base, followed upwards by a metagabbro-diorite com-
plex and sheeted dykes. Metagabbro-diorite rocks and
serpentinites form lenticular bodies (1–3 km2) as well as
small bodies occur conformably scattered in the volca-
nosedimentary arc assemblage (Harraz 1991). All rocks
are weakly metamorphosed (lower greenschist meta-
morphic facies), intensely sheared and transformed into
various schists along shear zones. Mineralized quartz
veins and talc-carbonate veinlets are common.
The Sukari granitoid is elongated in a NNE direction
and bounded from west and east by two steep shear
zones (Fig. 2B, C), covering an area of ca. 10 km2. The
fresh rock is leucocratic, coarse-grained and pink in
color. It has a heterogeneous mineralogical composition
and ranges from monzogranite to granodiorite with
dominant quartz, plagioclase and potash feldspars and
less abundant biotite. The Sukari granitoid has a tron-
dhjemitic affinity (Arslan 1989) and belongs to the
‘‘Younger Granite Suite’’ of Akaad and Nowier (1980).
 497

Harraz (1991) argued for a transitional tectonic envi-
ronment between within-plate, volcanic-arc and syn-
collision granite fields. The age of the Sukari granitoid
body is poorly constrained (630–580 Ma, Harraz 1991)
but documents Late Pan-African magmatic activity in
the area.
In the vicinity of shear zones the granite is foliated,
elsewhere, however, it has sharp intrusive contacts
against the older rocks. Along those shear zones ser-
pentinite and andesite is altered to listvenite rock
(Khalaf and Oweiss 1993) that attains up to 70 m in
thickness and extends for several kilometers. At the
intersection of the two shear zones, where the gold
mineralization is concentrated, the Sukari granite is
almost completely altered and transected by a large
amount of quartz veins (Fig. 2B).
Structural setting of the Sukari area
The structural study at Sukari focused on orientation,
relative timing and kinematics of shear zones, faults and
tension gashes. Standard techniques (orientation statis-
tics, kinematic analyses, paleo-stress analyses) were per-
formed using the computer code GEFUEGE7
(Wallbrecher and Unzog, following largely algorithms
published in Wallbrecher 1986). The focus was to corre-
late fluid infiltration zones (alteration zones) and different

Fig. 1 General geology and

location of gold deposits of the
central Eastern Desert. Note
concentration of metal
occurrences close to major
faults. Location of the Najd
Fault System (NFS) is marked
in the inset
498

b 1. Thrusting within the Pan-African Nappe assembly, in
Fig. 2 A Simplified geology and structural frame of the Sukari
mine area. The system of NW-trending sinistral strike-slip faults
(lateral ramps and tear faults) and thrusts (frontal ramps) forming
the arc-shaped structure developed during NW-directed tectonic
thrust (black arrow). The Sukari granite body intruded the system
of NE-trending sinistral shear zones with locally developed flower
structures. Inset: Flower structure block model of the Sukari area
looking northeast. Steep thrust faults, strike-slip faults and
orientation of major quartz veins (qu) are indicated. A antithetic
shear, T tension gash. B Map of the Sukari mine area including
shear zones and quartz veins. C NW–SE section (1–2) across the
Sukari granite close to the mine. Shear zones are indicated
(modified from Khalaf and Oweiss 1993)
gold-bearing vein systems with specific deformation
increments and to provide the basis for the sampling.
The area between Hafafit Dome and the Red Sea
coast, which includes the Sukari mining district, displays
an arc structure with NW–SE trend of main structural
elements in the west and NE–SW trend close to the Red
Sea (Fig. 2A). Three deformation increments are rec-
ognized in these areas that are responsible for the
geometry of this domain:
Fig. 3 A Widely spaced S-C fabric documenting NW-directed
thrust displacement (west of the Sukari granite body); B View from
northeast towards the Sukari granitoid with a listvenite shear zone
defining the Sukari west margin ( foreground) and brittle faults
within the granitoid (background ); C Vertical shear zone (listve-
nite); D Positive flower structure within the Wadi Ghadir mélange
zone west to the Sukari granitoid
499
this area known as Wadi Ghadir mélange, was gen-
erally NW to W-directed (Greiling et al. 1988, 1994;
Fritz et al. 1996). Structures related to this event are
south- to southeast-dipping thrusts and NW-trending
shear zones (Fig. 2A). The contact between the Ha-
fafit Gneiss Dome and the westerly adjacent Wadi
Ghadir mélange sedimentary rocks of the Pan-African
Nappes, previously interpreted as a thrust (Nugrus
Thrust, Greiling et al. 1988) has been recognized as
left-lateral ductile shear zone (Nugrus Fault, Fritz
et al. 1996; Unzog and Kurz 2000; Makroum 2003).
The NW-trending Nugrus Shear Zone represents a
lateral ramp during northwestward displacement of
Pan-African Nappes. Second-order sinistral shear
zones developed within the Wadi Ghadir mélange
sedimentary rocks to the east of the Hafafit. The NE-
trending thrust slices of Pan-African Nappes are
interpreted as frontal thrust fan (Makroum 2003).
Close to the Sukari mine, the tectonic transport
direction during thrusting is constrained from shallow
to steeply southeast dipping shear planes and consis-
tently NW-trending stretching lineations associated
with a widely spaced S-C fabrics (Fig. 3A). Although
quartz veins developed in the course of this defor-
mation increment, none of them is mineralized.
2. The subsequent localized deformation is related to
ongoing NNW- to N-shortening and includes a
500

conjugate set of steep NE-trending sinistral and NW-
trending dextral fault zones that evolved at brittle to
ductile conditions. The NE-trending shear zones de-
fine the western and eastern margins of the Sukari
granitoid (Figs. 2B, 3B). Locally developed, steeply
southeast- and northwest-dipping reverse and normal
faults are interpreted as negative and positive flower
structures that developed during strike-slip faulting
and accommodated variable displacement of indi-
vidual blocks (Fig. 2A inset, 3D). Fabrics related to
shear-zone formation include vertical, NE-trending
shear planes (Fig. 4A). Mineral-stretching lineations
from ductile fabrics within highly altered shear zones
(e.g. quartz lineation rods, stretched minerals) docu-
ment a combination of strike-slip (horizontal linea-
tions in Fig. 4B) and vertical components of motion
(vertical lineations in Fig. 4B) as typically observed in
flower structures. Associated shear-sense indicators
form strike-slip zones (vein offset, S-C fabrics) and
document sinistral sense of shear. Similar deforma-
tion geometry with a combination of strike-slip and
normal faults is also obtained from fault-plane and
slickenside data (Fig. 4C) suggesting that this defor-
mation geometry persisted at brittle conditions. Both,
the Sukari granitoid and the highly altered host rocks
are transected by several generations of quartz veins.
The majority of gold quartz veins trend N–S and
opened within the tensional segment during sinistral
shear (Fig. 4D). However, we emphasize that several
stages of quartz vein formation are preserved; some
early formed veins are folded and co-rotated during
sinistral shear; late veins are straight and occupy high
angles to the shear foliation.
3. Finally, discordant ENE-trending dikes and, on a
large scale, the Wadi Igla molasse basin to the north
of the arc document a late stage of approximately N–
S extension.
From structural data we conclude that:
1. NW-directed thrusting and stacking of Pan-African
Nappes predated gold mineralization, since neither
gold quartz veins nor alteration zones are related to
this tectonic event.
2. The sinistral strike-slip faults provided pathways for
emplacement of the elongated Sukari pluton, which is
entirely bordered by shear zones.
3. Intrusion together with shear-zone formation served
enhanced fluid flow and alteration of pluton and host

Fig. 4 Structural data of the

Sukari mine area plotted in
Schmidt projection. Contour
intervals are 1, 1.8, 3.5, 6.5 and
12 multiples of random.
A Horizontal lineations evolved
during ductile strike-slip
shearing, vertical lineations
during exhumation of rocks
along steep thrust and normal
faults; B Foliation poles of
steeply dipping shear zones
within the granite and host
rock; C Orientation of
mineralized and non-
mineralized quartz veins;
D Fault planes and slickensides
during brittle faulting. Arrows
indicate movement of hanging-
wall block

rocks. Alteration during sinistral shear deformation
formed mainly phyllosilicates that caused significant
weakening of the host-rock rheology and ductile flow
(e.g. Kolb et al. 2004).
4. Shear deformation persisted at brittle conditions and
facilitated opening of tension gashes and precipita-
tion of ore fluids.
Time brackets for the deformation increments men-
tioned above include the ca. 585 Ma 40Ar/39Ar cooling
ages from the Hafafit Dome that are interpreted to
closely date the late activity of the Nugrus Fault System
(Fritz et al. 2002). An upper age limit is given from the
molasse sedimentation within the Wadi Igla Basin,
which is considered to be of Late Neoproterozoic age
(approximately 580 Ma, Rice et al. 1993).
Mineralized quartz veins and alteration zones
Quartz veins are concentrated around the above-men-
tioned NE-trending sinistral shear zones bordering the
Sukari granitoid. They are steeply dipping and occupy
variable orientations (see also Harraz 1991) but gener-
ally trend N–S, NNE–SSW (gold-bearing veins) and
NW–SE (non-mineralized quartz veins) (Fig. 2B, C).
One big and many small-mineralized quartz veins are
observed at surface in the western slope of the Sukari
pluton. The main quartz vein (main lode) is located close
to the contact between the foliated metavolcanic rocks
and the granitic body (Fig. 2C). It is traced on the sur-
face for more than 40 m in a NNE direction. At the
surface, it is less than 50 cm thick, and pinches to less
than 30 cm at 50 m down from the entrance of the main
shaft. At a depth of 105 m, where it was completely
excavated during previous exploitation, the vein be-
comes very thick (up to 3 m). In some parts, the main
lode splits into a net of small quartz veinlets (stockwork)
very rich in sulfides.
Based on crosscutting relationships and texture
variations, different generations of quartz are recognized
within the same mineralized vein. Milky, coarse-grained
quartz (type Q1) dominates in the center of the vein
while close to margins, where the vein is intensely
sheared, smoky fine-grained, mineralized quartz is more
abundant (type Q2). Veinlets of the smoky quartz were
also observed cutting through the milky quartz. A later
generation of veins (type Q3) is dominated by grey
quartz, calcite and albite. The veins were checked by
Raman-spectroscopy for dolomite-ankerite but none
was found. Beside sulfides, the gold-bearing quartz veins
contain quartz, calcite, albite and minor muscovite.
Zircon and monazite are common accessory minerals.
Quartz veins in the southern and eastern portions of
the Sukari granitoid body, where the two shear zones
intersect and the mine is located, are commonly sur-
rounded by alteration zones. Granite is altered to fine-
grained rock composed of quartz, albite, sericite and
muscovite with minor pyrite. Harraz (1991) identified
501
three zones of alteration, albitized granite (around
quartz veins), muscovitized granite (in the central part of
the granite body), and chloritized granite in the lower
levels of the mine. The thickness of alteration zones
varies considerably from tens of meters to a few centi-
meters and correlates negatively with thickness of asso-
ciated quartz veins. Thin veins and veinlets (stockwork)
are surrounded by thick alteration zones and vice versa.
Khalaf and Oweiss (1993) identified ten ‘‘zones’’ of
alteration within the altered granitoid; these ‘‘zones’’
most probably belong to one big alteration zone that is
displaced by faults (Fig. 2C). The modal composition of
the altered granite varies with distance from the quartz
veins and veinlets. Close to veins and small veinlets,
quartz, sericite and muscovite dominate beside dissemi-
nated or massive pyrite and arsenopyrite. With
increasing distance to the veins, the rock gradually turns
into fresh granodiorite. Harraz (1991), Khalaf and
Oweiss (1993) and Sharara (1999) studied the geo-
chemistry of alteration zones. High contents of gold (an
average of 2.57 ppm in borehole no. 1, and 1.35 ppm in
borehole no. 2) were recorded in alteration zones (using
fire assay analysis, Khalaf and Oweiss 1993). These high
gold contents are accompanied by high contents of As
(0.3 wt%), Ag (20 ppm), Ba (40 ppm) and Sr
(300 ppm).
Two main zones of listvenite (altered serpentinite and
andesite) with gradual contact to country rocks devel-
oped along the two major shear zones bordering the
Sukari granitoid. This rock type was also found in two
boreholes within the mine at 250 and 262 m in depth
(Khalaf and Oweiss 1993). Thin quartz veins and lenses
of graphite schist sometimes occur within the listvenites.
These veins and lenses are oriented parallel to the NE-
trending shear foliation within the listvenite. In the
vicinity of the listvenites, the country rocks contain
small patches of quartz and carbonates. Fe, Mg and Ca
carbonates, quartz, albite and sericite, in decreasing or-
der of abundance, are the most important phases within
the listvenites. Hassaan et al. (1990) and Khalaf and
Oweiss (1993) reported high Au (up to 2 ppm), As
(400 ppm), Ni (500 ppm), Cu (300 ppm), Zn (400 ppm),
Sr (1,000 ppm) and Ba (400 ppm) contents.
Ore petrography
Representative samples of the different generations of
quartz veins and alteration zones were collected includ-
ing samples from the main shaft and lower levels of the
Sukari mine. Petrographical work as well as sulfide and
gold analyses were performed on 26 polished thin sec-
tions, using a JEOL JSM-6310 scanning electron
microprobe with attached energy dispersive system
(EDX) and MICROSPEC wavelength dispersive system
(WDX) at the Institute of Mineralogy and Petrology,
University of Graz, Austria. The accelerating voltage
was 20 KeV for the analysis of sulfides and gold at a
502

probe current of 5 nA. Standards for sulfides were

chalcopyrite for Cu, pyrite for S and Fe, arsenopyrite for
As, sphalerite for Zn, tellurobismuthite (Bi2Te3) for Bi
and Te, (AuTe2) for Au and native silver for Ag.
Field and microscopic observations show different
generations of sulfides:
1. Disseminated sulfides: Individual crystals of pyrite
and arsenopyrite occur in quartz veins (and veinlets)
and in the alteration zones. Sulfide crystals in the
undeformed parts of the veins are commonly coarse-
grained (>0.5 mm) while those in deformed veins are
always fine-grained (<0.2 mm). Close to quartz veins,
the disseminated sulfides are also coarse-grained.
2. Thin massive sulfide veinlets (2–3 mm) occur most
frequently along quartz vein-host rock interfaces but,
less frequent, also in veins and adjacent country rock.
The majority of sulfide veinlets are oriented parallel
to the quartz-vein margins; in few cases they intersect
the quartz veins. The mineralogy of the sulfide ore is
rather simple and dominated by pyrite and arseno-
pyrite (>95% of the sulfide mineral assemblage)
beside sphalerite, chalcopyrite, galena, magnetite and
traces of gold. Cross-cutting veinlets suggest more
than one phase of sulfide vein-formation; veinlets of
chalcopyrite, sphalerite and galena are younger than
the pyrite-arsenopyrite veinlets.

Pyrite and pyrite zoning

Pyrite is a major component of the sulfide ore at Sukari

mine. It occurs either euhedral, subhedral, or anhedral
in association with arsenopyrite. Large subhedral to
anhedral pyrite crystals (PI) are present in the alteration
zones and in the undeformed quartz veins of type Q1.
The subhedral pyrite commonly hosts inclusions of
quartz and plagioclase and is sometimes overgrown by
arsenian pyrite (Fig. 5A). Pyrite crystals are large
(>0.5 mm) and euhedral in the undeformed milky
quartz veins and in their vicinity (PII). This contrasts
with the appearance of small (<0.1 mm) and deformed
grains in the sheared milky quartz veins (type Q2) and
sulfide veinlets (PIII). Inclusions of pyrite in arsenopy-
rite and vice versa are present but uncommon.
Spectacular pyrite zoning generally reflects variation
in arsenic content. Based on back-scattered electron
(BSE) images (Fig. 5A, B) and electron microprobe step
scans (Fig. 6A), two types of pyrite zoning are distin-
guished:
1. As-poor pyrite (PI) is surrounded by an As-rich
pyrite rim (Fig. 5A, B). Pyrite showing this simple Fig. 5 Back-scattered electron image of pyrite grains from the
Sukari mine, showing different generations of pyrite and types of
zoning occurs in type Q1 veins and is commonly zoning. Light areas are As-rich and dark areas are As-poor. Scale
anhedral or subhedral. The contacts between the As- bar is 200 lm. A, B As-poor pyrite (PI) surrounded by an As-rich
poor and As-rich zones are either gradual or sharp pyrite rim. C Oscillatory zoned, coarse-grained and euhedral pyrite
(Fig. 5A, B), respectively. In the former case, steady (PII)
increase in As content towards the margins is
encountered. In the latter case, the As-rich pyrite

Fig. 6 A Three profiles (1, 2, 3) displaying the arsenic variation
across the concentrically zoned pyrite grains shown in Figs. 5A, B
and C, respectively. B, C Plot of As content in pyrite (B) and
arsenopyrite (C) against concentration of ‘‘invisible gold’’ from the
Sukari mine (analyzed by atomic absorption of mineral separates,
data from Harraz 1991)
zones are homogeneous, which is observed when
pyrite is surrounded by arsenopyrite (Fig. 5B).
2. Pyrite from Q1 veins showing oscillatory zoning
(Fig. 5C) is always coarse-grained and euhedral (PII).
503
Alternating As-rich and As-poor growth zones sur-
round cores of As-poor pyrite. The thickness of these
zones varies from 80 to <20 lm. Coarse-grained
pyrite shows thicker and a smaller number of As-
bearing zones (Fig. 5C), while fine-grained pyrite
shows fluctuation in As content over a short distance.
Chemically, and as revealed by back-scattered elec-
tron images, two types of pyrite, As-poor and As-rich
can be distinguished (Table 1). In the As-poor varieties
arsenic contents were below the microprobe detection
limit. High As contents (up to 2.3 wt%) were detected in
some arsenic-rich zones in PII pyrite. Microprobe step
scans across zoned pyrite grains are illustrated in
Fig. 6A. Gold contents were generally below the
microprobe detection limit in As-rich and As-poor pyr-
ite, even in grains containing inclusions of electrum.
Sharara (1999), however, reported high Au contents (up
to 0.14 wt%) in pyrite. Harraz (1991) also demonstrated
a positive correlation between gold and arsenic in pyrite
(Fig. 6B).
Arsenopyrite
Arsenopyrite forms idiomorphic, single crystals dis-
persed in the quartz veins and veinlets and in their
vicinity. Sometimes aggregates in the massive sulfide
veinlets occur. Arsenopyrite in the undeformed quartz
veins (type Q1) and in alteration zones is usually coarse-
grained (>0.5 mm), in sheared quartz (type Q2) fine-
grained (<0.2 mm). Individual grains are lath-shaped
with lack of preferred orientation. No optical or com-
positional zoning was observed.
Electron microprobe analysis of arsenopyrite
(Table 1) showed As contents ranging from 33.7 to
48.9 wt%. As-poor compositions (33–37 wt%) charac-
terize arsenopyrite from the sulfide veinlets in the de-
formed and sheared smoky quartz (type Q2) and
arsenopyrite inclusions in pyrite. The As-rich composi-
tions (>40 wt%) were found in the disseminated sul-
fides in undeformed quartz (type Q1) and alteration
zones. No other elements were detected in arsenopyrite;
however, Harraz demonstrated positive correlation be-
tween As and Au in arsenopyrite (Fig. 6C).
The textures of pyrite and arsenopyrite in the differ-
ent types of sulfide ore (disseminated and vein-sulfides)
suggest various degree of equilibrium and disequilibrium
growth of both minerals. Pyrite-arsenopyrite equilib-
rium is indicated by the euhedral pyrite intergrown with
arsenopyrite. Non-equilibrium growth is indicated by
the subhedral, zoned (arsenian) pyrite included in
euhedral arsenopyrite.
Sphalerite
Sphalerite represents less than 10 modal-% of the mas-
sive sulfide veinlets found at the contact of quartz veins
504

Table 1 Representative electron microprobe analyses (wt%) of selected sulfides and gold from the Sukari mine

Mineral Pyrite Arsenopyrite Sphalerite Gold

Type PI PII PII PII PIII GI GII GII GIII GIII

Sample no. Sk14 Sk14 Sk14 Sk10 Sk4 Sk4 Sk5 Sk12 Sk10 Sk11 Sk13 Sk14 Sk5 Sk10 Sk15 Sk12

S 55.93 54.51 54.39 53.19 55.42 29.42 20.48 21.97 24.13 32.49 32.41
Fe 44.42 43.98 43.99 43.79 44.16 35.69 33.68 35.14 23.49 1.44 1.27 2.12 0.75 1.45 0.28
Au 86.95 86.86 86.70 86.58 87.11
Cu 0.19
Zn 66.11 65.57
As 1.02 1.31 1.91 34.19 46.40 42.41 52.13 0.67
Ag 11.35 12.38 12.38 13.15 12.60
S 100.35 99.51 99.69 98.89 99.58 99.30 100.56 99.52 99.75 100.04 99.44 100.42 99.99 100.53 99.73 99.99
Atomic proportions
S 0.687 0.680 0.678 0.672 0.686 0.364 0.403 0.403 0.456 0.494 0.496
Fe 0.313 0.315 0.315 0.318 0.314 0.355 0.225 0.225 0.317 0.013 0.011 0.065 0.023 0.045 0.009
Au 0.755 0.763 0.758 0.783 0.784
Cu
Zn 0.493 0.492
As 0.005 0.007 0.010 0.301 0.372 0.372 0.227 0.015
Ag 0.180 0.199 0.198 0.217 0.207

with the alteration zones. Generally small (<100 lm)
single crystals host small anhedral chalcopyrite crystals.
Sphalerite from the Sukari mine contains low contents
of Fe (<1.5 wt%) and traces of Zn (<0.20 wt%). Its
chemical composition approaches the stoichiometric
formula (Zn,Fe)S.
Gold
Gold occurs in two textural positions and three gener-
ations in quartz veins or veinlets: (1) as inclusions in
pyrite and arsenopyrite (GI and GII) and (2) as inter-
stitial grains between pyrite and other sulfides (GIII).
Gold inclusions (2–20 lm) in pyrite are either located at
the surfaces of As-rich zones (GI) as revealed by BSE
images (Fig. 7A) or randomly distributed. Gold inclu-
sions in arsenopyrite are randomly distributed or located
along deformational cracks (GII, Fig. 7A). Interstitial
gold grains (GIII, Fig. 7B) are usually associated with
deformed pyrite and arsenopyrite in the deformed and
sheared smoky quartz (type Q2). In this textural posi-
tion, gold grains range from 2 to 80 lm and sometimes
host small arsenopyrite and pyrite crystals.
Electron microprobe analysis (Table 1) revealed that
gold is always electrum (12–14 wt% silver). No sys-
tematic compositional difference between inclusion and
interstitial gold were detected.
Fluid inclusions
Fluid-inclusion microthermometric measurements were
done on a LINKAM THSMG600 heating and freezing
stage equipped with an OLYMPUS 80· ULWD objec-
tive. Temperatures were calibrated by the melting of
CO2 of synthetic H2O-CO2 inclusions ( 56.6 C),
melting of water ice (0 C) and critical homogenization
(374.1 C) of synthetic H2O inclusions in quartz. All
measurements were corrected by linear interpolation
between temperature deviations at the calibration tem-
peratures (Macdonald and Spooner 1981). The accuracy
of measurements was ±0.2 C at 56.6 C and 0 C at
a heating rate of 1 C/min and ±1 C at 374 C and a
heating rate of 5 C/min. Molar volumes, compositions
and isochores were calculated with the software package
‘‘FLUIDS’’ (Bakker 2003). A crushing stage (Diamond
and Marshall 1990) was used to check the CO2 content
of investigated fluid inclusions.
Raman spectroscopy was done with a LabRAM-HR
800 (JOBIN-YVON) spectrometer. The LabRAM-HR
was used with a He-Ne laser (633 nm) and a He-Cd UV
laser (325 nm). Different excitation wavelengths gave
identical results within the analytical error. The system is
equipped with an Olympus microscope and with 40·
UV-, 80· ULWD and 100· objective lenses. The Raman
signal is detected with a CCD camera cooled by liquid-
N2 and the spectra are recorded using the ‘‘SCM’’
technique as described by Knoll et al. (1990). The beam
intensity on the sample surface was about 5 mW.
Inclusion petrography
Fluid inclusions occur within coarse-grained (type Q1)
and fine-grained quartz (type Q2) generations described
above. The observed fluid-inclusion assemblages were
classified by their principal phase content into H2O-CO2,
CO2 and H2O-NaCl inclusions:
1. Type 1 H2O-CO2 inclusions are the most frequent
type and occur in intragranular trails and clusters in
coarse-grained quartz and in coarse-grained frag-
ments within fine-grained, recrystallized quartz (type
Q1) (Fig. 8A). The volume fraction of the CO2-phase
(F CO2) varies widely between 0.1 and 0.9 at the
cluster or trail scale. They can occur together with
Type 2 (CO2) and Type 3 (H2O-NaCl) inclusions
 505

Fig. 7 Back-scattered electron

images showing different
textural positions and
generations of gold (white) in
the Sukari mine; A Gold (GI)
grains located at the contact
between two zones of As-
enrichment in arsenian pyrite
(light gray areas) and GII gold
along fracture, sample SK10;
B Gold (GIII) interstitial to
pyrite (dark gray) and
arsenopyrite (lighter gray) in a
matrix of quartz (black), sample
SK104. Scale bar =50 lm

within one grain (Fig. 8B). The diameters of these
idiomorphic to rounded and irregular inclusions
reach 19 lm. At room temperature they contain a
liquid (H2O) and one or two gas bubbles (supercrit-
ical CO2 or CO2-liquid plus vapor). CO2-melting
between 57.3 and 56.6 C indicates almost pure
CO2. Qualitative Raman spectroscopy yielded small
amounts of CH4 beside CO2. Clathrate melting tem-
peratures between +7.1 and +9.2 C correspond to
an equivalent NaCl content between 1.6 to 5.5 wt%
(Bakker 2003). The CO2-phase homogenizes between
6.6 and 26.6 C (Th CO2). During the heating run,
leaking and decrepitation occurred prior to total
homogenization (Th). Densities range between 0.81
and 0.99 g/cm3.
2. Type 2 isolated CO2 inclusions and intragranular trails
occur either in coarse-grained quartz and quartz
fragments (type Q1) (subtype 2a) or in recrystallized
smoky quartz (type Q2) close to or within the sulfide
mineralization (subtype 2b; Fig. 8C). Within coarse-
grained quartz and in the fragments they are associated
with Type 1 H2O-CO2 inclusions, within recrystallized
quartz with Type 3 H2O-NaCl inclusions. Recrystal-
lized veins clearly crosscut coarse-grained quartz
506

b inclusions is heterogeneous trapping of an unmixed
Fig. 8 A Photomicrograph of Type 1 H2O-CO2 and Type 3 H2O-
NaCl inclusions in coarse-grained quartz. B Photomicrograph
shots at different focus levels and combined into one image to
illustrate textural relations of the three inclusion assemblages.
C Idiomorphic Type 2b CO2 inclusions (arrows) together with fine-
grained, opaque ore mineral inclusions in quartz. D Type 3
idiomorphic and irregular H2O-NaCl inclusions (arrows) within
transparent quartz included in opaque pyrite
which indicates that Type 2b inclusions postdate Type
1 H2O-CO2 and Type 2a CO2 inclusions. Textures and
microthermometry of both subtypes are very similar
and therefore described together. They are idiomor-
phic to rounded and reach a maximum elongation of
about 10 lm. At room temperature, either a super-
critical fluid or a liquid and a vapor phase are present.
CO2 triple point melting reduction from 57 to
58 C and semi-quantitative Raman spectroscopy
indicate maximum CH4-contents of about 5%.
Clathrate melting or the typical water bend in the
Raman spectrum around 3,400 cm 1, which would be
indicative for water wetting the inclusion walls, were
not observed. Volume fraction of the vapor phase
(FVAP) (0.1 to 0.5) and Th CO2 (9.2 to 28.2 C) are
variable but uniform at the trail scale. Low densities
between 0.65 and 0.87 g/cm3 are calculated (Bakker
2003).
3. Type 3 H2O-NaCl inclusions are the least frequent
type and occur isolated or in intragranular clusters
and trails in the coarse-grained (type Q1) and the
recrystallized, smoky parts of the quartz veins (type
Q2) and within quartz included in sulfides. Type 3
aqueous inclusions are elongated, idiomorphic to
round and irregular, and reach a maximum size of
6 lm (Fig. 8D). At room temperature they contain
either both a liquid and a vapor phase or are single-
phase liquid or vapor inclusions. Metastable absence
of a vapor bubble is typical of low salinity aqueous
inclusions homogenizing below 150 C (Kerkhof and
Hein 2001). No evidence for CO2, checked by
crushing-stage, Raman spectroscopy and the absence
of clathrate melting, was found.
The volume fraction of the vapor phase is constant
around 0.1, indicating homogeneous trapping. Eutectic
melting occurs around 20 C, indicating H2O-NaCl as
the dominant components. Ice melts between 6 and
0.2 C, corresponding to salinities from 0.4 to 9.2 wt%
NaClequiv. Th range between 96 and 188 C. Density
calculations with the program package of Bakker (2003)
yielded 0.88 to 1.01 g/cm3.
Discussion
Fluid evolution
The observed inclusion assemblages indicate a complex
fluid history. One possible explanation for the highly
variable degree of fill of Type 1 H2O-CO2-NaCl
507
H2O-CO2-NaCl vein fluid and ‘‘local’’ homogeneous
trapping of CO2- and H2O-NaCl-rich end-member fluids
(Fig. 5a in Diamond 2001). In that case, at least some
CO2 should be present in Type 3 H2O-NaCl inclusions
and some water should wet the inclusion walls in Type 2
CO2 inclusions. However, no evidence for water in Type
2 or CO2 in Type 3 inclusions, respectively, was found.
Alternatively, the large number of chemically and
texturally very different inclusions within single quartz
grains (Fig. 8B) results from several chemically and/or
physically different fluids interacting with existing
inclusions. Stable-isotope data indicate at least two dif-
ferent fluids (Sharara 1999): (1) vein fluids derived from
the surrounding metavolcanic rocks and (2) local
involvement of meteoric water. Type 1 H2O-CO2-NaCl
inclusions are absent in the recrystallized, younger
smoky quartz, suggesting an earlier fluid generation.
Higher densities up to 0.99 g/cm3 and steep isochores of
Type 1 inclusions indicate increased pressure conditions
at deeper crustal levels. If we assume lower-greenschist-
facies trapping temperatures above 200 C, minimum
formation pressures between 1,700 and 3,600 bar can be
calculated from the isochores.
Type 2 CO2 and Type 3 H2O-NaCl inclusions occur
within coarse-grained (Q1) and recrystallized, quartz
veins (Q2). Uniform degree of fill at the trail scale
indicates a homogeneous fluid phase at that stage.
Consequently, the homogenisation temperatures Th of
Type 3 H2O-NaCl (96–188 C) equal minimum vein-
formation temperatures, which is in the range of epi- to
mesothermal hydrothermal ore deposits (Wilkinson
2001). At these temperatures, isochores of Type 2 CO2-
inclusions provide minimum vein formation pressures
between 210 and 1,890 bar.
Mechanism of metal transport and deposition
The close association between gold and arsenic in gen-
eral and in arsenian pyrite, in particular, may suggest a
similar mechanism of transport and deposition from the
hydrothermal fluids. As indicated by the fluid-inclusion
studies, the ore-forming fluids were of low salinity and
CO2-bearing. Under such conditions gold was probably
transported as chloride complexes, although the high
concentration of As, may also stabilize arsenothio-
complexes as important gold transporting ligands
(Seward 1991; Sharara 1999).
The oscillatory zoning in arsenian pyrite reflects epi-
sodic fluctuation in fluid composition as revealed by
fluid-inclusion studies and the structural history. The
close association of As and Au in arsenian pyrite and
arsenopyrite is well established (Cook and Chryssoulis
1990). Significant amounts of invisible gold in pyrite
(and marcasite) correlate with As content and in arse-
nopyrite only with As-excess compositions (Fleet et al.
1993). Therefore it is commonly accepted that both
elements were deposited simultaneously from the same
508
fluid. Three alternatives can explain the co-deposition of
Au and As: (1) both elements were transported by the
same complex (Clark 1960), (2) the As-rich zones in
arsenian pyrite make the lattice of pyrite more amenable
to host gold (Simon et al. 1999), and (3) gold is deposited
on the surfaces of growing arsenian pyrite which act as
galvanic cells (Möller et al. 1997). According to (3), the
different As-bearing zones are thought to represent
electrochemically active sites on arsenian pyrite surfaces.
In all cases, the understanding of As behavior in the
environment is vital to understand the mechanism of
gold deposition.
The first type (GI) gold was most probably deposited
directly from the mineralizing fluids where it was incor-
porated in the structure (structurally-bound or invisible
gold) of arsenian pyrite. The randomly distributed (GII)
gold grains and gold along cracks were probably formed
due to secondary processes. Mumin et al. (1994) suggest
that gold inclusions in arsenian pyrite result from the
remobilization of structurally bound gold due to meta-
morphism or reequilibration. The Au-rich electrum
supports the mechanism of remobilization of ‘‘invisible’’
gold to form ‘‘visible’’ gold grains along cracks. Gold
interstitial to other sulfides (GIII) was most probably
formed from solutions saturated in gold in a later stage
after or contemporaneous to deformation.
Tectonic control on gold transport and deposition
The structural evolution within the mine district suggests
an ore-forming process after NW-directed Pan-African
thrusting. During late stages of the Pan-African evolu-
tion (ca. 580 Ma) extension and strike-slip tectonics
dominated, and large volumes of granitoid rocks in-
truded the mafic-ultramafic host along shear zones. In
the area of discussion combined strike-slip and vertical
motion along shear zones (flower structures) triggered
exhumation of rocks close to surface. Early CO2-rich
Fig. 9 Proposed model for the
Sukari gold mineralization. The
long-term cyclic process of
leaching and precipitation was
initiated when the Sukari
granodiorite intruded. This
process was finally responsible
for the large ore reserves
predicted for the Sukari mine
(see text for further
explanations)
fluids served alteration along shear zones, and during
rock exhumation these fluids were mixed with meteoric
water. Quartz veins formed continuously during strike-
slip deformation and final exhumation of rocks leading
to sets of folded and unfolded veins. Many Au deposits
are situated within such low-grade shear zones (Craw
et al. 1999) and late orogenic vein systems (Dugdale and
Hagemann 2001; Kolb et al. 2004; Robl et al. 2004). Such
zones are usually characterized by massive alteration
zones, which testify to the infiltration and circulation of
fluids (Seward and Barnes 1997). The fluctuation of ar-
senic concentration in arsenopyrite and different gener-
ations of gold suggest a long-term cyclic process of gold
mineralization. The cyclic process with periodically
changing fluid regime is best explained by periodically
changing deformation mechanisms from ductile to brittle
regimes (e.g. Kolb et al. 2004; Robl et al. 2004). Ductile
structures occur along highly altered NE-trending shear
zones. Brittle structures including fault planes and
slickenside striations as well as variably rotated quartz
veins developed in the same kinematic regime. Alteration
of the host rocks during shear deformation formed
mainly phyllosilicates that caused significant weakening
of the host-rock rheology and ductile flow (Kolb et al.
2004). The porosities created by microfracturing during
ductile deformation are small and, additionally, were
reduced by neomineralization (carbonate veinlets). The
main fluid flow occurred repeatedly during seismic frac-
turing and by a fault-valve mechanism. This crack-seal-
slip mechanism is characteristic for the formation of
large vein systems (e.g. Petit et al. 1999; Sibson 2001).
Model
In our opinion, the following model most probably ex-
plains the long-term cyclic process of host-rock alter-
ation and precipitation of sulfides and gold (Fig. 9).

Intrusion, veining and leaching
1. The granodiorite intruded a fault system and crys-
tallized. It delivered the thermal energy and fluids
necessary to initiate a hydrothermal convection sys-
tem. The early fluid was CO2-H2O dominated and of
low salinity.
2. At conditions close to the brittle-ductile transition the
first open veins developed. A local pressure gradient
was set up, alteration and leaching of metals from the
surrounding serpentinite and andesite started in a
moderately acidic environment. The metals were
transported down the pressure gradient towards the
veins.
3. Dilution of the fluid by meteoric water at very shal-
low crustal levels caused neutralization and cooling
resulting in precipitation of sulfides together with
gold. Arsenic and gold content of the fluid decreased
as both were incorporated in the crystallizing pyrite
and arsenopyrite.
Cyclic crack-seal mechanism and rock weakening
by alteration
4. Brittle structures were sealed during the precipitation
process and intense alteration in shear zones weak-
ened the rock. Since rock strength is reduced during
this process, again ductile structures became domi-
nant. During this phase, early formed veins were
rotated and folded.
5. Further deformation and fluid pressure build-up
again introduced new faults and veins. A pressure
gradient was built up again, older veins were folded,
younger veins opened.
6. Alteration and leaching started again. In addition,
the previously precipitated arsenic-rich sulfides and
GI gold were remobilized. Meteoric water once again
diluted the arsenic-rich fluids and sulfide and pre-
cipitated GII gold. This cyclic process explains the
observed arsenic fluctuations in pyrite and precipi-
tation of GI and GII gold generations.
End of the process
7. Within the latest veins, gold III precipitated in the
quartz matrix and along cracks.
8. The process stopped when the rocks were so close to
surface that no more ductile deformation followed by
sealing was possible.
This long-term process of repeated alteration/leach-
ing and metal precipitation lead to the formation of the
Sukari gold deposit. Many other gold deposits within
the Eastern Desert of Egypt, e.g. Barramiya, Um Rus,
El Sid, Atud, are located at the contact between a
granitoid host and mafic-ultramafic rocks and along
509
shear-zones and resulted probably from a similar for-
mation process.
Acknowledgments This work was supported by the Austrian Sci-
ence Foundation (P13029 and P11583). Georg Hoinkes is thanked
for offering the analytical facilities and Karl Ettinger for the
technical help during microprobe work (Institute of Mineralogy
and Petrology, University of Graz). Discussions with colleagues
from the Geology Department, Minia University, and H. Harraz,
Tanta University, are greatly appreciated. L. Diamond and an
anonymous reviewer are kindly acknowledged for their comments
and suggestions.
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